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Sustainable Development, Policy Processes, and Natural Resource Management

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Sustainable Development, Policy Processes, and Natural Resource Management SUSTAINABLE NATURAL RESOURCES POLICY AND MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO WATER DIVERSIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SOUTH-TO-NORTH WATER TRANSFER PROJECT IN CHINA JI CHEN A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Research Program in Environmental Policy and Management Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The University of New South Wales 2008 ABSTRACT China has undertaken a vast engineering project: the large-scale transfer of water from the south of the country to the north, the intention being to alleviate flooding in the south and water shortages in the north. It may take up to fifty years to complete. This thesis examines the broad outline of the scheme, the planning that has gone into it, its historical and political background, and the political, social, and ecological problems that it has encountered and may be likely to cause in the future. The political context of a ‘pro-technology’ policy amongst today’s Chinese leaders is highlighted. The Chinese study is made in the light of water-transfer schemes that have been implemented, or proposed, in other countries; and also ideas about sustainable development, policy processes, and natural resource management. Five case studies are considered: the Aral Sea (Central Asia), the Snowy Mountain Scheme (Australia), the National Hydrological Plan (Spain), the Central Arizona Project (the United States) and the South-to-North Water Transfer Project (China). They are examined as a basis for understanding policy problems and processes in water resource management, and also to make some suggestions for their resolution in the Chinese casethough finding a permanent or definitive solution lies beyond the scope of the present inquiry. The difficulties for traditional policy processes to manage uncertainty and complexity are particularly acute in the area of natural resource management. For example, climate change issues challenge present water management systems and diversion projects. Therefore, uncertainty and complexity issues, beyond the ‘ideal’ policy cycle, are considered, particularly in relation to climate change, but also the water diversion schemes themselves. Climate change presents a particularly important challenge to the Chinese Project. Given the cultural and political background in China, the South-to-North Water Transfer Project, which is already under construction, will likely be completed, despite its potential risks. However, suggestions are made as to policies that should also be given consideration, such as restraints on water consumption, water recycling, and improved water harvesting. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Doing PhD is like marathon. The important thing is to keep momentum going.” That is what my supervisor, Dr John Merson, told me on the first day of my PhD life. He was right. I thank him sincerely for his guidance, support, and inspiration. Thanks are also due to Professor David Oldroyd for reading my thesis and making valuable suggestions. He also helped me to contact his friend, Dr Zoya Bessudnova, in Moscow about Aral Sea issues. In addition, I should like to thank the office of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project in China, local officials in the Wudang Special Economc Region and Danjiangkou City, Dr Eva Sternfeld from China’s Sustainable Development Research and Reference Centre (Beijing), Professor ZHENG Zilong from Zhengzhou University (Henan Province) and many others. Without their help, I should not have been able to undertake this project. I should also thank Associate Professor Sandy Booth (then at the University of Western Sydney) for introducing to me the concept of the ‘integrated catchment management’, and Ms Judy Reizes from the Manly Environment Centre for granting me access to water related materials at the Centre. My work has been supported by an International Postgraduate Research Scholarship provided by the Australian Government. The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of New South Wales financed my fieldwork in China in 2004. I extend my thanks to these organisations. Last but not least, I thank my parents for supporting me during my PhD studies. Their encouragement and care have been priceless. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION..........................................................................1 1.1 Overview...........................................................................................................1 1.2 Starting Points ...................................................................................................2 1.3 Terminology ......................................................................................................6 1.4 Methodology....................................................................................................10 1.5 Thesis Structure...............................................................................................14 CHAPTER TWO WAVING A FLAG: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT........ 17 2.1 Sustainable Development: a Common Ground for Natural Resource Management .................................................................................................... 17 2.2 The Concept of Sustainable Development—A Timeline .................................. 17 2.3 The Evolution of the Concept of Sustainable Development.............................. 20 2.4 Different Standpoints of Sustainable Development: Ecological or Economic?.. 23 2.5 Finding the key to sustainable development ..................................................... 31 2.6 The Market Force and Sustainable Development.............................................. 35 2.6.1 Elementary features of the market .............................................................. 35 2.6.2 Market Failure............................................................................................ 36 2.7 The Role of Government.................................................................................. 39 2.7.1 Governmental Intervention in Resource Management ................................ 39 2.7.2 Government Monopolies............................................................................ 40 2.7.3 ‘Pork Barrelling’, ‘Short-termism’, and Lobbying...................................... 41 2.8 Sustainable Development in China................................................................... 42 CHAPTER THREE SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND POLICY ISSUES ............................................................................................. 46 3.1 Setting the Scene—Water Resource Realities in Relation to Sustainable Development.................................................................................................... 46 3.1.1 The Hydrological Cycle ............................................................................. 47 3.1.2 Human Impacts on the Natural Water Cycle............................................... 48 3.1.3 The Relationship between the Water Cycle and the Water Crisis................ 51 iii 3.2 Integration of Principles of Sustainability in Water Resource Management...... 51 3.2.1 Connections between Water Resource Management and Sustainable Development ....................................................................................................... 52 3.2.2 The Route to Sustainable Water Management ............................................ 53 3.3 Policy-making Process of Water Management ................................................. 64 3.3.1 Policy Implications in Natural Resource Management................................ 64 3.3.2 Policy Implications in Relation to Water Diversion Schemes ..................... 66 CHAPTER FOUR CASE STUDIES PART ONE ................................................... 70 4.1 Aral Sea........................................................................................................... 71 4.1.1 Background................................................................................................ 71 4.1.2 Historical Context ...................................................................................... 74 4.1.3 Policy Issues .............................................................................................. 78 4.1.4 Lessons from the Aral Sea.......................................................................... 85 4.2 Australian Case: The Snowy Mountain Scheme (SMS).................................... 88 4.2.1 Background................................................................................................ 88 4.2.2 Policy Considerations................................................................................. 89 4.2.3 Lessons from the SMS ............................................................................. 110 4.3 National Hydrological Plan (NHP) in Spain................................................... 112 4.3.1 Background.............................................................................................. 112 4.3.2 Policy Implications of the NHP................................................................ 116 4.3.3 Lessons from the NHP ............................................................................. 119 4.4 The Central Arizona Project (CAP)................................................................ 120 4.4.1 Background.............................................................................................. 120 4.4.2 Policy Implications of CAP...................................................................... 123 4.4.3 Lessons from CAP ..................................................................................
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