The Mw 7.0 Haiti Earthquake of January 12, 2010: Report #2

EERI Special Earthquake Report — May 2010

Learning from Earthquakes

This second insert on the Haiti The ASCE TCLEE team included area, including the provinces earthquake covers engineering Curt Edwards, Psomas, (team lead- (known as departments) of Ouest, failures and the social impacts of er); Pierre Alex Augustin, State of Sud-Est, and Nippes. The metro- the quake. The first report in the California; Don Ballantyne, MMI; Bill politan Port-au-Prince region, which April issue covered seismology Bruin, Halcrow; Rick Carter, State of includes the cities of Carrefour, and geotechnical aspects, primar- Oregon; Brucely Joseph, URS Corp; Petionville, Delmas, Tabarre, Cite ily. The EERI team responsible for Aimee Lavarnway, Shannon Wilson; Soleil, and Kenscoff. was hit ex- this report, including members from Nason McCullough, CH2M Hill; Mark tremely hard. In the city of Léo- partnering organizations — the Net- Pickett, University of Toledo; Dave gâne, located on the epicenter, work for Earthquake Engineering Plum, URS Corp; and Stu Werner, 80% of the buildings collapsed or Simulation, the Mid-America Earth- Seismic Systems & Engineering. were critically damaged. quake Center, Florida International This report is made possible by Over 1.5 million people (approxi- University, Sherbrooke University, support to EERI provided by the mately 15% of the national popula- University of Delaware’s Disaster National Science Foundation under tion) have been directly affected by Research Center and Western award #CMMI-0758529. the earthquake. The Haitian gov- Washington University’s Resilience ernment estimates over 220,000 Institute — visited Haiti from Feb- Introduction people lost their lives and more ruary 28 through March 7, 2010. than 300,000 were injured in the The 18-member multi-disciplinary On January 12, 2010, at approximate- earthquake. It is estimated that over team included engineers, social ly 5 p.m. local time, an Mw=7.0 earth- 105,000 homes were completely scientists, city planners, architects, quake struck approximately 17 km destroyed and more than 208,000 and geographers. The EERI team west of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, along damaged. Approximately 1,300 worked with the ASCE Technical the Enriquillo fault. The effects of the educational institutions and over 50 Council on Lifeline Earthquake earthquake were felt over a wide Engineering team and, together, the teams visited over 500 facilities and buildings in the heavily hit areas of Port-au-Prince, Léogâne, Petit Goâve, and Jacmel. The EERI team and its partners consisted of Reginald DesRoches, Georgia In- stitute of Technology (team leader); Susan Brink, University of Dela- ware; Peter Coats, Simpson Gum- pertz & Heger; Amr Elnashi, Mid- America Earthquake Center; Harley Etienne, Georgia Institute of Tech- nology; Rebekah Green, Western Washington University; Martin Hammer, architect, Berkeley, Cali- fornia; Charles Huyck, ImageCat; Ayhan Irfanoglu, Purdue University & NEEScomm; Sylvan Jolibois, Florida International University; Anna Lang, University of California, San Diego; Amanda Lewis, Mid- America Earthquake Center; Jean- Robert Michaud, Boeing; Scott Miles, Western Washington Univer- sity; Rob Olshansky, University of Figure 1. Georeferenced digital photos taken by the reconnaissance Illinois; and Patrick Paultre, Sher- team or donated to EERI are available in KML format at http://www. brooke University. virtualdisasterviewer.com/vdv/download_photo_kml.php?eventid=7.

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medical centers and hospitals col- All data produced have been made Performance of Historic lapsed or were damaged; 13 out of publicly available directly through the Structures 15 key government buildings were World Bank and served in the Virtual severely damaged. Disaster Viewer (VDV), alongside Historic buildings dating from the thousands of geo-tagged photo- time of French colonization to the The Haitian government estimates graphs from the EERI reconnais- 1920s predate the concrete-framed that the damage caused by the sance team and various other post- concrete block construction that earthquake totals approximately disaster ground field teams (Figure 1). comprises most of the building in- $7.8 billion, which is more than ventory of Port-au-Prince. Historic 120% of Haiti’s 2009 gross domes- Many lessons have been learned buildings fall into three distinct cat- tic product. from the GEO-CAN effort, among egories: timber frame, unreinforced them that very high-resolution imag- masonry (URM), and reinforced Remote Sensing Data ery can be used to provide rapid concrete. damage estimates of severely dam- The Global Earth Observation aged structures where it is difficult to Timber Frame: In Port-au-Prince Catastrophe Assessment Network deploy in the field. This has enormous and other urban areas of Haiti, (GEO-CAN) response after the implications for future events where these buildings were generally Haiti earthquake realized a vision access is restricted or not feasible constructed between 1890 and many years in the making — that and immediate information is re- 1925. Built typically as residences, rapid and actionable damage as- quired. During reconnaissance, it be- the buildings were generally either sessment could be completed with came clear that more damage was 1) timber frame with exterior wood remotely sensed data enabled by visible in the imagery than could be siding, or 2) timber frame with ma- distributed interpretation in a geo- seen on the ground, because dam- sonry infill (known by the French spatial environment. Analysis is aged structures were behind walls, term colombage) (Figure 2). The done through a portal that serves deep within blocks. Mobilizing hun- masonry is either fired brick with as a “social networking tool” where, dreds of engineers requires signifi- lime mortar, or irregular shaped after reading a brief training docu- cant resources. Much of GEO-CAN’s limestone with earthen mortar and ment, hundreds of engineers and success is attributable to the generos- a lime plaster finish. In all observed scientists provided an assessment ity of Google, Microsoft, Digital Globe, cases, the timber frame included of damage by comparing before- and GeoEye and the San Diego State diagonal members and interior and-after satellite images of the University Visualization affected areas. GEO-CAN allowed Center, which not only for a comprehensive assessment of freely distributed data, regional damage and was used in but actively served imag- the development of the post-disas- ery for interpretation. ter needs assessment. It can serve as a successful model for utilizing Most importantly, GEO- remote sensing technologies after a CAN is a model for mobil- regional disaster. izing volunteers with professional expertise. The Within a week, close to 30,000 GEO-CAN community buildings had been identified as has conclusively demon- heavily damaged or collapsed. strated that professionals The data were checked indepen- will volunteer in large dently using field ground surveys numbers if the proper IT conducted by a wide range of or- infrastructure is available. ganizations. In total, there were over 600 GEO-CAN volunteers Social-networking can from 23 countries representing 53 be used to establish a private companies, 60 academic framework of massively institutions, and 18 government or distributed but collabora- nonprofit organizations. Almost 200 tive environments that members from EERI contributed can reduce the commu- significantly to the effort. For a com- nication gridlock common plete list of organizations, visit the in disasters. Future suc- GEO-CAN community tab at http:// cessful deployments will www.virtualdisasterviewer.com/ hinge upon harnessing Figure 2. Timber frame with colombage (photo: vdv/index.hp?selectedEventId=7. this framework. Martin Hammer).

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Figure 3. Wood frame building next to collapsed concrete and masonry building (photo: Martin Hammer). wooden planks horizontally across masonry or concrete struc- the wall framing. ture (Figure 3). However, many sustained moderate These buildings were either one to serious damage due to Figure 4. Colombage performed well, though story or two, with mortared brick the deterioration of wood the unreinforced masonry wall collapsed (photo: or limestone foundations, wood- members from termites or Martin Hammer). framed floors, and corrugated steel rot. The colombage build- roofs framed with wood. The most ings sometimes expelled masonry prominent timber frame buildings panels under out-of-plane loading. ing Ministry of Finance (also URM) exhibit ornate carpentry details, Additions made of unreinforced suffered far less damage and did and are commonly referred to as masonry or reinforced concrete not collapse. “gingerbread,” but many simpler usually suffered the most damage buildings utilize the same methods The failures we observed generally (Figure 4). of construction. ranged from diagonal cracking in Unreinforced Masonry (URM): wall sections to absolute collapse; Both types of timber frame con- Unreinforced masonry construction modes of failure included 1) lack of struction are inherently resistant to predominates among buildings con- brick ties or brick headers between earthquakes. The all-wood build- structed between the late 1800s and brick withes, 2) lack of adequate ings are light and flexible, and the 1920s, often combined with the steel reinforcing, 3) weak stone utilize the diagonal members and timber construction described above. masonry where it was necessary wood-sheathed walls to resist lat- The EERI team observed URM res- for structural support, and 4) poor eral loads. The colombage build- idential, academic, religious, and mortar quality due to poor aggre- ings are heavier, but dissipate en- government buildings (Figure 5). The gate quality, inadequate cement or ergy through friction between the buildings were a combination of rough lime, or poor maintenance. masonry panels and the timber stone masonry and fired clay brick, members, and between the mason- For those URM buildings that re- with little or no smooth steel reinforc- ry units after their weaker mortar main intact or that can be salvaged, ing along building corners or window joints fracture. The diagonal wood it is advisable for an historic pres- and door heads. The stone masonry members provide resistance as ervation and/or structural engineer- appeared to be the light colored well (Figure 2). ing professional to inspect them in limestone that is commonly acquired greater detail to determine appro- The timber frame buildings in Port- in the La Boule quarries in the hills priate preservation and structural au-Prince, Petionville, and the around Port-au-Prince. Some URM retrofit measures. These measures south coastal city of Jacmel per- buildings, such as the Haitian Minis- may include doweled through-wall formed well, and were often seen try of Interior, failed catastrophically anchors, parallel lateral bracing, or adjacent to the site of a collapsed (Figure 5) even though the neighbor- repairs to mortar.

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Simpson, Gumpertz and Heger) re- vealed that the concrete aggregate is of relatively high quality and con- tains approximately 30% volcanic materials. There is no evidence that marine aggregate was in either of these buildings. We observed excessive corrosion of the steel reinforcement in both buildings, but given the results of the petrographic testing, it appears that it was the result of the carbonation of the aged concrete rather than the use of poor aggregate.

According to our observations, the following are possible primary modes of failure: poor weight and Figure 5. Unreinforced masonry Ministry of Interior building (photo: Martin wall distribution for seismic loading; Hammer). corroded steel reinforcement as a result of aged carbonated concrete; Reinforced Concrete: Many turn- While the National Cathedral did have and inadequately ductile concrete of-the-20th-century structures built a light steel roof structure, it also had members to sustain repetitive in the manner prevalent in Europe two large concrete domes on top of stressing. at the time were precursors to what its towers, making them top heavy. is now the most common form of In addition to collapses, the damage Engineered Buildings construction in Haiti. At the time that we observed included severe these were built, it was unique to shear cracks in columns and out-of- Given the absence of building construct an entire building with plane collapses of concrete walls. codes and record keeping, and the poured-in-place concrete. This widespread practice of uncontrolled Petrographic testing of concrete from building type included two of the construction, it was not always pos- both samples (services donated by best known landmarks in Haiti, the sible to establish whether a spe- National Presidential Palace and the National Cathedral (Figure 6), both of which collapsed catastrophically. Each of these buildings had unusu- al footprints that militated against any effort to sustain seismic forces. Each building also included large concrete domed structures, which apparently contributed to their collapse. In the case of the National Presidential Palace, an eyewitness reported that the second story rocked until the central core collapsed vertically, followed by the front section of the east and west wings. This indicates that the second story acted as the soft story between the rigid first floor and the massive concrete dome and roof structures. The strength and hard- ness of these domes was evi- denced by their showing no appar- Figure 6. Collapsed roof, interior of National Cathedral, Port-au-Prince ent cracking after falling one story. (photo: Martin Hammer).

4 EERI Special Earthquake Report — May 2010 cific building was engineered. We engineers were educated and trained The typical floor system is RC slab decided that “modern engineered in North America, and were familiar with beams. RC dual-systems are buildings” were those with regular with the Canadian and U.S. design observed to have sustained less structural framing layouts, estimat- codes. damage, on average, than the ed to be built after the 1950s, and RC-MRF buildings. In several build- Since the 1950s, reinforced concrete deemed to have received some de- ings recently constructed, seismic has been the material of choice and gree of care by a structural engi- design guidelines such as those many construction practices that do neer during design and construc- provided in U.S. design codes and not consider seismic loads were es- tion. “Engineered” does not mean ACI-318 were followed. However, tablished at that time. Concrete is designed for seismic loading. While the application of seismic design usually hand-mixed on site for smaller modern commercial, industrial, and principles was due to individual ini- engineered buildings and is typically essential buildings are the most tiative and not because of consen- of poor quality. Lately, in prominent likely structures to be engineered, sus or governmental action. engineered buildings such as those several low to mid-rise office, resi- at the Digicel compound (Figure 7), Critical structural damage was dential, and school buildings were ready-mix concrete is used. There is mainly due to absence of proper also considered to be engineered. only one Haitian contractor who uses detailing in the structural elements, Most of the early generation Hai- ready-mix concrete consistently; no with failure of brittle columns as tian engineers and architects were information is available about the the main cause of collapse. Some educated in France and were fam- practice of international contractors. structures had soft-story issues. iliar with the French building design The quality of concrete varied from In older engineered buildings, smooth codes (AFNOR). By the 1960-70s, weak (typical) to good (rare), veri- reinforcing bars were used, and these engineers were teaching at fied by preliminary tests. Both transverse reinforcement was ob- the university level using the smooth and deformed reinforcing served to be 5-6mm diameter wires French code. Earthquake provi- bars were observed in structural with unacceptably large spacing, par- sions were not present in these elements exposed due to damage. ticularly in columns. In newer con- codes, and moment-resisting struction, deformed bars were also The Digicel building is the tallest frames were the favored structural observed. Ductile detailing was ab- engineered building in Port-au- system. A small number of Haitian sent in the damaged and exposed Prince. One of its L-shaped struc- structural members in both tural walls can be seen along the older and more recent con- left corner in Figure 7. Three such struction. walls are present at as many corners of the building. The fourth cor- In the past, the Ministry of ner has a large atrium with deep Public Works controlled beams. An elevator core wall is building permits, along with near the atrium corner. The building plan and design reviews, performed well with light structural but the jurisdiction now lies and some nonstructural damage. with municipalities. Local Spalling of concrete was visible in engineers indicated that some columns, top and bottom; this transfer of jurisdiction some beams in the upper floors led to reduced control over suffered severe spalling and, in a design and construction. few places, buckling of longitudinal Reinforced Concrete bars. Adjacent three-story RC-MRF Buildings: Reinforced buildings were severely damaged. concrete buildings with moment-resisting frame In the Petionville area, several structural systems (RC- modern engineered buildings were MRF) and unreinforced inspected. One of the hotels, a hollow concrete masonry RC-MRF with reinforced CMU infill unit (CMU) infill walls walls, suffered damage in its infill dominate the engineered walls and a few captive columns buildings. A small number at the ground story (Figures 8 and of dual-system buildings 9). Another RC-MRF hotel under Figure 7. The 12-story Digicel building with with RC MRF and structural construction (with three stories RC dual (frame-wall) structural system (photo: walls were also observed. completed and three more to go) Anna Lang). sustained no damage (Figure 10),

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Figure 8. Reinforced CMU wall from a hotel in Petionville (photo: Amanda Lewis).

while an older construction RC- MRF multi-story hospital building adjacent to it collapsed totally. The new U.S. Embassy building, located near the airport in north- eastern Port-au-Prince and reportedly designed to load levels equiv- alent to those for U.S. seismic zone Figure 9 (left). Damage in a column due to captive condition, 4 with near-source consideration, Petionville hotel (photo: Ayhan Irfanoglu). did not sustain any structural damage. Steel Buildings: A small number of steel industrial buildings were inspected. A single story steel building with corrugated roof and side sheathing at the fuel port sustained no damage. In another steel building that houses an apparel manufacturing company, neither the structural steel framing nor the CMU block infills sustained any damage. The structure had a light, corrugated sheet metal roof. The steel framed warehouse at the main port of Port-au-Prince sustained heavy damage due to lateral spreading. When the seaside sup- ports of the transverse frames were displaced outward, the frames buckled at the roof (typical) as did Figure 10. Garage of hotel under construction, sustained no damage (photo: the seaside columns. Ayhan Irfanoglu)

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Low-Rise Buildings and uncommon. The familiar soft-story Perimeter foundations are typically Homes design, whereby the ground level 1m deep and assembled with stone is dedicated commercial space and or rock rubble and lightly cemented The most prevalent building type upper floors are residential apart- mortar. Because the bidonville in Haiti, particularly in the Port-au- ments, is not prevalent in Haiti, as residences are usually constructed Prince region, consists of non-engi- most people live and work in different on hillsides, stone foundations neered, lightly reinforced concrete geographical areas. Soft stories are commonly serve as either a retain- frame structures with concrete a problem, however: large openings ing mechanism on the upslope or masonry block infill. They are con- for windows and reduced wall area are elevated on the down-slope to structed with unreinforced concrete caused numerous floor collapses, create a level floor. These founda- block walls framed by slender, both at the ground level and at floor tional elements regularly exceed lightly reinforced concrete columns. levels above. 2m height on steep inclines. A layer Other types of masonry, including of concrete is poured over the foun- Many residences are constructed fired clay brick, are not used. dation to provide a finished surface over a significant length of time as upon which the building’s walls are Floors and roofs are reinforced the homeowner acquires funds or constructed. concrete slabs, typically four to six the family’s needs expand. Most are inches thick with a single layer of designed and constructed by the Construction Materials and Pro- bi-directional reinforcement. Con- owner or a local mason. Residents cedures: Concrete masonry blocks crete blocks are commonly cast in- sometimes squat on land, public or are commonly manufactured at or to the slab to minimize the use of private, to be near family, friends, or near the construction site. Type I concrete. Corrugated steel or fiber- their employment. These unauthor- Portland cement is used for all con- glass over a sparse wood frame is ized developments, known by the struction elements, including ma- also a common roofing method. French term bidonville, are found on sonry blocks, foundation and wall hillsides surrounding Port au Prince These buildings are used for single mortars, roof and floor slabs, and and Petionville, as well as in low-lying family dwellings and small busi- columns and beams. Concrete mix coastal areas such as Cite Soleil nesses, and are usually one or two proportions regularly lack sufficient (Figure 11). stories, though three stories are not cement and have a high water con-

Figure 11. Typical residential bidonville in the hillsides above Port-au-Prince (photo: Anna Lang).

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depth is no less than the masonry unit width. Longitudinal reinforcement usually consists of four #3 or #4 bars; transverse reinforcement is typically #2 bars, spaced between 6-12 inches with no decrease in spacing at column ends. Transverse ties are not bent beyond 90 degrees and smooth or ribbed reinforcement is used. The use of smooth bars in new construction was largely abandoned after the year 2000. Poured-in-place concrete is not typically consolidated, so there are large air pockets and a lack of bond with the reinforcement. Further, the lack of sufficient cement in the concrete mix reduces bond strength. Roof and floor slabs are commonly poured after the wall panels are al- Figure 12. Typical construction of a residence, showing a rock rubble founda- ready constructed and, regrettably, tion, confined masonry construction technique, and reinforced concrete slab. the walls are typically not assem- Note blocks added to the top of the walls and reinforcement emerging from bled to the full height of the roof or the slab, ready for construction of another level (photo: Anna Lang). floor. Rock or masonry debris is added later to fill in the gap be- tent for workability and reduced concrete columns. Wall slenderness tween the top of the walls and the cost (see Figures 12 and 13). did not appear to be problematic: bottom of the slab. Subsequently, most have a height-to-width ratio less masonry walls are typically not Aggregate is obtained from nearby than 1.0. Slender reinforced con- load-bearing — gravity load is car- limestone quarries and gradated crete columns that border the walls ried only by the slender concrete on-site. The largest quarry, La are typically 25-35 cm wide. Column columns. For future construction of Boule, produces a light colored weak limestone. Despite a recent ban on the this aggregate for its weaknesses, its use persists. Other stronger smooth aggregate originates in riverbeds in the hills around Port-au-Prince. While the use of corrosive beach sand was prevalent in the past, we observed no evidence of its present day use. Masonry walls are typically 2.5 m high with a single-wythe staggered block arrangement. Walls are constructed directly on top of a finished foundation or floor slab; no mechanical connection is made. Typ- ical block dimensions are 40 cm long, 18.5 cm high, and 14.5 cm wide. Mortar for the block walls is mixed on-site, typically on the ground. Horizontal bed joints are commonly 2 cm thick; vertical beds vary from 0-2 cm. Walls vary in Lack of sufficient cement bond, smooth reinforcement, and insuf- length from 2-4 m and are common- Figure 13. ficient detailing (photo: Anna Lang). ly bordered by lightly reinforced

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very different behavior. The confined masonry construction technique is similar to infill masonry, but walls are assembled first and then used to form the columns. If masonry blocks are staggered within the column cavity, a secure connection develops between the masonry wall and the columns. Instead of two structural systems acting independently, confined masonry performs as a singular system whereby lateral load is transferred from the column-slab connection to the walls directly. Though the walls are not load-bearing and therefore do not develop full capacity, they still contribute to the lateral resistance of the overall structure through the mechanical connection with the columns. Though of poor quality, this connection was sufficient to develop Figure 14.Typical out-of-plane failure of an infill masonry construction (photo: one-way bending and arching of the Anna Lang). wall, greatly reducing out-of-plane failures during the earthquake. additional levels, longitudinal rein- Performance of Confined Masonry: forcement of the columns common- Confined masonry structures gener- Hospitals ly extends through the slab thick- ally sustained little or no damage ness, but without additional con- during the earthquake (Figure 15). According to the World Health Or- nection detailing. A seemingly minor variation in the ganization (WHO) and Pan Ameri- construction sequence resulted in can Health Organization (PAHO), Performance of Infill Masonry: When these building types were excited during the earthquake, lateral load transfer primarily occurred at the column-slab connection. The walls are typically not load-bearing, and their strength capacity was reduced by a lack of friction between the blocks. Interaction between wall panels and columns resulted in localized damage, notably in the columns. Lateral capacity of the slender columns was generally in- sufficient to resist acceleration demands on the structure. P-delta effects ensued, proliferating collapse. Overturning and out-of-plane failures of wall panels were com- monplace and caused the majority of complete structural collapses (Figure 14). Even when they didn’t contribute to building collapse, Figure 15. In foreground, new wall under construction shows staggering of these out-of-plane wall failures blocks within the column cavity; this mechanically locks the masonry wall to caused innumerable injuries and the columns, causing them to act as a unit. In background, a typical one- deaths. story CM residence (photo: Anna Lang).

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grade. They intended to use the recommendations, along with data regarding patients served for free, in proposals written to NGOs for future funding.

Water/Wastewater The public water system suffered only minor damage to most facilities. The day following the earthquake, most of the pipeline breaks were isolated, and it took less than a week to restore service. The Centrale Autonome Metropolitaine d’Eau Potable (CAMEP) reported eight to ten pipeline breaks in their 70 km of pipe. This is a very low break rate, considering the extent of other types of damage. The Port- Figure 16. Average population covered per hospital by Haiti Departments, au-Prince water system lost five from web page www.who.int/hac/crises/hti/maps/haiti_population_per_ employees in the earthquake, and hospital_district_4feb2010.JPG. over 50% of their paying custom- ers. As a result, they have inadequate revenue to cover payroll. prior to the earthquake there were and 21 field hospitals. Fifty-six of the 594 primary health care centers; 59 hospitals had surgical capacity. The biggest issue following the 30 reference communal hospitals In a Special Report dated 16 Febru- earthquake was getting potable (30-60 beds each); six centers for ary 2010, PAHO stated that, “Haiti’s water to the displaced population, integrated diagnostics; ten depart- Ministry of Health lost more than 200 an estimated one million people. ment hospitals (with 150 beds each); staff members in the earthquake,” People could not stay in their and three university hospitals many of them in the collapse of the houses, either because they had (1,500 beds total. See Figure 16). Ministry of Health building. collapsed or because they feared In addition, numerous nongovern- potential collapse in aftershocks. It was reported that patients were re- mental organizations (NGOs) in Many of these people were in luctant to enter hospital buildings, due Haiti provided health care services, temporary tent camps distributed to fear of collapse during aftershocks. training for health care providers, throughout the city. At the time of Consequently, almost all healthcare and advice to Haitian health care our visit, foreign emergency re- services were provided in tents, even administrators. PAHO had a core seven weeks af- staff of 52 before the event, and ter the event. All sent an additional 60 people with facilities (public expertise in disaster management, and private) were logistics, epidemiology, communi- providing ser- cable disease control, and water vices to patients, and sanitation. free-of-charge. Hospitals suffered damage similar At least one pri- to that sustained by other engi- vate hospital neered structures mentioned above. was not paying In addition nonstructural damage, its staff, due to many hospitals were unusable due lack of income. to a lack of power and water. In the Both public and aftermath of the earthquake, there private hospitals were approximately 91 functioning were eager for hospitals in Haiti. Of these, 59 were written recom- in the metropolitan Port-au-Prince mendations re- area and included four public hos- garding seismic pitals, 34 NGO or private hospitals, retrofit and up- Figure 17. Emergency water tank (photo: Rebekah Green).

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Ports Autorite Portuaire Nationale (APN) operates several facilities in Port- au-Prince. It is the largest and busi- est container port in Haiti, handling about 1,200 containers per day, according to APN officials. The port consisted of two separate water- front facilities designated as the North Wharf and the South Pier. These facilities had seven berths constructed between 1978 and 1980, and included two roll-on/roll- off (Ro-Ro) berths. The North Wharf was a pile-supported marginal wharf 1,500 feet long and 68 feet wide, supported on 20-inch square pre-stressed concrete piles with five vertical and two Figure 18. Sediment and debris (mostly plastic bottles) build-up in drainage batter piles per bent. A 110-foot-by- channel at highway overcrossing (photo: Anna Lang) 40-foot Ro-Ro pier was adjacent to the east end of the North Wharf. sponse organizations and NGOs was no apparent damage, although Both collapsed into the bay during had set up portable treatment it was difficult to tell, as it had not the earthquake, primarily because equipment at selected locations been in operation. A significant of liquefaction-induced lateral and were treating water drawn from issue following the earthquake was spreading of the backfill soils (Fig- the public water system. A German dealing with the waste generated ure 19). There may also have been group set up a major temporary by the large displaced population. corrosion and prior damage that treatment facility near the airport, contributed to the damage. Two and distributed potable water by tank trucks supplied by the local contractors. Starting on January 19, water was being distributed to 500 sites that had plastic tanks and bladders (Figure 17). In general, the earthquake had limited direct impact on the drainage system. In a limited number of cases, the facilities themselves were damaged by landslides, collapse of embankments, and differential settlement. In some cases, buildings collapsed into drainage channels and blocked them. In other cases, garbage and debris filled the channels (Figure 18). There were reports of septic systems that were not working as a result of differential settlement of connecting pipelines.

The only wastewater treatment Figure 19. Liquefaction-induced lateral spreading damage to the APN North plant in the country, located at the Wharf. Note the barge on the left was used to replace the North Wharf for National Hospital, was not operable post-earthquake recovery efforts. The mobile container crane is shown in the at the time of the earthquake. There water at the west end of the submerged wharf (photo: Stu Werner).

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Figure 20 (a) ▲ and (b). ► Residents living in or next to damaged homes (photos: Rebekah Green).

large warehouses (each approxi- Recovery efforts mately 500 feet by 135 feet) were to restore port located in the backland of the wharf operations began and were heavily damaged by the two days after lateral spreading. A gantry container the earthquake, crane and a mobile container crane and were carried along the North Wharf were partially out around the submerged due to the collapse of clock by a U.S. the wharf structure. military task force. Initially, three landing beaches were The South Pier was a 1,250-foot- Social Impacts constructed for use in supporting long finger pier connected to a immediate emergency relief efforts. The earthquake affected all seg- small island by two small bridges Shortly thereafter, a fourth beach ments of Haitian society: the gov- extending perpendicular to it. It was was constructed for transport of addi- ernment, the commercial sector, supported on 45 bents with 20-inch tional humanitarian and commercial churches, civil society, United Na- square prestressed concrete piles. cargoes. tions operations, and international Each bent consisted of two vertical NGOs. Approximately 150,000 Hai- piles and four batter piles. It was On February 13, a barge with a tians left the country; some needed heavily damaged during the earth- shoreline access ramp was an- support from government and civil quake, with the westernmost 400 chored offshore just north of the society services in the countries feet collapsing, and with 90% of South Pier, and was used as a tem- to which they emigrated. At least the remaining piles (mostly the porary wharf to increase cargo un- 500,000 people abandoned dam- batter piles) requiring repair of the loading. On February 27, a second aged urban areas to find shelter in pile-deck connection. There was barge and shoreline access ramp the more rural departments (juris- evidence that some of the piles was anchored just south of the North dictions) of the country. This influx were already damaged before the Wharf to provide an addition tempo- of people exacerbated already criti- earthquake due to corrosion or rary wharf facility. cal demands for food and services. overloading. The U.S. military also began efforts About 1.3 million people now live in The main access road to the port to repair the uncollapsed segment tents and informal shelters in the was heavily damaged by lateral of the South Pier by constructing a Port-au-Prince metro area. One spreading due to liquefaction of reinforced concrete cap to encase count estimates 465 camps for the foundation soils. Liquefaction the upper few feet of the severely internally displaced persons (IDP), induced settlement and lateral damaged piles. This was expected to which fill most public and private spreading was seen in many back- be completed in early April. APN is open spaces. Residents have land areas, and resulted in differen- planning to rebuild the North Wharf also pitched tents in their yards or tial settlements adjacent to culverts, facilities to bring the port back into blocked off some streets to allow roads, and utilities. full operation. tents adjacent to their damaged

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about 85% of the government’s revenue. About 30,000 commercial buildings collapsed or were severely damaged by the earthquake. Many businesses have had to move into tents or operate on the streets, adding to or replacing street vend- ing that was common prior to the earthquake. Nearly all of Haiti’s gar- ment plants, which account for most of the country’s exports, are in Port-au-Prince. One factory em- ploying 4,000 collapsed, while oth- ers suffered severe damage. Many jobs have been lost, increasing the pre-earthquake estimate of roughly 70% unemployment. Figure 21. Champ de Mars IDP camp near the Presidential Palace (back- Organized religion is an essential ground) in downtown Port-au-Prince (photo: Rob Olshansky). and central component of Haitian culture and social service provision. homes (Figure 20). Most IDP camps killing over 100 employees, including The earthquake destroyed many were created spontaneously by the UN mission chief. church buildings, including two of individuals, with subsequent water, Approximately 50% of schools in Haiti’s most important cathedrals: food, sanitation, and shelter sup- Port-au-Prince were damaged (Fig- Holy Trinity Church and Cathédrale port from NGOs (Figure 21). Many ure 22); an estimated 400 or more Notre Dame in central Port-au- in the Port-au-Prince metro area tents are needed for temporary learn- Prince. The principal churches in are still without weather-resistant ing spaces. Léogâne and Petit Goâve — St. shelters. Rose de Lima and Notre Dame — Much of Haiti’s economic activity is A damage assessment of 140 hous- were also destroyed. A number of located in Port-au-Prince, where the ing units conducted by an NGO key church officials, including the majority of the earthquake’s impact found that 30-40% of the units were Catholic Archbishop and Vicar Gen- was felt, and the city also generates safe for re-occupation, but residents eral, and volunteers were killed. did not want to re-occupy their homes, either because of aftershocks or a desire for better access to service distribution points. The resistance to re-occupying struc- turally sound residences placed additional pressure on the IDP camps. At the same time, the UN and Haitian government indicated that a substantial proportion of the population continues to live in or adjacent to unsafe buildings. The earthquake exacted heavy cas- ualties on the Haitian national government and UN personnel, which reduced the institutional knowledge needed for the recovery process. In the 13 severely damaged or collapsed government buildings were lost innumerable government docu- ments and an undetermined number of government officials. The UN headquarters building collapsed, Figure 22. Damaged school in Port-au-Prince (photo: Rebekah Green).

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A significant number of church-affil- camps. Churches have also ex- Recovery Efforts iated schools, universities, and hos- panded their social services and pitals were destroyed or damaged, become focal points for the delivery Following the earthquake, lead UN and numerous additional undam- of food, water, medical care, and and NGO agencies initiated regular aged structures have been evacu- shelter materials, sometimes through “cluster” meetings across a variety ated as a precaution. Many cultural affiliated international aid and devel- of sectors involved in relief and institutions operated by these orga- opment organizations. Because of recovery activities. This cluster nizations are now closed, including damaged buildings, services are method — developed by the UN museums, music centers, libraries, being held outdoors in difficult cir- and non-UN humanitarian partners historic sites, and community activ- cumstances. Importantly, churches in 2005 as a means of improving ity centers. continue to support rural Haitians coordination, predictability, and but are hampered by impacts in the accountability in humanitarian re- Because churches are among the Port-au-Prince area and damage to sponse — has helped to designate most trusted institutions in Haiti, buildings in their rural centers. response standards and better co- many of them became sites of IDP ordinate activities in Haiti regarding such matters as food, shelter, sanitation, and debris removal. For example, the UN Shelter Clus- ter has set the goal of providing weather-resistant shelter material by May 1, 2010, through coordination of over 50 agencies. The Shelter Cluster has also identified a common transitional housing design and has worked with the Haitian government to identify five sites for transitional housing or IDP camp relocation. The Haitian government asked the UN to institute a post-disaster needs assessment (PDNA) process to develop a reconstruction plan and estimate associated funding requirements. This process, coordinated by the UN, World Bank, Inter- American Development Bank, and European Commission, had begun at the time of our reconnaissance. The PDNA’s proposals for recovery were presented to an international donors conference on March 31 in New York, and a multi-donor trust fund was requested to facilitate recovery. At the same time, the Hai- tian government is proposing a Hai- tian Reconstruction Commission, chaired jointly by the Haitian Prime Minister and a foreign government representative, who was confirmed on March 31 to be Bill Clinton. Numerous foreign governments have been involved in relief and recovery activities. Those we observed included debris clearance Figure 23. Displaced Iron Market vendors selling goods in downtown Port- and security by the U.S. and Cana- au-Prince (photo: Scott Miles). dian military; damage assessment

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The formal commercial sector is engaged in business continuity activities. Additionally, some foreign businesses are supporting recovery. For example, a major cell phone service provider was reportedly organizing volunteers and providing resources such as limited free service to all Haitian custom- ers. This commercial enterprise was also paying a former market vendor to organize the repair of Port-au-Prince’s historic Iron Mar- ket (Marche de Fe), with market vendors as volunteers and using company-procured materials. This company and associated NGOs were involved in community development work prior to the earthquake. Microfinance institutions (MFI) had a prominent role in Haiti prior to the Figure 24. Cash-for-work for clearing debris from neighborhood school in the earthquake, with about 20 institu- Nerette neighborhood of Petionville (photo: Rebekah Green). tions operating about 250 branches or credit centers. MFIs will play an by the U.S. Army; management of Haiti to obtain tents or tarps and re- important role in post-earthquake IDP camps by Canada, Colombia, mittances. About a third of Haitians recovery. The majority of MFI credit and Germany; tarps provided by relied on remittances before the centers are located outside of Port- USAID, Canada and France; and earthquake. Subsequently, one micro- au-Prince and thus can assist with cash-for-work programs jointly sup- finance institution reported a doubling rural recovery issues and migration ported by the UN, USAID and the of processed remittances. pressures. MFIs were up and run- Government of Haiti. Many NGOs have been operating in Haiti for years and have been able to apply their local experience to relief and recovery activities. How- ever, while some NGOs are partici- pating in cluster meetings, relative coordination between NGOs and with other stakeholders was difficult to assess. Despite the widespread damage in the Port-au-Prince metro area, the formal and informal economy is operating, albeit at reduced levels. Street markets survived the quake, and many new markets have appeared in and adjacent to tent camps (FIgure 23). In the Port-au- Prince metro area, it was common to see street vendors selling every- thing from art, clothing, and baby products to salvaged construction material, tarps, and mobile phone charging services. We observed Figure 25. Limited equipment available for debris removal (photo: Rebekah use of social networks outside of Green).

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ning within a few days after the earthquake, reportedly faster than commercial banks. One particular MFI is currently offering mobile banking, micro-loan restructuring, micro-loans to new clients, cash- for-work towards shelters, and adult education opportunities.

Significant Recovery Issues Through interviews and field observation, we identified several endur- ing recovery issues, four of which are presented below. Debris removal and management: The Early Recovery Cluster is actively planning and implement- ing a plan for debris removal, with a current focus on roads and drainage ditch clearance. However, the amount of debris exceeds available resources for removal (Figures 24 Figure 26. Canadian forces clearing debris of church in the town square of and 25). The availability of heavy Léogâne (photo: Rob Olshansky). equipment is extremely limited in Haiti, with only two Haitian govern- concerns for residents. Some shel- provide them with reconstruction ment agencies operating it; private ter transition has begun to one UN assistance, but it will also be dif- sector equipment is very expensive. coordinated site. ficult for the government to acquire Foreign militaries provided heavy • Lastly, it is critical to better under- and redevelop land parcels. Iden- equipment for early debris removal tification and purchase or lease of (Figure 26), but many are now pull- stand how many houses can be re-occupied and how to support sites to support transitional or per- ing out of Haiti. Although some manent housing in areas of heavy heavy equipment is being donated their re-occupation. The importance of assessing longer-term shelter damage will be challenged by legal locally and internationally, the prob- and funding constraints, as well as lem of disposal remains. needs and the costs of providing them will increase as recovery a shortage of suitable sites. Safe shelter: The most immediate continues. Capacity building: Significant shelter issues are fourfold. knowledge and skills were lost with Land tenure: Government officials the many people killed in the earth- • First, a wide range of response acknowledged that the earthquake quake. Schools, universities, gov- actors are calling for continued may have destroyed the already in- ernment agencies, and NGOs were procurement of weather-resistant complete set of land ownership rec- damaged physically and socially. shelter materials — tarps and ords in their possession. Squatting Regaining human capacity remains plastic sheeting — for emergency was common before the earthquake a critical issue. and temporary housing. and has expanded considerably • Second, the U.S. Army estimates since, with tent camps and new A wide range of stakeholders are that about 9,000 people are ex- homes set up on property owned by planning various training programs posed to high flood hazard; im- other private individuals, organiza- for Haitians. For example, the Hai- mediate mitigation is required for tions, and the government. tian government and NGOs are training locals to assess buildings. the roughly 150 IDP camps that Land ownership issues will be These efforts will need to expand to are exposed to some flood and/or complicated by a paucity of mortality other areas, such as safe building landslide hazard during the cur- records for residents and landlords construction, marketable job skills, rent and next rainy season. and difficulty in assessing whether and education. • Third, over 20 IDP camps have properties have been abandoned. been identified as congested, As a result, not only will it be difficult exacerbating safety and security to identify owners and renters in order