INTRODUCTION

Willard N. Harman

Internships: Sara Zurmuhlen and Kyle Stevens from Richfield Springs and Schenevus Central Schools, respectively, were supported via a FHV Mecklenburg Conservation Fellowships and by the Village of Cooperstown. Sara was involved with coliform analyses on the upper Susquehanna just south of Cooperstown, on Otsego Lake and in several areas in local watersheds relevant to the spring flooding. Kyle analyzed chlorophyll a in Otsego Lake as a proxy for algal population abundance.

College undergraduate intern Caitlin Snyder from Cazenovia College held a Rufus J. Thayer Otsego Lake Research Assistantship. She was involved in work at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary working with purple loosestrife control (with support from the Cooperstown Lake and Valley Garden club) as well as the traditional Otsego Lake waterhed monitoring carried out by the Thayer Assistantship. Erika Reinicke and Georgette Walters from SUNY Cobleskill held Robert C. MacWatters Internships in the Aquatic Sciences. They both worked with a diversity of fisheries oriented research projects. Alex Scorzafava from St. Bonaventure received an internship to monitor Lake Moraine vegetation management from the LAKE Moraine Association. Brian Butler, from SUNY Oneonta, recieved support from the Peterson Family Conservation Trust. He worked on Cherry Valley water quality and fisheries surveys at the Thayer Farm and Greenwoods Conservancy with Aaron Payne. Aaron was supported by a Biological Field Station Internship dedicated to SUNY Oneonta students.

Graduate students: Six graduate students in the Biology MA program have been involved with BFS faculty in 2006. Karen Tietlebaum and Kathy Suozzo have not yet defined their graduate research. Connie Tedesco continues her work with wetland vascular plants. Willow Eyres is involved in monitoring a multifaceted water chestnut control program carried on in an Oneonta wetland. Wesley Tibbits has been employed by Washington State monitoring salmon migration on the Columbia River. His thesis should be completed before this summer which is the last requirement before his degree is awarded. Todd Paternoster completed his work with zebra mussels in the Susquehanna, developing a cooperative monitoring program with several high schools. His degree was awarded in December of 2006.

Intensive offerings: About 200 students were enrolled in several SUNY Oneonta and SUNY Cobleskill on- campus courses and attended field exercises on site. More than 1,200 K-12 students visited the BFS and received hands-on experiences on Otsego Lake and BFS woodlands over the year enrolled in the to the pre-college ALearning Adventures @ and “Agricultural Environmental Quality” programs. David Alfred, Georgette Walters and Erika Reinicke served in the program as interpreters in the latter programs with BFS staff and faculty.

Faculty and staff activities: Tom Brooking, from the Cornell BFS, was the 2006 BFS visiting researcher and continued to work with Mark Cornwell utilizing acoustic monitoring to document alewife population dynamics in Otsego Lake. Bill Butts has been the most active biology faculty from SUNY Oneonta working at the BFS this year. Renee Walker, SUNY Oneonta Anthropology Department, and David Staley, Archeologist and Project Manager, Cultural Resource Survey Program, New York State Museum, continued work on the cultural resources at the Thayer Farm.

For the 7th year, we stocked Otsego Lake with walleye fingerlings varying in size from two to more than 6 inches in length. Monitoring was continued, staffed by former BFS graduate student Mark Cornwell (SUNY Cobleskill) with advice and help from Dave Warner (USGS Great Lakes Research Center, Ann Arbor) and Tom Brooking for monitoring the impacts on both the fishery and water quality impacts. Walleye from the first year of stocking are now about 30 inches in length. Support for the purchase of walleye pond fingerlings comes from Lou Hager, Jr., on behalf of the Gronewaldt Foundation, now matched by the NYSDEC Region 4 Fisheries Managers. A SUNY Cobleskill student, Isaac Golding, worked with Erica Reinicke (MacWatters Intern) and John Foster (Chair, SUNY Cobleskill Fisheries and Wildlife Technology) on the tele-monitoring of several mature walleye in Otsego Lake over the year.

The BFS provided personnel and boats for Otsego Lake Cleanup and Water Chestnut Days. For the 7th year no water chestnuts ( Trapa natans ) were found in Otsego Lake despite a day of intensive searching by BFS interns, graduate students and a cadre of volunteers. Early recognition of the problem and removal of plants in 1999 apparently contributed to its eradication. We will continue to keep an eye on the situation. Thanks to Otsego 2000 and the OCCA for their far-sighted support. We are now actively involved in water chestnut control, 1. In a wetland near Oneonta supported by Millennium Pipeline, Inc., the NYS Power Authority and senator Jim Seward and with help with citizen volunteers organized by the OCCA, and 2. With OCCA and the Goodyear Lake Association controlling a population in Goodyear Lake.

Cleanup, building stabilization and renovation at the Thayer Farm continues. Upgrades at the boathouse are essentially complete. We have improved conditions in “Willie’s Apartment”, a small facility next to the boathouse suitable as a short-term commons area. The Upland Interpretive Center has been completed and is attached to the World Wide Web. It is an all season trail head shelter housing a hands-on interpretive museum/classroom and conference space, office, kitchen, work and storage spaces with full bath and laundry facilities. We have received $125,000 from the National Science Foundation to begin work on the Hop House renovations this spring. The latter will provide year around facilities, a reception area, two laboratories, conference space and two faculty or graduate student offices. It will become the Administrative Center at the Thayer Farm.

Jeane Bennett-O’Dea continues to work part-time in the office assisting with administrative tasks. Dale Webster has done a great job fulfilling BFS construction responsibilities at the UIC and continues to work part-time improving and maintaining all facilities at the Thayer Farm. Several talented citizen volunteers again helped at the BFS during the year. They included Kathy Ernst and the following SCUBA divers: Paul Lord, Dale Webster, Brain Benjamin, Jerry Munnett, Ed Lentz and Cyndi Benjamin.

Public support makes our work possible. Funding for BFS research and educational programs was procured in 2006 from many citizens and organizations. Special thanks go to the Clark Foundation who generously supports our annual needs. Thanks also to the Gronewaldt Foundation for providing the resources for the Otsego Lake walleye stocking program, The Peterson Family Conservation Trust, the OCCA, Otsego 2000, the Otsego Lake Association, the Village of Cooperstown, SUNY Oneonta, and the SUNY Graduate Research Initiative.

Willard N. Harman

4

ONGOING STUDIES:

OTSEGO LAKE WATERSHED MONITORING:

2006 Otsego Lake Water Levels

Willard N. Harman K. S. Ernst*

Graphs represent Otsego Lake elevation readings, in centimeters, above or below (-) 0 which equals the optimal water level of 364.1 m or 1194.5 feet above mean sea level. For conversion to inches: X inches = cm x 0.3937. Note the vertical axis changes during periods of high water in June. The following data were collected at the Biological Field Station and illustrated by K. S. Ernst.

January 2006 February 2006

10 I J Hi 19 22 25 28 J ; 10 13 19 50 r~~-"-~·~r~~-.--~~rT~~~~~~~" so ,-­ - " '" '1 ' '0 40 ,l _ I , c3 0\ 30 u !: 20 E::II~ - I 10 } 0 ~ -10 1::1 .~. ·20 .'0 J ·'0 I

30 L

March 2006

1 , 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31

501

40 r t 30 .:: 20 t 10 :z: ! 0 r ~ ·10

·20

·30 Days

* BFS volunteer: Graphics and design. 5 hila; )006

I IU I!J IJ I Y '0 ~~ 110 100 '0 , 90 30 80 70 c 20 60 "D> 10 50 :I: "", 40 " :I: . " 30 3 20 i -10 ~ ·20 -10 ·30 20 -30

July 2006 August 2006

10 13 16 19 22 25 28 3; 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 70 60 50 5 '0 c 30 r" 20 :I: ! 10 ~ -10 -20 -30

September 2006 October 2006

10 13 19 22 25 28 J1 ::~~

5 30 f c 20 r 10 :I: .! ; ·10 ~...... -20 ------30

November 2006 December 2006

10 13 16 19 22 25 28 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31

;o~40

30 5 = 20 :E '" 10 . :I: '.!i i -10 ~ -10 ·20

·30 20 r -30 ­ Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006

Matthew F. Albright

ABSTRACT

Limnological analyses of several abiotic factors were performed during 2006 on Otsego Lake, Cooperstown, N.Y. The purpose was to monitor the chemical and physical parameters affecting water quality for comparison with past findings. This work is part of an ongoing study begun thirty years ago. Throughout the year, profiles of water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity were measured using a Hydrolab Scout 2 ®, a Hyrdolab Surveyor 4 ® or a Eureka Amphibian/Manta ® at the deepest spot in the Lake (TR4-C). Water samples were collected in profile for the analyses of total phosphorus, nitrite+nitrate, ammonia, total nitrogen, calcium, chloride, and alkalinity. Secchi disk transparency was measured. The data, after comparison with earlier information, indicate that water quality varies in relation to the volume of cold water fish habitat in late summer. These changes are attributed to fluctuations in nutrient loading, weather conditions, and food web alterations due to the proliferation of the alewife.

INTRODUCTION

Otsego Lake is a glacially formed, dimictic lake supporting a cold water fishery. The Lake is generally classified as being chemically mesotrophic, although flora and fauna characteristically associated with oligotrophic lakes are present (Iannuzzi, 1991).

This study is the continuation of year-round protocol that began in 1991. The data collected in this report run for the calendar year and are comparable with contributions by Homburger and Buttigieg (1992), Groff et. al .(1993), Harman (1994; 1995) Austin et al . (1996), and Albright (1997; 1998; 1999; 2000; 2001; 2002; 2003; 2004; 2005; 2006). Concurrent additional work included summer chlorophyll a profiles (Stevens 2007), descriptions of the zooplankton (Albright 2007) and neckton communities (Reinicke and Walters 2007; Golding, Reinicke and Foster 2007; Brooking and Cornwell 2007) and estimates of fluvial nutrient inputs (Snyder 2007).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Readings were collected bi-weekly during open water conditions and monthly through the ice. However, because of unsafe ice conditions, data were only collected between 8 March and 17 November.

Data were collected near the deepest part of the Lake (TR4-C) (Figure 1), which is considered representative as past studies have shown the Lake to be spatially homogenous with respect to the factors under study (Iannuzz 1991). Physical measurements were recorded at 2 m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40 m to the bottom; 5 meter intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. Measurements of pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and conductivity were recorded on site with the use of a Hydrolab Scout 2 ®, a Hydrolab Surveyor 4 ® or a Eureka Amphibian/Manta ® multiprobe digital microprocessor which had been calibrated according to manufacturer’s instruction immediately prior to use (Hydrolab Corp. 1993; Eureka Environmental Engineering 2005). Samples were collected for chemical analyses at 4 m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40 m and the bottom; 10 m intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. A summary of methodologies employed for chemical analyses are given in Table 1. Composite samples were collected from the surface to 20 m for Chlorophyll a measurements, which were determined using a Turner Designs TD-700 ® fluorometer following the methods of Welschmeyer (1994).

Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Otsego Lake showing sampling site (TR4-C).

Parameter Sample Preservation Method Reference volume

Total Phosphorus-P 10 ml H SO to pH<2 Persulfate digestion Liao and 2 4 followed by single Marten 2001

reagent ascorbic acid

Total Nitrogen-N 5 ml H SO to pH<2 Cadmium reduction Pritzlaff 2 4 method following 2003; Ebina

peroxodisulfate et. al 1983

digestion

Nitrite+Nitrate-N 10 ml H SO to pH<2 Cadmium reduction Pritzlaff 2003 2 4 Ammonia-N 10 ml H2SO 4 to pH<2 Phenolate Liao 2001

Calcium 50 ml None EDTA titrimetric EPA 1983 Chloride 100 ml None Mercuric nitrate APHA 1989 titration Alkalinity 100 ml Cool to <4 oC, Titration to pH=4.6 APHA 1989 measure ASAP Chlorophyll a 100 ml Ice sample, filter Fluorometric Welshmeyer ASAP, process in 1994 reduced light

Table 1. Summary of laboratory methodologies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Temperature

Surface temperature reached a high of 25.60 C o on 3 August. The coldest temperature recorded was 1.69 C o near the bottom on 8 March. The lake was completely covered by ice on 9 February. The lake was completely ice-free on 17 February; it re-froze on 28 February. The lake was ice-free on 1 April. Stratification was evident by 4 May.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from surface readings of 14.10 mg/l at the surface on 8 March to 2.28 mg/l at the bottom on 17 November. Year long profiles are given in Figure 2. Areal hypolimnetic oxygen depletion rates, at 0.084 mg/cm 2/day, were the lowest since before 1992 (Table 2), but are still over the lower limit of eutrophy (0.05 mg/cm 2/day) suggested by Hutchinson (1957).

Figure 2. Otsego Lake oxygen profiles, 2006. Isopleths in mg/l.

Interval AHOD (mg/cm 2/day) 05/16/69 – 09/27/69 0.080 05-30-72 – 10/14/72 0.076 05/12/88 – 10/06/88 0.042 05/18/92 – 09/29/92 0.091 05/10/93 – 09/27/93 0.096 05/17/94 – 09/20/94 0.096 05/19/95 – 10/10/95 0.102 05/14/96 – 09/17/96 0.090 05/08/97 – 09/25/97 0.101 05/15/98 – 09/17/98 0.095 05/20/99 – 09/27/99 0.095 05/11/00 – 09/14/00 0.109 05/17/01 – 09/13/01 0.092 05/15/02 - 09-26/02 0.087 05/16/03 – 09/18/03 0.087 05/20/05 – 09/24/05 0.102 05/27/05 – 10/05/05 0.085 05/05/06 – 09/26/06 0.084

Table 2. Areal hypolimnetic oxygen deficits (AHOD), Otsego Lake computed over summer stratification in 1969, 1972 (Sohacki, unpubl.), 1988 (Iannuzzi, 1991) and 1992-2006. Conductivity

Conductivity (an indirect measure of ions in solution) values ranged from 279 umhos/cm in surface waters on 17 August and 7 September to 330 umhos/cm at 48 m on 22 June.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity averaged 115 mg/l (as CaCO 3) throughout the year. The minimum value of 98 mg/l was observed at 4 m on 22 June; the maximum value (129 mg/l) occurred at the 4 m on 8 March. These data are consistent with earlier findings (Harman et al., 1997).

Calcium

Calcium dynamics paralleled those of alkalinity. The year-long average was 50.2 mg/l. A low of 34.5 mg/l was encountered at 16 m on 3 August; a high of 61.7 was observed from 16 to 40 m on 8 March.

Chlorides

Chloride concentrations averaged 15.4 mg/l, exhibiting very little variation either temporally or spatially. Since the mid 1980s chlorides concentrations have been increasing by 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l/year, presumably attributable to road salting, continues However, the mean concentration in 2006 was actually 1.0 mg/l lower than that of 2006 (Figure 3).

Nutrients

Total phosphorus-P averaged 9.26 ug/l. There was no evidence of phosphorus release from the sediments prior to fall turnover, as had been suggested following 1995 monitoring (Harman et al. 1997). Nitrite+nitrate-N averaged 0.36 mg/l over the course of the year. Ammonia was consistently below detectable levels (< 0.02 mg/l). Total nitrogen averaged 0.59 mg/l. This implies that organic nitrogen averaged about 0.2 mg/l over the year.

Secchi disk transparency and chlorophyll a

Summertime (May-October) water transparency averaged 2.5 m and ranged from 1.8 m on 22 June to a high of 3.8 m on 8 March. Figure 4 summarizes Ann. mean summer (May- October) Secchi transparencies at TR4-C in 1935, 1968-73, 1975-82, 1984-87, 1988, and 1992- 06. Composite chlorophyll a samples averaged 3.8 mg/l.

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 Chloride (mg/l) (mg/l) Chloride 4 2 0 1906 1926 1946 1966 1986 2006 Year

Figure 3. Mean chloride concentrations at TR4-C, 1925-2006. Points later than 1990 represent yearly averages (modified from Peters 1974).

CONCLUSIONS

Over the summer of 2006, mean chlorophyll a concentrations were comparable to those of recent years while mean numbers and sizes of cladaceran zooplankton continue to exceed those encountered between 1993 and 2003 (Albright 2007). Routine trap net collections indicate that littoral alewife ( Alosa psuedoharengus ) abundances are lower than measured since their establishment (Reinicke and Waters 2007), indicating that management strategies to control that species (Cornwell 2005) might be effective. Interestingly, mean summertime aerial hyplolimnetic oxygen depletion was among the lowest ever recorded, despite the fact that mean Secchi transparency was also among the lowest ever recorded. The 15 year trend of markedly rising chloride concentrations did not continue in 2006; instead, chlorides declined by approximately 1 mg/l.

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

SecchiTransparency (m) -7

-8

-9 '35 '68 '70 '72 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02 '04 '06 Year

Figure 4. May-October mean Secchi transparencies collected at TR4-C, 1935-04 (modified from Harman et al., 1997).

REFERENCES

Albright, M. F. 2007. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2006. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2006. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2005. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2005. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2005. Evaluating changes in phosphorus and sediment loading by Shadow Brook following the establishment of agricultural best management practices in its drainage basin. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F., R. Hamway and L. Hingula. 2005. Assessment of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2004. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2004. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2003. In 36 th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2003. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2002. In 35 th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2002. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2001. In 34th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2001. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2000. In 33 rd Ann. Rept. (2000). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2000. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1999. In 32 nd Ann. Rept. (1999). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1999. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1998. In 31 st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1998. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1997. In 30 th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1997. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1996. In 29 th Ann. Rept. (1996). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1996. Hydrological and nutrient budgets for Otsego Lake, N.Y. and relationships between land form/use and export rates of its sub-basins. 29 th Occasional Paper. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2002. Evaluating changes in phosphorus and sediment loading by Shadow Brook following the establishment of agricultural best management practices in its drainage basin. In 34 th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Albright, M.F. and T. Somerville. In 38th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.2006. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2005.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17 th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

Austin, T., M.F. Albright and W.N. Harman. Otsego Lake monitoring, 1995. In 28 th Ann. Rept. (1995). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Brooking, T.E. and M.D. Cornwell. Hydroacoustic surveys of Otsego Lake, 2006. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Cornwell, M.D. 2005.Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego Lake; Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top predator. Occas. Pap. No. 40. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.

EPA. 1983. Methods for the analysis of water and wastes. Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab. Office of Research and development. Cincinnati, OH.

Eureka Environmental Engineering. 2004. Manta water quality probe, startup guide. Austin, TX.

Golding, I.T., E. Reinicke and J.R. Foster. 2007. Distribution and movement of walleye ( Sander vitreum ) in Otsego Lake, New York. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Groff, A., J. J. Homburger and W. N. Harman. 1993. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1992. In 24th Ann. Rept. (1991). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W.N. 1994. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1994. In 26th Ann. Rept. (1993). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, and P.J. Godfrey. 1980. The limnology of Otsego Lake. In Bloomfield, J. A. (ed.). Lakes of New York State. Vol. III. Ecology of East-Central N.Y. Lakes. Academic Press, Inc., New York.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30, SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hollis, H. Unpublished data. Cooperative observer, National Weather Service. Cooperstown, NY. 13326.

Homburger, J. J. and G. Buttigieg. 1991. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring. In 24th Ann. Rept. (1991). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hutchinson, G.E. 1957. A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1. Geography, physics and chemistry. Wiley, New York.

Hydrolab Corporation, 1993. Scout 2 operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.

Iannuzzi, T.J. 1991. A model plan for the Otsego Lake watershed. Phase II: The chemical limnology and water quality of Otsego Lake, Occasional Paper #23. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Kortman, R.W. 1997. Pers. comm. Ecosystem Consulting Service. Coventry, CT.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ®Method 10-107- 06-1-J. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.

Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem ®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Nelson, J. and N. Nelson. 2002. Personal communication. Volunteer weather observers. Springfield, N.Y. 13468.

Peters, T. 1987. Update on chemical characteristics of Otsego Lake water. In 19th Ann. Rept. (1986). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ®Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Snyder, C.M. 2007. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Stevens, K.E. 2007. Chlorophyll a analysis of Otsego Lake, 2006. In 39 th Ann. Rept. (2006). UNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Walters, G.M. 2007. Summer trap net monitoring of the littoral zone fixh communities at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Welschmeyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:1985-1992.

Chlorophyll a analysis of Otsego Lake, summer 2006

Kyle E. Stevens 1

INTRODUCTION

Various limnological studies of many biotic and abiotic aspects of Otsego Lake are carried out yearly. These ongoing studies are conducted in the hopes of recognizing tribulations in the lake before they become a threat (Harman et al. 1997). Among these studies is the measurement of the vertical distribution of chlorophyll a concentrations in the lake.

Chlorophyll a is a light sensitive pigment which is used in the process of photosynthesis. Since chlorophyll a is found in all types of algae, its presence is used to estimate the biomass of phytoplankton in the lake. The ratio between chlorophyll a and biomass is somewhat variable; therefore measurements are not exact (Wetzel 1975). The presence of algae is a major indicator of water quality and trophic status in the lake. The abundance of algae determines the success of other organisms, because they are the base of the food chain in the lake. High algal populations can also negatively affect the transparency and dissolved oxygen contents of the lake. As phytoplankton die, decompose, and sink through the hypolimnion, bacterial respiration takes place, lowering dissolved oxygen contents available to the cold water fisheries (Wetzel 1975). Algal densities are mainly a function of nutrient availability and grazing by zooplankton (Wetzel 1975).

During the summer of 2006, vertical distributions of chlorophyll a were monitored as part of an ongoing study since 1997. This study is concurrent with the monitoring of physical and chemical parameters (Albright 2007).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Water samples were taken weekly from the deepest part of the lake, sample site TR4-C (Figure 1). Water was collected using a Van Dorn Sampler, taking a sample every meter from the surface to twenty meters. The samples were then poured into 125mL Nalgene ® bottles. The bottles were stored in a dark cooler until arrival at the lab due to the degenerative nature of chlorophyll a if it is exposed to heat and/or light.

1 F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 2006. TR4-C

Figure 1. Otsego Lake, Otsego County, New York, showing sample site (TR4-C).

Processing began upon arrival at the lab by running 100 mL of each sample through a GF/A Whatman ® 47mm Glass Microfiber Filter using a low-pressure vacuum pump. The filters were then folded in half to protect the chlorophyll covered surface, and blotted dry. The edge of each filter that did not come in contact with any chlorophyll was cut off and discarded. Each filter was then placed in a 47mm sterile Millipore ® Petri dish labeled with site, date, and depth. All dishes were stored at -20˚C in a large beaker covered in aluminum foil until processing resumed the next day.

Processing resumed the following day by cutting each filter into pieces using forceps and scissors. The shredded pieces of filter were placed in a 30 mL glass grinding tube combined with approximately 3 to 4 mL of buffered acetone (90% acetone and 10% saturated MgCO 3) and then ground using a power drill equipped with a Teflon pestle drill bit. Once the sample had been ground to a homogenous slurry, it was transferred to a 15mL centrifuge tube and topped off to the 10mL mark using additional buffered acetone solution. Samples were then capped, shaken, covered with aluminum foil and allowed to steep for roughly two hours. An exception to this involved samples collected on 11 August 06, because of equipment unavailability. Those samples were stored for 8 days before final processing.

After two hours passed, the homogenous slurry was centrifuged at 1000g for 10 minutes to settle out any particulate matter. Some of the sample was then poured into a 1cm cuvette and placed in a Turner designs TD-700 Flourometer, following the methodologies by Arar and Collins (1997), to determine Chlorophyll a concentrations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 2 shows the mean chlorophyll a concentrations at each depth for the samples collected from 26 June and 11 August 06. The graph shows +/- 1 standard deviation, which implies the temporal variance throughout the summer months.

Average chlorophyll a levels for the summers of 2000 (Durie 2001), 2001 (Wayman 2002), 2002, (Wayman 2003), 2003 (Schmitt 2004), 2004 (Murray 2005), 2005 (Zurmuhlen 2006), and 2006 are shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the average concentrations at each depth sampled over a six year period. Average chlorophyll a levels were higher this year than in the past few years. This may indicate a step backward for the lake after algal levels were declining over the past five years. Higher concentrations may have been due to substantially higher than normal rain fall over the summer, including the record rains that occurred at the end of June, which could have lead to higher nutrient concentrations in the lake resulting in more algal blooms throughout the summer.

Figure 5 shows the weekly results of the vertical distribution of Chlorophyll a for the summer of 2006. Although results did not seem to be consistent from week to week, readings from depths of less then 10 meters tended to be higher.

14 12 10 8 6 4

Concentration(ppb) 2 0 0 5 10 15 20 Depth (meters)

Figure 2. Mean chlorophyll a concentrations, surface to 20 meters in Otsego Lake, for summer 2006. The graph shows +/- 1 standard deviation, which implies the temporal variance throughout the summer months.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Concentration (ppb) Concentration 1 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Figure 3. The mean, surface to 20 meters, chlorophyll a concentrations in Otsego Lake for 2000 (Durie 2001), 2001 (Wayman 2002), 2002 (Wayman 2003), 2003 (Schmitt 2004), 2004 (Murray 2005), 2005 (Zurmuhlen 2006) and 2006.

14

12

10 2000 2001 8 2002 2003 6 2004 2005

Concentration (ppb) 4 2006

2

0 0 5 10 15 20 Depth (m)

Figure 4. Average concentrations at depths in profile (0-20 meters) in Otsego Lake for 2000 (Durie 2001), 2001 (Wayman 2002), 2002 (Wayman 2003), 2003 (Schmitt 2004), 2004 (Murray 2005), 2005 (Zurmuhlen 2006) and 2006. Chl a 7/6/06 Chl a 6/26/06

15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

Depth (meters) Depth (meters)

Chl a 7/13/06 Chl a 7/20/06

15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

Depth (meters) Depth (meters)

Chl a 7/27/06 Chl a 8/3/06

15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

Depth (meters) Depth (meters)

Chl a 8/11/06

15 10 5 0

Concentration(ppb) 0 5 10 15 20 Depth (meters)

Figure 5. Shows the Vertical distribution of Chlorophyll a in Otsego Lake at each depth from 0 to 20 meters from 23 June to 11 August 06.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 2007. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 39 th Annual Report (2006). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Arar, E.J. and G.B. Collins.1997. Method 445.0, In Vitro Determination of Chlorophyll a and Pheophytin a in Marine and Freshwater Algae by Fluorescence. In Methods for the Determination of Chemical Substances in Marine and Estuarine Environmental Matrices, 2 nd Edition. National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, USEPA., Cincinnati, Ohio. EPA/600/R-97/072, Sept. 1997.

Durie, Brett. 2001. Chlorophyll a analysis of Otsego Lake, summer 2000. In 33 rd Annual Report (2000). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, D.L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936-96. Occasional Paper # 30, SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Murray, K. 2005. Chlorophyll a concentrations in Otsego Lake, summer 2004. In 37 th Annual Report (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Schmitt, R. 2004. Chlorophyll a concentrations in Otsego Lake, summer 2003. In 36 th Annual Report (2003). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Wayman, K.2002. Chlorophyll a concentrations in Otsego Lake, summer 2001. In 34 th Annual Report (2001). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Wayman, K. 2003. Chlorophyll a concentrations in Otsego Lake, summer 2002. In 35 th Annual Report (2002). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Wetzel, R.G. 1975. Limnology. W.B. Sanders Company, Philadelphia.

Zurmuhlen, S. 2006. Chlorophyll a analysis of Otsego Lake, summer 2005. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2006

Matthew Albright

INTRODUCTION

This study was a continuation of long-term monitoring of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community in order to document any changes that might be attributable to top down management efforts to control alewife ( Alosa pseudoharengus ) through the re- establishment of walleye ( Sander vitreus ).

Historically, Otsego Lake has been considered oligo-mesotrophic based on various trophic state indicators. Some of the earlier, comprehensive limnological data collected on Otsego Lake revealed transparencies and algal standing crops indicative of oligotrophic conditions (Godfrey 1977), despite phosphorus loading rates at levels typically associated with a more mesotrophic state (Godfrey 1979). This was attributed to Otsego’s large-bodied crustacean zooplankton which were more abundant than in other New York lakes studied at that time (Godfrey 1977).

Alewife, a visually-oriented, efficient planktivore, was first documented in Otsego Lake in 1986 (Foster 1990) and by 1990 it was the dominant forage fish in the lake. The zooplankton community had shifted to dominance by crustaceans, especially Daphnia spp., to rotifers (Foster and Wigens 1990). Rotifers are poor quality food items for fish, and they sequester fewer nutrients and have substantially lower algal grazing rates than do crustacean plankton (Warner 1999). Depressed abundances and lower mean sizes of crustacean zooplankton have been documented from the onset of alewife dominance through at least 2002; concurrent with this shift, mean summer transparencies, algal standing crops and rates of hypolimnetic oxygen depletion have increased (Harman et al. 2002). This was despite various mitigative efforts designed to reduce nutrient inputs to the lake (i.e., Murray and Leonard 2005; Albright 2005). Thus, the apparent shift toward more eutrophic conditions through the 1990s seemed attributable to cascading trophic changes resulting from the establishment of alewives and the subsequent declines in large crustacean zooplankton.

Otsego Lake has been stocked with walleye since 2000 at a targeted rate of 80,000 pond fingerlings each year. The primary intent was to take advantage of the forage base provided by alewives to re-establish this popular sports fish. Concurrent monitoring has attempted to document any changes that might be related to this trophic modification (Cornwell 2005).

METHODS

Samples were generally collected bi-weekly, from 24 May to 17 August 2005, at TR4C, the deepest part of Otsego Lake (Figure 1). At this site a 0.2m diameter conical plankton net with a 147um mesh was hauled from 12 m (approximately the top of the hypolimnion) to the surface. A G.O. TM mechanical flow meter mounted across the net opening allowed for the determination of the volume of lake water filtered. Samples were preserved in ethanol. The volume of the preserved samples was recorded, allowing for the later back-calculation of zooplankton abundances in lake water. One ml of each sample was placed on a grided Sedgwick rafter cell. Zooplankton were identified, enumerated and measured using a research grade compound microscope with digital imaging and analysis capabilities

Figure 1. Otsego Lake, New York, showing location of sample site (TR4-C).

Mean densities and lengths for cladocerans, copepods and rotifers were used to calculate dry weight (Peters and Downing 1984), daily filtering rate (Knoechel and Holtby 1986) and phosphorus regeneration (Esjmon-Karabin 1983) on each date sampled according to the equations given in Table 1.

Dry Weight: D.W.=9.86*(length in mm)^2.1 Filtering Rate: F.R.=11.695*(length in mm)^2.48 Phosphorous regeneration: Cladocerans: P.R.=.519*(dry weight in ug) -.023 *e 0.039 *(temp.in C) Copepods: P.R.=.229*(dry weight in ug) -.645 *e 0.039 *(temp.in C) Rotifers: P.R.=.0514*(dry weight in ug) -1.27 *e 0.096 *(temp.in C)

Table 1. Equations used to determine zooplankton dry weight, filtering rate, and phosphorus regeneration.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2 provides a summary of the data, including mean epilimnetic temperature, numbers of each taxon per liter, average length, mean dry weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration rates per individual and per liter, filtering rates and the percentage of the epilimnion filtered per day.

While the mean summer density of crustacean zooplankton has remained relatively constant since 2000, mean sizes increased substantially between 2003 and 2004 (Table 3). The zooplankton community historically was comprised largely of Daphnia spp., though they declined markedly following the alewife introduction (Harman et al. 2002) and remained low through 2003 (Burns 2004). During that period, smaller Bosmina dominated the crustacean community. Throughout summers of 2004, 2005 and 2005, Daphnia became more prevelant. This shift led to a substantial increase in mean cladaceran size (0.55 mm), as Daphnia averaged 0.84 mm compared to the average size of 0.36 mm for Bosmina . Because of the exponential nature of the length:biomass relationship, this shift lead to an approximate doubling in epilimnetic filtering rates between 2000-2003 and 2004-2006 (Table 3). This increased filtering rate was not coupled with higher rates of phosphorus regeneration, as larger organisms regenerate less phosphorus per unit biomass than do smaller ones (Warner 1999).

2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Mean crustacean density (#/l) 208 146 132 163 159 164 Mean cladoceran size (mm) 0.29 0.30 0.36 0.532 0.551 .551 Mean crustacean dry weight (ug/l) 175 145 177 261 206 164 Mean % of epilimnion filtered /day) 11.9 9.9 12.7 25.1 19.2 15.9 Mean phosphorus regeneration (ug/l/day) 4.49 2.6 3.1 4.4 2.7 2.4

Table 3. Mean crustacean density, mean cladoceran size and mean dry weight, percent of the epilimnion filtered per day and phosphorus regeneration by crustaceans in 2000, 2002 2003, 2004 2005 and 2006.

CONCLUSION

Mean crustacean size and biomass were similar to those recorded during summers of 2004 and 2005, being higher than in any other year monitored since alewife establishment. This increase in mean crustacean size and biomass is concurrent with top down management efforts related to attempts to re-establish walleye (Cornwell 2005). Secchi transparencies over summer 2006 were lower than those of recent years; the rate of areal hypolimnetic oxygen depletion, however, was the lowest recorded since 1988 (Albright 2007). This suggests that many of the variables measured seem to be dependent upon alewife densities. Continued monitoring seems necessary, however, to ascertain whether walleye re-establishment is sufficient to control alewife numbers.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 2005. A report on the evaluation of changes in water quality in a stream following the implementation of agricultural best management practices. In 37th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2007. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Brooking, T.E. and M.D. Cornwell. Hydroacoustic surveys of Otsego Lake, 2006. In 38th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Burns, R. 2004. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2003. In 36th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Cornwell, M.D. 2005.Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego Lake; Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top predator. Occas. Pap. No. 40. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Esjmont-Karabin, J. 1984. Phosphorus and nitrogen excretion by lake zooplankton (rotifers and crustaceans) in relation to the individual body weights of the animals, ambient temperature, and presence of food. Ekologia Polska 32:3-42.

Foster, J.R. 1990. Introduction of the alewife ( Alosa pseudoharengus) in Otsego Lake. In 22nd Ann. Rept. (1989) SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Foster, J.R. and J. Wigen.1990. Zooplankton community as an ecological indicator in cold water fish community of Otsego Lake. In 22 nd Ann. Rept. (1989). SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Godfrey, P.J. 1977. An alalysis of phytoplankton standing crop and growth: Their historical development and trophic impacts. In 9 th Ann. Rept. (1976). SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Godfrey, P.J. 1979. Otsego Lake limnology: Phosphorus loading, chemistry, algal standing crop and historical changes. In 10 th Ann. Rept. (1978). SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W.N., M.F. Albright and D.M. Warner. 2002. Trophic changes in Otsego Lake, NY following the introduction of the alewife ( Alosa pseudohargenous ). Lake and Reserv. Manage. 18(3)215-226.

Knoechel, R. and B. Holtbly.1986 Construction of body length model for the prediction of cladoceran community filtering rates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31(1):1-16.

Murray, K. and P. Leonard. 2005. Continued water quality monitoring of five major tributaries to Otsego Lake, summer 2004. In 37th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Oglesby, R.T. and W.R. Schaffner. 1978. Phosphorus loadings to lakes and some of their responses. Part II. Regression models of summer phytoplankton standing crops, winter total P and transparency of New York lakes with known phosphorus loadings. Linol. Oceanogr. 23:135-145.

Peters, R.H. and Downing, J.A. 1984 Empirical analysis of zooplankton filtering and feeding rates. Limnology and Oceanography, 29 (4). pp. 763-784

Warner, D.M. 1999. Alewives in Otsego Lake, NY: a comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and chlorophyll a. Occas. Pap. No.32. SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Monitoring Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Otsego Lake

Sara J. Zurmuhlen

Levels of fecal coliform bacteria were monitored in Otsego Lake after recent record-breaking floods the week of June 25th, 2006. The water level rose to 105cm above average by June 30th, 2006. Concern was expressed over the safety of the lake for recreational purposes such as swimming and boating. Thirteen sites (Figure 1.) were sampled during and after the flooding to determine the number of fecal coliform bacterial colonies throughout Otsego Lake on June 29th, July 6th, and July 13th. The membrane filter technique was utilized in the determination of fecal coliform concentrations. All samples were run in duplicate and the number of colonies per 100mL was determined for each site.

Site Latitude Longitude 1 N 42° 42.198’ W 74° 55.320’ 2 N 42° 43.267’ W 74° 55.372’ 3 N 42° 43.635’ W 74° 54. 987 4 N 42° 43.872’ W 74° 54.927 5 N 42° 44.519’ W 74° 54.460 6 N 42° 45.214’ W 74° 54.228 7 N 42° 45.430’ W 74° 54.092 8 N 42° 46.591’ W 74° 53.966 9 N 42° 48.769’ W 74° 53.339 10 N 42° 47.488’ W 74° 52.237 11 N 42° 46.606’ W 74° 52.752 12 N 42° 42.526’ W 74° 54.859 13 N 42° 42.255’ W 74° 54.954

Figure 1. Sites monitored for fecal coliform on Otsego Lake June 29th, 2006, July 6th, 2006, and July 29th, 2006.

Figure 2. Profiles of fecal coliform bacterial concentrations on Otsego Lake.

Results of the monitoring of fecal coliform bacteria showed higher than average levels of coliform along the Western shore of Otsego Lake, however, the majority of sites sampled on all three days were well below the DOH limit of approximately 200 colonies per 100mL lake water for swimming (Figure 2.) Exceptions were Site 9, at the joining of Hayden Creek and Otsego Lake, Site 7, just North of Fivemile Point, and Site 10, near the emergence of Shadow Brook in Hyde Bay. It is possible that nutrients and sediment from runoff due to the heavy rainfall may account for the elevated numbers of fecal coliform colonies at these locations. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006

Caitlin M. Snyder 1

INTRODUCTION

Limnological monitoring of Otsego Lake in recent years has been focused around increasing eutrophication rates (Harman et al. 1997; Albright 1998; 1999; 2000; 2001; 2002). Although classified as a chemically mesotrophic lake with flora and fauna characteristically associated with oligotrophic lakes (Iannuzzi 1991), some indicators have suggested a move toward more eutrophic conditions. Eutrophication, or the process by which bodies of water experience enhanced plant growth as a result of excess nutrients, can often create detrimental effects upon the organisms within or near the water (USGS 2006). Increased eutrophication rates in Otsego Lake are attributed to dissolved nutrient loading from manmade sources such as lake front septic systems (Meehan 2004a), agricultural runoff (Murray and Leonard 2005), and residential land use (Albright 2005a). Nutrient influxes can generate algal blooms that ultimately lead to decreases in water clarity and deep-water dissolved oxygen levels. Consequently, aquatic organism diversity, recreational potential (boating and fishing), and aesthetic appeal of the lake can diminish as water quality declines. Additionally, Otsego Lake provides drinking water to the Village of Cooperstown and lakeside residents. Increased algal concentrations play an increasing role in the color, taste, and odor of the drinking water.

The northern portion of the Otsego Lake watershed consists of five major drainage basins that include: White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and a small tributary that drains Mt. Wellington. Nearly 48 percent of the land occupying these drainage basins is used for agricultural purposes, making it the predominant land use (Harman et al. 1997). Actively farmed drainage basins have the potential to have increased nutrient export rates (Reynolds 2006). Since agriculture makes up nearly half of the watershed land use, excessive nutrient loading deriving from livestock wastes and agricultural fertilizers is apt to be considerable. Other potential sources of nutrients include urban runoff on roads, septic seepage, and golf course and residential lawn care fertilizers.

As part of recent efforts to help reduce nutrient loading from agricultural sources and lessen eutrophication of lakes, the USDA Natural Recourses Conservation Service (NRCS) has developed a series of guidelines and techniques, or Best Management Practices (BMPs). These environmental management strategies were designed in order to help control pollution associated with construction, forestry, and agriculture (EPA 2006). Efforts have focused on soil erosion, waste management and storage, management of livestock yards, and pesticide and fertilizer usage. Current projects, such as riparian zone management, aim to minimize livestock wastes and erosion in streams by installing fences, gravel pads at crossings, and restoring bank vegetation (NRCS 2006). Thus,

1 Rufus J. Thayer Otsego Lake Research Assistant, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Cazenovia College. riparian zones act as a buffer between potentially detrimental human activities and surface water, while also offering flood protection and habitat for wildlife. Irrigation management has been centered on soil moisture monitoring and water conservation practices. Through livestock grazing and field and crop rotation, soils can be protected against erosion and seasonally replenished with nutrients and moisture. Some Best Management Practices deal with pest control practices. By applying adequate amounts and types of pesticides to the appropriate crops and pests, complications with non-target casualties and over spraying can be significantly reduced. Today there are many alternatives to hazardous pesticides. On top of low toxicity pesticides, biocontrol methods include: introduction of natural predators, crop rotation, and genetically resistant plants (NRCS 2006).

Twenty three sites throughout Otsego’s northern watershed are being monitored in order to assess the effectiveness of BMPs in reducing nutrient loading to Otsego Lake. Figure 1 indicates those sampling sites (numbers) as well as the BMPs established to date (asterisks). To date, 22 agricultural projects have been completed in the northern watershed, most by the NRCS, with local cost shares provided by the Otsego County Conservation Association. By analyzing total nitrogen, nitrate+nitrite nitrogen, ammonia, total phosphorus, temperature and dissolved oxygen, the health of these waterways can be evaluated, as can the effectiveness of these projects which are indeed to reduce nutrient influxes into Otsego Lake. Similar data have been collected in the summers of 1995 (Heavy 1996), 1996 (Hewett 1997), 1997 (Miller 1998), 1998 (Poulette 1999), 1999 (Collins and Albright 2000), 2000 (Miner 2001), 2001 (Parker 2002), 2002 (Meehan 2003), 2003 (Meehan 2004), 2004 (Murray and Leonard 2005), and 2005 (Reynolds 2006).

MATERIALS & METHODS

The northern region of Otsego Lake’s watershed consists of five tributaries (Figure 1). Water quality readings and samples were taken on a weekly basis at 23 sites on these tributaries between 31 May and 8 August, 2006, except for site at Hayden Creek 7. Sampling there was terminated on 27 June 2006 because access was denied by the land owner. The sites were originally established by Heavy in 1995 (1996) and expanded upon in 1996 by Hewett (1997). Best Management Practices that were completed to date are indicated in Figure 1. Detailed sampling site descriptions are provided in Table 1.

Temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and pH readings were recorded at each site using a Hydrolab Scout 2 ® or a Eureka Amphibian ® multiprobe. The systems were calibrated directly before use as per the manufacturer’s protocol. Water samples (approximately 125ml) were collected at each site and analyzed weekly for total phosphorus using the ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion (Liao and Marten 2001), total nitrogen using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) following peroxodisulfate digestion as described by Ebina et. al (1983), ammonia using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and for nitrate+nitrite nitrogen using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003). All of these parameters were analyzed using a Lachat QuikChem FIA+ Water Analyser ®.

Figure 1. Map of monitored tributaries showing sampling sites (numbered) and locations of agricultural BMPs (asterisks).

Table 1: Descriptions and locations of sampling sites visited weekly from 31 May and 1 August 2006 (modified from Reynolds 2006). Sites can be seen in Figure 1.

White Creek 1: N 42º 49.646 ′ W 74º 56.986 ′ South side of Allen Lake on County Route 26 near outlet to White Creek. Major flooding in late June 2006 exposed a large drainage pipe. This lake is the water supply for the town of Richfield Springs.

White Creek 2: N 42º 48.93 ′ W 74º 55.303 ′ North side of culvert on County Route 27 (Allen Lake Road) where there is a large dip in the road.

White Creek 3: N 42º 48.355 ′ W 74º 54.210 ′ East side of large stone culvert on Route 80.

Table 1(cont.) Locations and descriptions of sampling sites visited weekly from 31 May and 1 August 2006 (modified from Reynolds 2006). Sites can be seen in Figure 1.

Cripple Creek 1: N 42º 48.919 ′ W 74º 55.666 ′ Weaver Lake accessed from the north side of Route 20. Water here is slow moving and there is an abundance of organic matter

Cripple Creek 2: N 42º 50.597 ′ W 74º 54.933 ′ Young Lake accessed from the west side of Hoke Road. The water at this side is shallow; some distance from shore is required for sampling.

Cripple Creek 3: N 42º 49.437 ′ W 74º 53.991 ′ North side of culvert on Bartlett Road. The water at this location is cold and swift. This site is immediately downstream of an active dairy farm.

Cripple Creek 4: N 42º 48.836 W 74º 54.037 ′ Large culvert on west side of Route 80. The stream widens and slows at this point; this is the inlet to Clarke Pond.

Cripple Creek 5: N 42º 48.822 ′ W 74º 53.779 ′ Dam just south of Clarke Pond accessed from the Otsego Golf Club

Hayden Creek 1: N 42º 51.658 ′ W 74º 51.010 ′ Summit Lake accessed from the east side of Route 80, north of the Route 20 and Route 80 intersection. A fence was installed during the first week of July 2004, deepening the sampling site slightly. This fence has since been removed.

Hayden Creek 2: N 42º 51.324 ′ W 74º 51.294 ′ North side of culvert on Dominion Road.

Hayden Creek 3: N 42º 50.890 ′ W 74º 51.796 ′ Culvert on the east side of Route 80 north of the intersection of Route 20 and Route 80.

Hayden Creek 4: N 42º 50.258 ′ W 74º 52.144 ′ North side of large culvert at the intersection of Route 20 and Route 80. This site is adjacent to an active dairy farm.

Hayden Creek 5: N 42º 49.997 ′ W 74º 52.533 ′ Immediately below the Shipman Pond spillway on Route 80.

Hayden Creek 6: N 42º 49.669 ′ W 74º 52.760 ′ East side of the culvert on Route 80 in the village of Springfield Center.

Hayden Creek 7: N 42º 49.258 ′ W 74º 53.010 ′ Large culvert on the south side of County Route 53. Note: Data and samples only taken at this location from 31 May to 27 June, 2006.

Hayden Creek 8: N 42º 48.874 ′ W 74º 53.255 ′ Otsego Golf Club, above the white bridge adjacent to the clubhouse. The water here is slow moving and murky.

Shadow Brook 1: N 42º 51.831 ′ W 74º 47.731 ′ Small culvert on County Route 30 south of Swamp Road. Although flow was recorded throughout the summer of 2001, this site has a history of drying up by mid-summer.

Table 1(cont.) Locations and descriptions of sampling sites visited weekly from 31 May and 1 August 2006 (modified from Reynolds 2006). Sites can be seen in Figure 1.

Shadow Brook 2: N 42º 49.882 ′ W 74º 49.058 ′ Large culvert on the north side of Route 20, west of County Route 31. There is heavy agricultural activity upstream of this site. Despite flow being present in previous years, this site was dry several times through the summer of 2006.

Shadow Brook 3: N 42º 48.788 ′ W 74º 49.852 ′ Private driveway (Box 2075) leading to a small wooden bridge on a dairy farm.

Shadow Brook 4: N 42º 48.333 ′ W 74º 50.605 ′ One lane bridge on Rathburn Road. This site is located on an active dairy farm. The stream bed consists of exposed limestone bedrock.

Shadow Brook 5: N 42º 47.436 ′ W 74º 51.506 ′ North side of large culvert on Mill Road behind Glimmerglass State Park.

Mount Wellington 1: N 42º 48.864 ′ W 74º 52.594 ′ Stone bridge on Public Landing Road adjacent to an active dairy farm.

Mount Wellington 2: N 42º 48.875 ′ W 74º 52.987 ′ Small stone bridge is accessible from a private road off Public Landing Road; at the end of the private road near a white house there is a mowed path which leads to the bridge. Water here is stagnant and murky.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Temperature Water temperature is a critical factor within freshwater environments, both in determining water quality, as well as aquatic flora and fauna diversity. Temperature is also inversely related to dissolved oxygen concentrations, thus colder waters typically retain higher amounts of dissolved oxygen. Individual species of both plant and animal have different ideal water conditions that are most efficient for obtaining energy, respiration processes, and reproduction. Mean temperatures ranged from 13.46°C at HC7 to 24.33°C at CC2. Compared to 2005, with a mean low of 17.89˚C and a mean high of 26.89˚C (Figure 2) (Reynolds 2006), this year’s temperatures have been generally cooler. This decrease could be a result of low temperatures and high amounts of rainfall throughout the 2006 monitoring period. The mean temperatures for all watershed sites are given in Figure 2. 26.0

CC2 24.0 HC1 CC1 HC2 22.0 WC2 WC1

WC3 20.0 HC3 CC3 CC5 SB1 18.0 CC4 HC6 HC5 HC4 MW2 SB5 MW1 SB2 SB4 SB3 Temperature(C) 16.0 HC8

14.0 HC7 12.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 2. Average Temperature (ºC) at tributary sites in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006.

Dissolved Oxygen A major indicator of the health of an ecosystem is dissolved oxygen. Low concentrations can indicate increased amounts of organic matter or excessive temperatures (Meehan 2003). In order to support most warm water biota, dissolved oxygen can have a minimum concentration of 3 mg/l (Novotny and Olem 1994). Average dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from 5.6 mg/l at CC1 to 10.63 mg/l at HC2 (Figure 3). The low mean concentration is comparable to last year, though the high mean concentration has increased slightly. This increase can be attributed to lower mean temperatures observed this monitoring period. The mean dissolved oxygen concentrations for all watershed sites are given in Figure 3.

Total Phosphorus The productivity of Otsego Lake is limited by phosphorus (Harman et al. 1997). Significant sources of phosphorus within lakes can be attributed to livestock wastes and agricultural fertilizers, as well as residential septic. In order to maintain oligotrophic conditions, total phosphorus levels should be maintained between 5 and 10 ug/l (Lampert and Sommer 1997). The lowest mean concentrations were found at WC1 with 17.5 ug/l, while the highest mean concentrations were at HC8 with 88.5 ug/L (Figure 4). Contrasted with summer 2005 monitoring, total phosphorus levels have decreased moderately. Mean concentrations from last year ranged from a low of 27.7 ug/l to a high of 147.3 ug/l (Reynolds 2006). Total phosphorus concentrations from the sites nearest the tributary mouths are given in Figure 5. 12.0

11.0 HC2 SB4 CC2 10.0 SB3 MW1 CC4 CC3 SB5 HC8 WC1 HC1 9.0 CC5 HC6HC5 HC4 WC3 HC7 HC3 MW2 SB1 8.0 WC2

7.0

6.0 SB2 Dissolved OxygenDissolved (mg/L) CC1 5.0

4.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 3. Average dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/l) at tributary sites in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006.

100.0

HC8 80.0 HC7

MW2 60.0 HC2 CC3 HC3 HC5 CC4 SB1 HC6 SB2 SB5 40.0 CC1 CC5 WC2 CC2 WC3 SB3 HC1

WC1 20.0 MW1 SB4 HC4 TotalPhosphorus (ug/L)

0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 4. Average total phosphorus concentrations (ug/l) at tributary sites in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006.

250 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

200

150

100

Total PhosphorusTotal (ug/L) 50

0 WC3 CC5 HC8 SB5 MW2 Stream Outlets

Figure 5. Mean total phosphorus concentrations at the stream outlets of each tributary monitored during the summers of 1996-2006 (modified from Reynolds 2006).

Total Nitrogen, Nitrate+Nitrite, and Ammonia In inland bodies of water, nitrogen limits algal production less frequently than phosphorus, although it is still an essential nutrient in plant growth (Cole 1983). Nitrogen enters the lake through surface water, groundwater, and precipitation (Lampert and Sommer 1997). Similar to human-derived phosphorus loading sources, excess nitrogen enters Otsego Lake from septic leachate (Meehan 2004), agricultural fertilizers, and livestock wastes (Albright 2005b). Total nitrogen concentrations are the combination of nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen concentrations (Reynolds 2006). Mean total nitrogen for the summer of 2006 ranged from 0.26 mg/l at WC2 to 2.63 mg/l at HC7 (Figure 6). The mean high concentration has increased since last year, during which total nitrogen concentrations were highest at 1.81 mg/l at HC6 (Reynolds 2006). Of the five tributaries, Hayden Creek and Shadow Brook have shown the highest total nitrogen concentrations both from 2005 and 2006, while White Creek as continually shown the lowest concentrations over the past two monitoring periods. Average total nitrogen concentrations for all watershed sites are given in Figure 6.

Mean nitrate+nitrite-N concentrations for the summer of 2006 ranged from those below detection (< 0.02 mg/L) at CC1 to 2.51 mg/L at HC7. Excluding HC7, mean concentrations for 2006 were only slightly higher than 2005, in which concentrations ranged from 0.014 mg/L to 1.26 mg/L. (Reynolds 2006). Average nitrate+nitrite-N cocnetrations for all watershed sites are given in Figure 7.

Ammonia, a by product of heterotrophic bacterial breakdown of organic substances, is another component of total nitrogen that is known to be toxic to fish at relatively low levels (Cole 1983). Ammonia concentrations were below detection (<0.02 mg/l) at most sites, while mean high concentrations were 0.074 mg/l at WC3 (Figure 8). Average ammonia concentrations for all watershed sites are given in Figure 8. 3.0

HC7 2.5

2.0 HC6 HC8 HC5

1.5 MW2 HC3 CC4 HC2 HC1 SB5 HC4 1.0 CC5 SB3 Total Nitrogen (mg/L) CC3 SB4 SB2 MW1 CC2 CC1 0.5 WC3 WC2 WC1 SB1

0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 6. Average total nitrogen concentrations (mg/l) at tributary sites in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006.

4.0

3.5

3.0

HC7 2.5

2.0 HC5 HC8 HC6 1.5 MW2 HC3 1.0 CC4 SB5 HC4 HC2 HC1 SB4 SB3

Nitrate + NitriteConcentrations Nitrate+ (mg/L) CC5 CC3 0.5 MW1 SB2 WC3 WC2 CC2 CC1 WC1 0.0 SB1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 7. Average nitrate+nitrite concentrations (mg/l) at tributary sites in the Otesgo Lake watershed, summer 2006.

0.1

WC3 HC1

MW2

CC5 HC2

MW1 SB2 HC6 SB4 SB5 SB3 AmmoniaConcentrations (mg/L) HC8 WC2 CC2 CC4 HC3 CC1 CC3 HC5 HC7 HC4 WC1 SB1 0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)

White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington

Figure 8. Average ammonia concentrations (mg/l) at tributary sites in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2006.

CONCLUSIONS

Water quality across the five tributaries has shown improvements in some areas, but not in others. Mean nitrate+nitrite concentrations have shown comparable concentrations from last year, despite a few high concentrations. Conversely, total phosphorus levels for 2006 have shown variable results as concentrations have increased slightly at some sites, yet decreased at others. It is not unexpected that results this year were quite variable in that precipitation over the study period was among the highest recorded in the area. From June through July, 22.1 cm (8.7 in) typically fall in Cooperstown. During that period in 2006, 54.4 cm (21.4 in) fell (Blechman 2007). Continued watershed monitoring is expected to eventually overshadow the influence of year-to-year variations of meteorological conditions potentially allowing for any evaluate of the effectiveness of Best Management Practices.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 1998. Otsego Lake Monitoring, 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 1999. Otsego Lake Monitoring, 1998. In 31st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2000. Otsego Lake Monitoring, 1999. In 32nd Ann. Rept. (1999). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2001. Otsego Lake Monitoring, 2000. In 33rd Ann. Rept. (2000). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2002. Otsego Lake Monitoring, 2001. In 34th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2005a. Changes in water quality in an urban stream following use of organically derived deicing products. Lake and Reservoir Management. 21(1):119-124.

Albright, M.F. 2005b. A report on the evaluation of changes in water quality in a stream following the implementation of agricultural best management practices. In 37th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Blechman, A. 2007. National weather observer. Cooperstown, NY 13326.

Cole, G.A. 1983. Textbook of Limnology. 3 rd Edition. The C.V. Mosby Company. St. Louis, Missouri.

Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds. http://www.epa.gov/owow/. Accessed 20 July 2006.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.R. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Heavy, K.F. 1996. Water quality monitoring in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 28 th Annual Report. (1995). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hewett, B. 1997. Water quality monitoring and the benthic community in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 29 th Annual Report (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Iannuzzi, T.J. 1991. A model plan for the Otsego Lake watershed. Phase II: The Chemical limnology and water quality of Otsego Lake. Occasional Paper #23. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Laio, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem ®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Lampert, W. and U. Sommer. 1007. Limnoecology: The Ecology of Lakes and Streams. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York, New York.

Meehan, H.S. 2003. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2002. In 35 th Annual Report (2002). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Meehan, H.A. 2004. Phosphorus migration from a near-lake septic system in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2003. In 36 th Annual Report (2003). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Murray, K. and P. Leonard. 2005. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries to Otsego Lake, summer 2004. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Novotny, V. and H. Olem. 1994. Water Quality: Prevention, Identification, and Management of Diffuse Pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, New York.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate-nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Reynolds, E.W. 2006. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2005. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

United State Department of Agriculture: Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Chapter 14: Best Management Practices for Lawns and Pastures. Accessed 20 July 2006. http://www.mt.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ecs/watersheds/galsourcebook /gscbk14.html

United States Geological Survey. 2006. Toxic Substances Hydrology Program. Updated 29 June 2006. http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/eutrophication.html. Accessed 22 July 2006.

Susquehanna River Quality Monitoring:

Monitoring water quality and fecal coliform Bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna River, summer 2006

Sara J. Zurmuhlen 1

ABSTRACT

In the continuation of an ongoing study since 1992, the Upper Susquehanna River was sampled weekly throughout summer 2006. Both biotic and abiotic factors were monitored to determine whether the Village of Cooperstown’s sewage discharge has been affecting water quality in the Susquehanna River. Research is conducted to ensure that nutrients and fecal coliform are assimilated into the river at a low and healthy rate as well as to pinpoint unauthorized sources of pollution. Eleven sample locations were monitored in order to record physical and chemical parameters, nutrient loading, and concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria. Due to several weeks of heavy rainfall and flooding during late June and early July, sample sites along the Upper Susquehanna River were inaccessible and therefore sampling was postponed until floodwaters receded to safe levels. Water quality monitoring throughout summer 2006 saw elevated temperatures and dissolved oxygen levels along the river, as well as extreme dilution of fecal coliform bacterial colonies.

INTRODUCTION

Draining a watershed that spans approximately 27,500 sq. miles, the Susquehanna River serves as the main freshwater tributary to the Chesapeake Bay. Running 444 miles, the river provides water for municipalities, agriculture, and recreation, as well as being a source of power. TheVillage of Cooperstown is situated at the head of the Susquehanna River and depends upon it for the discharge of its wastewater. Although the village of Cooperstown is home to about 3,000 permanent residents, the treatment plant serves an influx of up to 500,000 tourists each year as well as seasonal businesses and Bassett Hospital. Located approximately two miles from the source of the Susquehanna River, the Cooperstown wastewater treatment plant processes up to 800,000 gallons of sewage per day throughout the summer months. Effluent is discharged into the Susquehanna River just below sample site SR 12 (11254 ft. from source). Since summer 2004, the wastewater has been treated with ultraviolet radiation as opposed to the previous method of chlorination.

Discharge of wastewater, agricultural runoff, animal wastes and pollution from unauthorized sources may all contribute to nutrient loading in the river. The “assimilative capacity” (Steinman and Mulholland 1996) of the Susquehanna may be surmounted by

1 F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Colgate University. the introduction of excessive quantities of the aforementioned pollutants, endangering the ecology of the entire river (Bauer 2006). Monitoring both physical and chemical parameters along the Upper Susquehanna River enables quick warning for the village of Cooperstown in the event of a potential concern, as well as a means of detection of unauthorized sources of pollution. Measures may then be taken to quickly alleviate the problem (Polus 2003). This could include allowing more water to pass over the dam, providing increased dilution downstream. Analyses of population dynamics of fecal coliform bacterial colonies facilitate determination of the effects of the discharge of municipal waste into the Susquehanna. Although fecal coliform bacteria are reasonably harmless in and of themselves, their presence in a stream denotes the presence of the fecal matter of mammals and other potential pathogens (APHA 1992).

METHODS

Water quality was tested weekly from July 12 th to August 16 th , 2006 at eleven sampling sites along the Upper Susquehanna River between the outlet on Otsego Lake and the confluence of the Susquehanna and Oaks Creek (Table 1.). Samples were collected from seven sites for the first three weeks, and as the study progressed, four more sample sites were added downstream from the Cooperstown Wastewater Treatment Plant.

 At each sample location, a Hydrolab Scout 2 multiprobe digital microprocessor was utilized to assess physical parameters such as temperature, conductivity, pH, and dissolved oxygen levels. In accordance with its instruction manual, the Hydrolab was calibrated before each use to ensure accurate readings (Hydrolab Corp. 1993). A water sample was collected into acid washed and autoclaved glassware at each site and processed immediately upon returning to the Biological Field Station. The following chemical and biological attributes were analyzed through the use of a Lachat QwikChem  FIA+ Water Analyzer . Total phosphorus was ascertained by persulfate digestion followed by the ascorbic acid method (Liao and Marten 2001), total nitrogen through the cadmium reduction method following peroxodisulfate digestion (Ebina et. al (1983), ammonia using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and nitrate+nitrite by the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003).

Fecal coliform bacterial colonies were analyzed through the use of the membrane filter technique (APHA 1992). Predetermined volumes (10mL, 100mL) of each sample is passed through a filter and placed in a Millipore ® dish containing 2.2mL of coliform growth medium. Samples were then cultured in an incubator bath at 44.5°C ±0.2 for a period of 24 hours, removed, and the distinctive blue-tinged fecal coliform colonies were analyzed to determine the number of colonies per 100mL (Miller 1996). Standards were run between samples to ensure sterility and samples were filtered in duplicate. All materials were sterilized before and after processing commenced as well as between samples. Glassware was autoclaved at 121°C and 12 PSI and placed in an acid bath (10% HCl) for 24 hours while all forceps were constantly rinsed in ethanol, then passed through the flame of a Bunsen burner to ensure disinfection. Filtering equipment was rinsed first in ethanol and then in dilution water (distilled water with trace potassium dihydrogen phosphate and magnesium chloride). All Millipore dishes, filters, and pipettes were pre-sterilized during their manufacture.

Figure 1.Upper Susquehanna River displaying sampling sites. Site descriptions in Table 1.

Table 1. Locations and descriptions of sampling sites along the Upper Susquehanna River. Sites may be seen in Figure 1.

Susquehanna River 1 : N 42°42.056’ W 74°55.172 0 ft. from source. Source of the Susquehanna River at the Otsego Lake outlet, accessed by boat

Susquehanna River 3: N 42º41.980’ W 74º55.228’ 900 ft. from source. Beneath the Main St. bridge, accessed by boat

Susquehanna River 6 : N 42º41.735’ W 74º55.238’ 4500 ft. from source. Across from drainage pipe just north of the dam at Bassett Hospital, accessed by boat

Susquehanna River 6a : N 42°41.597’ W 74°55.257’ 5500 ft. from source. Below the dam at Bassett Hospital, accessed from the north corner of the lower parking lot

Susquehanna River 7 : N 42°41.638’ W 74°55.325’ 6000 ft. from source. Southern corner of the Bassett Hospital parking lot

Susquehanna River 8 : N 42°41.533’ W 74°55.615’ 6600 ft. from source. Under the Susquehanna Avenue bridge just west of the Clark Sports Center

Susquehanna River 12 : N 42°41.132’ W 74°55.964’ 11254 ft. from source. Just above the sewage discharge at the Cooperstown Wastewater Treatment Plant

Susquehanna River 16 : N 42°40.725’ W 74°56.271’ 16000 ft. from source. Small bridge perpendicular to the gravel road on Clark property (grasslands).

Susquehanna River 16a : N 42°40.608’ W 74°56.538’ 21300 ft. from source. Distinct bend in river alongside gravel road on Clark property (grasslands), just past railroad tracks.

Susquehanna River 17 : N 42°40.038’ W 74°56.711 24000 ft. from source. Abandoned bridge on dead-end road directly across from “Pheonix on River Road” (bed and breakfast on Pheonix Mills Rd.)

Susquehanna River 18 : N 42°39.795’ W 74°56.902’ 28500 ft. from source. Railroad trestle about 200m North of the RxR crossing on Rt. 11 going out of Hyde Park accessed by walking along railroad tracks onto trestle; Care must be taken when sampling; trains occasionally do come through, most often in the afternoons

RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Temperature

Temperature profiles for the summers of 1998-2006 are summarized in Figure 2. The mean temperature of the Upper Susquehanna River for the summer of 2006 was 23.14ºC, a decrease of 0.13 ºC from last year’s average temperature of 23.27ºC (Bauer 2006). The highest temperature observed this year was 25.97ºC at sample site SR 3 (900 ft. from source) on 2 August. The low temperature was 21.48ºC, recorded on 15 August at SR18 (28,500 ft.).

pH

pH is a measure of the degree of how acidic or basic a water sample is. Consistency in pH along the Upper Susquehanna River may be attributed to a buffer provided in the form of calcium carbonate flowing out of Otsego Lake (Albright 2005). The average pH for this summer was 8.31, an increase from last summer’s mean of 7.91(Bauer 2006). Summer 2006 sampling indicated greater alkalinity in the Upper Susquehanna River than in previous years of research. Figure 3 illustrates pH profiles for the summers of 1998-2006 25.5

24.0

22.5

21.0

Temperature Temperature (C) 19.5

18.0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 2. Graphical analysis of mean temperatures in the Upper Susquehanna River, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

8.5

8.3

8.1

pH 7.9

7.7

7.5 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 3. Mean pH levels in the Upper Susquehanna River, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006. 355 320 285 250 215 180 Conductivity (umho/cm) 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 4. Mean conductivity profiles along the Susquehanna, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 5. Profiles of mean dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Upper Susquehanna River, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

Conductivity

Mean conductivity levels along the Upper Susquehanna over the past eight years are illustrated in Figure 4. The average conductivity level for the summer was 295.77 umho/cm, consistent with data obtained in recent years. Highest conductivity recorded was 326umho/cm on August 2 nd , at SR 16 (16000 ft.). Lowest observed level of conductivity was 276 umho/cm at sites SR 1(0 ft.) and SR 3 (900 ft.) on 15 August.

Dissolved Oxygen

According to its NYSDEC discharge permit, treated wastewater released into the Susquehanna River from the Cooperstown Sewage Treatment Facilities is required to maintain a dissolved oxygen level minimum of 5.00mg/L downstream from the discharge point (Polus 2004). Low concentrations of dissolved oxygen are indicative of high temperatures as well as nutrient loading, and waste released from the treatment plant may deplete oxygen levels due to the introduction of decomposing organic material.

Dissolved oxygen readings during summer 2006 were elevated compared to previous years; however these levels were fairly stable and consistent throughout the sampling period, both spatially and temporally (Figure 5). The high dissolved oxygen concentration observed was 10.34, at sample location SR 1, while the low this summer was 6.00 at SR 12. Dissolved oxygen data gathered to date indicates that the Cooperstown wastewater treatment plant is not a major contributor of many of the nutrients assimilated into the Upper Susquehanna River.

Nitrate+Nitrite

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient that may enter rivers and lakes through ground and surface water as well as precipitation (Lampert and Sommer 1997). During summer 2006, mean nitrate+nitrite concentrations were comparable to those of previous summers, with a result of .413mg/L. Profiles of mean nitrate+nitrite concentrations for summers 1998-2006 are illustrated in Figure 6.

Total Phosphorus

Phosphorus is the limiting factor in many ecosystems; high algal productivity and decreased dissolved oxygen levels may result from nutrient loading in a stream. The increase in phosphorus concentrations downstream from the sewage treatment plant was minimal this summer, perhaps due to the large quantity of water supplementing the stream flow and diluting nutrient levels (Figure 7).

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5 Nitrate+Nitrite (mg/l) 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 6. Average total nitrogen/nitrate+nitrite concentrations for the summers of 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

250

200

150

100

50 Total phosphorus (ug/L) 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 7. Graphical analysis of total phosphorus levels, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

2500

2000

1500

1000 Fecal coliform

(colonies/100ml) 500

0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Feet from source

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998

Figure 8. Fecal coliform bacterial concentrations along the Upper Susquehanna River, summers 1998 (Dewey 1999), 1999 (Dietz 2000), 2000 (Hill 2001), 2001 (Hill 2002) 2002 (Schlierman 2003), 2003 (Polus 2004), 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), and 2006.

Fecal Coliform

Fecal coliform bacterial concentrations in the Upper Susquehanna River were significantly lower than in previous years, with an mean of 37 colonies/100mL compared to last years average of 724 colonies/mL. This year’s depressed concentrations of bacteria may be due to dilution from the heavy rainfall received in early summer. Fecal coliform bacterial concentrations are illustrated in Figure 8.

SUMMARY and CONCLUSIONS

Temperatures along the river were lower than last summer yet higher than in preceding years, and fecal coliform concentrations are rebounding from the extreme dilution of colonies seen immediately following the flooding. Little variation in each chemical or biological characteristic was noted between sites throughout the Upper Susquehanna; results were fairly consistent throughout the study period. pH monitoring indicated greater alkalinity in the river for the summer and conductivity remained comparable to recant years. Dissolved oxygen maintained elevated levels throughout the length of the Upper Susquehanna while nutrient (nitrate+nitrite, phosphorus) levels were depressed. Extreme dilution of fecal coliform bacterial colonies caused by elevated levels of precipitation during summer 2006 saw the lowest consistent concentrations of coliform bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna in years. Chemical and physical parameters did nonetheless indicate a source of pollution upstream of the wastewater treatment plant, located between the dam at Bassett Hospital (just south of SR 3) and the bridge on Susquehanna Avenue (SR 8).Water quality along the Upper Susquehanna River is returning to normal after the floods, however it is difficult to account for changes in water quality since summer 2005 because of the disruption of the river due to heavy precipitation and increased stream flow.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 2006. Otsego Lake Limnological Monitoring, 2005. In 38 th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

APHA, AWWA, EPA. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 18 th Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington D.C..

Bauer, E.A. 2006. Monitoring the Water Quality and Fecal Coliform in the Upper Susquehanna, summer 2005. In 38th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Dietz, M. 2000. Monitoring the water quality of the Upper Susquehanna River. In 32 nd Annual Report (1999). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Dewey, G. 1999. Monitoring the water quality of the Upper Susquehanna River. In 31 st Annual Report (1998). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Ebina, J. T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1712-1726.

Hill, J. 2005. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna River, Summer 2004. In 37 th Annual Report (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hill, K. 2002. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River. In 34 th Annual Report (2001). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hill, K. 2001. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River. In 33 rd Annual Report (2000). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Lampert, W. and U. Sommer. 1997. Limnoecology: The Ecology of Lakes and Streams. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York, New York.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis.  QwikChem Method 10-115-01-0-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection  analysis chloriometry (acid persulfate digestion method). QwikChem Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Miller, C. 1996. Fecal coliform bacteria in major Otsego Lake tributaries and the Susquehanna River. In 28 th Annual Report (1995). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Polus, M. 2004. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna River. In 36 th Annual Report (2003). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate+nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow  injection analysis. QwikChem Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Schlierman, S. 2003. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River. In 35 th Annual Report (2002). SUNY Oneonta Bio. ld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Steinman, A.D., P.J. Mulholland. 1996. Phosphorus Limitation, Uptake, and Turnover in Stream Algae (p. 161). Methods in Stream Ecology. 1996. Academic Press.

ARTHROPOD MONITORING

Mosquito studies: Site Record, Upper Site: Uranotaenia sapphirina (Osten Sacken)

William L. Butts 1

A single female Uranotaenia sapphirina (Osten Sacken) was colleted in a CDC midget light trap, using CO 2 generated by fermentation in addition to the light source. The trap was activated in the evening of 16 August 06 and picked up on the morning of the following day. The trap was located at the confluence of the Beaver Pond and Area IV environs (Figure 1). This marks the initial collection of this species in the nearly forty years of collecting on the Upper Site.

This species is widely distributed throughout the eastern and central United States. Larvae develop in permanent or semi-permanent water sources and have been collected from sphagnum bogs. Means (1987) notes that it has been collected from several areas of New York State at elevations below 2000 feet. Its host range is not currently well established, but it rarely feeds on humans.

1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.

Figure 1. The Upper Site, Otsego, NY. Area IV, the study site, is indicated by the bold arrow.

REFERENCES

Means, R.G. 1987. Mosquitoes of New York: Part II. Genera of Culicidae other than Aedes occurring in New York State. Bulletin 430b; New York State Museum, Albany. Ppp. 63-65.

Mosquito studies: Upper Site; collection of Anopheles walkeri Theobald

William L. Butts 1

Activities on the Upper Site were localized at the confluence of the Beaver Pond and flooded Area IV environs in an attempt to document on-site development of Anopheles walkeri Theobald. On May 2, an emergence cage constructed to cover an area of approximately 2 m 2 was placed over a patch of mowed cattail ( Typha sp.) stubble along the bank of flooded Area IV environs (Figure 1). The lower wooden frame of the cage was submerged so that any specimen collected would have developed within the enclosure. The placement of the cage was effected shortly after the overlying ice had melted, assuring that mosquitoes present internally would have been present prior to placement.

A CDC Miniature light Trap suspended from a metal “Shepherd’s Hook” was enclosed within a large, plastic drum liner bag with the open end secured with duct tape around a projecting piece of 4” plastic pipe opening into the cage. A one gallon insulated plastic container with a hinged, closable pouring spout was partially filled with 1.5 liters of untreated water from Otsego Lake and ca 454 grams of granulated sucrose. Before placement the mixture was agitated to dissolve the sucrose and ca 90 grams of dry yeast were added, the top tightly secured and the pouring spout opened to evacuate the CO 2 produced by fermentation. Initial attempts to house the generator within the plastic shroud were unsuccessful. A piece of clear plastic tubing attached to the pouring spout with its free end introduced into the opening to the cage created a CO 2 gradient towards the opening.

An alternate placement was adopted by suspending the generator on a metal hook adjacent to the cage opening allowing the generator to be enclosed within the plastic shroud. Traps were activated in late afternoon or early evening and removed early on the following morning. After disassembly, the light trap was removed, the net bag closed and returned to the Lakeside Lab where it was placed in a freezer for 3-4 hours to inactivate the mosquitoes for mounting and retention. Traps were set on the following dates: 2 May; 2, 9, 13, 19 and 26June; 5, 10, 25 July 06.

Results of the trapping procedure were largely negative and a single specimen of Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) and a damaged specimen of Anopheles sp., probably walkeri, were collected and the use of the emergence trap was terminated.

On 16 August 06, a light trap with CO 2 generated by fermentation was set at water’s edge along the bank of flooded Area IV environs adjacent to its confluence with the Beaver Pond, and an alighting/biting sampling made from 5:30 -8:00PM. Subsequent trapping sets using CO 2 only and set with intake at ca 0.7 meter above ground level were

1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.

Figure 1. The Upper Site, Otsego, NY. Area IV, the study site, is indicated by the bold arrow.

placed at water’s edge and ca 10 meters back towards the woods along the path to the confluence on 13 and 19 September. See Table I.

The number of mosquitoes taken on 18 September in the low level traps baited only with CO 2 strongly suggest that a resident population of Anopheles walkeri has become established on or closely adjacent to the Upper Site. Additional attempts to establish presence of on-site larval development are anticipated in 2007

Table I. Mosquitoes collected at confluence of Beaver Pond and flooded Area IV environs during August and September 2006.

Species Date Light /CO 2 Light only CO 2 only Alighting (2006) Anopheles walkeri Theobald 16 Aug 1 3 28 Aug 4 18 Sep 46

Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) 28 Aug 3 18 Sep 18

Results of three successive years of collection after no previous indication of presence of An. walkeri are suggestive of a recent introduction of this species to the Upper Site. The source of introduction cannot be definitively assessed, but introduction by attachment of “winter eggs” by wading birds is a strong possibility. Three species of the family Ardeidae have been recorded from the Upper Site, and the great blue heron (Ardea herodias) is a regular feeder in the impoundments each summer. The somewhat peculiar movements of members of this species in late summer and early fall in which long non-migrating movements in a number of directions have been observed. Such activity in that time frame could easily explain introduction of “winter eggs” on the legs of herons.

An important caveat to this conclusion is appropriate. Although relatively isolated and with adjoining properties having been maintained largely unaltered for a number of years, the research area is surrounded or relatively close to areas that see a high and increasing level of tourist activity. One boundary is common to that of the Farmer’s Museum complex which is maintained by the New York Historical Society and is in close proximity to the Village of Cooperstown, site of the Baseball Hall of Fame. The latter facility has been an attraction for many years for visitors form a quite broad geographical area. In recent years a tendency has developed for local entrepreneurs to capitalize on this proximity by establishing extensive playing fields for youth baseball activity, attracting families from much of the eastern United States. Accommodations for these visitors have been an important feature in maintaining activity at local camp grounds. The potential for introduction of the adult stages of various mosquitoes by recreational vehicles and a variety of storage containers associated with automotive travel must be considered as a possibility.

The ever present potential of introduction by boating enthusiasts who utilize Otsego Lake represents another avenue of potential human intervention. Although the logistics of travel would make introduction by patrons of the arts somewhat less likely, it should be noted that the lakeside facilities of the Glimmerglass Opera Company located approximately 5 miles north of the Upper Site attract automotive travel from a very wide geographical area during the summer season.

Mosquito studies: Goodyear Swamp surveillance

William L. Butts 1

CDC Miniature light traps in combination with CO 2 generated by yeast fermentation of sucrose solution were employed at weekly intervals during the month of August. Traps were activated in early afternoon and picked up in the early morning of the following day. See Table 1.

Table 1. Dates and sites of placement of Traps (CO 2 and light); see Figure 1.

Date (2006) Site Number of mosquitoes collected 1-2 Aug Below BT 190 marker 0 8-9 Aug At North end Boardwalk 0 15-16 Aug Below BT 190 Marker 0 22-23 Aug At North end Boardwalk 0

Figure 1. Site map of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary showing trap locations (BT 190 and North end of Boardwalk (see Table 1).

1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.

Although the general physiographic features of Goodyear Swamp suggest that mosquito populations would be present, there have been consistently negative outcomes of trapping. Conditions early in the year when ice cover retreats from the lake shore and characteristics of the immediately adjacent upland sites may exert considerable influence. Studies are planned at earlier dates in the spring of 2007 in addition to summer trapping studies.

VERTEBRATE STUDIES

Heron Nesting – Greenwoods Conservancy

William L. Butts 1

The Woods Hole area (Figure 1) has been the site of nesting activity of the great blue heron (Ardea herodias) for a number of years. Peak activity recorded in 2002 of three occupied nests has declined to that of a single occupied nest in 2006. Physical deterioration of older nests has progressed to the point at which they are barely recognizable as such.

Rookeries tend to be maintained over a number of years when appropriate nest trees remain extant. Decline in use may result from loss of the nesting population in or in transit to and from wintering areas.

The apparent decline in usage at Greenwoods may in fact be a matter of re- location within the property. Several heron nests were noted in the northern most pool of a beaver pond complex south of the Peterson compound. How long activity in this site has been maintained is not currently known. Of particular interest is the pictorial evidence submitted by Matthew Albright of a Canada goose, Branta canadensis , on one of the heron nests. Further observation of the latter nest site is anticipated in 2007.

Figure 1. Greenwoods Conservancy, Burlington, NY. Site #1 is Woods Hole, #2 is the site of newer heron nesting, and the site of a Canada goose nesting on a heron nest.

1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.

Walleye re-introduction update and characterization of walleye spawners: 2000-2006

Mark Cornwell 1

INTRODUCTION

In 2000 a multi-year project was initiated to re-introduce walleye to Otsego Lake with the management goal of re-establish the fishery. Oneida strain 5-d old walleye fry were provided by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to private growers contracted by the SUNY Oneonta BFS. These growers were to provide pond (40-50mm) and advanced fingerling (100-150mm) walleye to stock Otsego Lake. In addition to these fish grown privately, the NYSDEC fish culture section has annually (since 2004) provided 40,000 pond fingerling walleye to Otsego. The goal of the project was to annually stock at the NYSDEC recommended stocking rate of 50 fish per hectare or 80,000 walleye lake-wide.

An additional benefit of stocking walleye was to provide additional predation pressure on abundant alewife. Walleye are opportunistic predators (Smith, 1983) frequently occupying the open water areas of large lakes (Festa 1987) were they will encounter significant numbers of Otsego Lake alewife.

Otsego alewife have been linked to decreased mean zooplankton size, biomass and grazing rate (Warner 1999), decreased mean summer Secchi transparencies, increased nutrient cycling rates and chlorophyll a concentrations (Harman et al. 2002), and increased rates of hypolimnetic oxygen demand (Albright 2001). Cornwell (2005) described walleye stocking success, their potential impact on the alewife population and the increase in Daphnia that has been observed subsequent to walleye stocking.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pond fingerling walleye were delivered by truck to Otsego Lake by the NYSDEC and were stocked at the Three Mile Point access site. In most years, Steve Sanford of Sanford’s bait farm also delivered pond fingerlings. These pond fish were loaded into transport tanks on the BFS barge and were stocked along the littoral on east and west shorelines. All pond fingerlings have been stocked in late June or early July. Larger fall fingerlings have been stocked in late October or early November. Those fish are typically clipped so that they can be differentiated from spring stocked fish. The fins clipped varied by year so that the year of stocking of recovered fish can be ascertained

Walleye-specific gill netting was performed by the NYSDEC Region 4 Fisheries office on 24, 25 and 26 September 2002 with 10 monofilament experimental gill nets. Gill nets were composed of six (6) twenty-five foot panels, one each ¾”, 1”, 1 ¼”, 1 ½”, 1 ¾”, 2” for 150’ of total net (Linhart, 2003). Nets were positioned around the lake in the epilimnion according to the percid sampling manual (Forney 1994). Scale samples from each walleye were collected.

1 Fisheries and Wildlife Department, State University of New York. Cobleskill, NY. Length and weight measurements were recorded on all dead fish. Stomach contents were described.

Casts net (4m diameter) were used to collect spawning walleye in Cripple Creek on 8- 11 April 2007 at night. The intent was to capture healthy, adult fish into which to insert sonic tags for a behavioral study (Golding et al. 2006). The length, gender and existence of fin clips are reported here.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To date, Otsego Lake has been stocked with over four hundred thousand walleye. The numbers of spring and fall stocked fish are summarized in Table 1. Also provided are mean, minimum and maximum sizes of 30 randomly measured walleye.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Totals # Pond Fings. 80,000 45,000 45,000 4,500 80,000 40,000 70,000 364,500 Stocked Mean Length (mm) 44.8 53.6 53.0 50.0 40.0 40-50 40-50 min 32.0 41.0 N/A N/A 36 N/A N/A max 56.0 65.0 N/A N/A 56 N/A N/A

# Fall Fings. Stocked 0 8,000 (RV and RP) 8,000 (LV) 15,000 (RV) 0 15,000 (RV) 5,000 (LV) 51,000 Mean Length (mm) 121.5 105.4 120.1 N/A 100-150 100-150 min 93.0 76.0 72.0 N/A N/A N/A max 180.0 145.0 165.0 N/A N/A N/A Project Total 415,500

Table 1. Walleye stocking summary 2000-2006. Mean, maximum and minimum lengths are reported for approximately 30 fish measured at each stocking date. (* RV = right ventral fin clip, LV = left ventral fin clip and RP = right pectoral clip.),

The last formal survey for walleye was done by the NYSDEC in 2002. This gill netting was for walleye only. Walleye from all three stockings (2000, 2001 and 2002) were present in the gill netting. Walleye ranged in total length from 163mm to 479mm, with 78 walleye (56%) greater than 381mm (15”) legal size. It is probable that the population of walleye has increased since four years of stocking (2003-2006) have added an additional 193,500 walleye since 2002. Table 2 provides that catch rate of Otsego Lake, as well as 7 other NYS lakes known to contain walleye. It is also interesting to note that within NYSDEC Region 4, the Otsego Lake gill net catch rate (12.4 fish/net) is second only to Canadarago Lake (a notable walleye fishery, 18.1 fish/net) after only three years of stocking.

Adult walleye have been observed in Cripple Creek, a historic spawning site for walleye, in April of 2004, 2005 and 2006. Fifty walleye (Total length range 598mm-355mm) were captured by cast net on 6, 9, 10 and 11 April 2006. The date captured, length, gender and presence of fin clips is summarized in Table 3. Eight walleye were observed to have clips (16% of total), indicating that they had been stocked as advanced Fall fingerlings (100-150mm) in October and not as pond fingerlings (40-50mm). Fall fingerlings have comprised 12% of the total stocking to date. Interestingly, left pectoral clips were observed in spawners even though no such clips were given to stocked fish. This indicates an error, either by a clipper failing to clip the appropriate fin or by the spawning observer not recording the fin clip correctly in April 2006 observations. Aside from this error, the clip still indicates that both fall and pond fish are recruiting to spawning size.

Lake Catch/net Date Sampled Status Otsego 12.4 September 2002 stocked Canadarago 18.1 2001 wild Crescent 1.4 June 1979 wild Vischer Ferry 0.8 June 1980 wild Schoharie Reservoir 3.2 June 2002 wild Goodyear Lake 1.7 1980 wild Alcove Reservoir 5.6 1970 wild Tomhannock Reservoir 1.8 mid-summer 1991 wild Dyken Pond 2.0 Sept 01 stocked

Table 2. Comparison of Otsego Lake and other Region 4 walleye waters from McBride (2003).

Date Sex Length Fin Clip Date Sex Length Fin Clip 4/9/2006 F 598 4/10/2006 M 504 4/11/2006 F 593 4/9/2006 M 501 4/11/2006 F 545 4/8/2006 M 498 4/9/2006 M 560 4/10/2006 M 496 4/11/2006 M 557 4/9/2006 M 493 4/11/2006 M 546 4/11/2006 M 489 4/10/2006 M 536 4/10/2006 M 486 4/8/2006 M 535 4/10/2006 M 484 4/8/2006 M 535 4/11/2006 M 484 4/11/2006 M 534 4/9/2006 M 478 4/11/2006 M 533 4/11/2006 M 476 Left Pelvic 4/8/2006 M 529 4/10/2006 M 474 4/11/2006 M 527 4/10/2006 M 474 Right Pectoral 4/10/2006 M 524 4/10/2006 M 473 4/9/2006 M 521 4/8/2006 M 471 4/8/2006 M 520 4/11/2006 M 469 Left Pelvic 4/8/2006 M 520 4/10/2006 M 465 Left Pelvic 4/8/2006 M 519 Right Pelvic 4/11/2006 M 462 4/10/2006 M 517 4/11/2006 M 459 4/10/2006 M 516 4/8/2006 M 456 Left Pectoral 4/10/2006 M 516 4/8/2006 M 456 Left Pectoral 4/9/2006 M 512 4/10/2006 M 437 Right Pelvic 4/9/2006 M 507 4/8/2006 M 434 4/8/2006 M 506 4/10/2006 M 373 4/8/2006 M 505 4/8/2006 M 355

Table 3. Characterization of Spawning Walleye in Cripple Creek April 2006 (From Golding, Pers. Comm. 2006).

Walleye are doing well in Otsego Lake. Additional walleye have been captured during routine alewife gill netting done by the BFS and by the NYSDEC during regular salmonid gill netting. These walleye were released unharmed and in good condition. Walleye specific gill netting by the NYSDEC is planned for Otsego Lake in fall of 2007. Walleye stocking may be hampered in 2007 by Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS). The NYSDEC has indicated that they will not provide walleye fry to cooperators for grow-out in 2007 in hopes of curtailing the spreading of that disease (Stang 2007).

LITERATURE CITED

Albright, M.F. 2001. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring. In 34 th Ann. Rept. (2000). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. pp. 8-17.

Cornwell, M.D. 2005. Re-introduction of Walleye in Otsego Lake: Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top down predator. Occasional Paper No. 40. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Festa, P.J., J.L Forney and R.T. Colesente. 1987. Walleye management in New York State. NYSDEC Bureau of Fisheries. 104p.

Harman, W.N., M.F. Albright and D.M. Warner. 2002. Trophic changes in Otsego Lake, NY following the introduction of the alewife ( Alosa psuedoharengus ). Lake and Reserv. Manage. 18(3):215-226. Golding , I.T. E. Reinicke and J . R. Foster . 2006. Distribution and movements of walleye ( Sander vitreum ) in Otsego Lake, New York. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Linhart, F. 2003. Personal Communication. Principle Fisheries Technician. NYSDEC Reg. 4 fisheries office. Stamford, NY 12167.

McBride, N.D. 2003. Personal Communication. Aquatic Biologist. NYSDEC Reg. 4 fisheries office. Stamford, NY 12167.

Smith, C.L. 1985. The Inland Fishes of New York. NYSDEC, Albany, NY.

Stang, D. 2007. Personal communication. NYSDEC fisheries bureau chief. 625 Broadway, Albany, NY.

Warner, D.M. 2000. Alewives in Otsego Lake, NY: A comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and chlorpophyll a. Occasional Paper no. 32. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Distribution and movements of walleye (Sander vitreum ) in Otsego Lake, New York

Isaac T. Golding 1, E. Reinicke 2 and John R. Foster 3

Abstract: Habitat utilization and movements of walleyes in Otsego Lake were studied from April through November 2006 using acoustical tags. Tagged walleye were primarily found in the shallow, weedy areas at the north end of Otsego Lake in less than 20 feet of water. On average males were found closer to shore (mean distance from shore 416 feet) than females (793 feet from shore). Two fish were relatively sedentary following spawning, while two fish were more nomadic. Walleye habitat utilization and movement patterns in Otsego Lake differed from that observed in shallow, warm-water lakes and reservoirs.

INTRODUCTION

Walleye, a highly prized game fish (Festa et al. 1987), were once prevalent in Otsego Lake. During the 1930s walleye were stocked in the Otsego Lake and were considered abundant (Harman et al. 1997). However, their decline was noted in the early 1970s (Cornwell 2005), following the introduction of cisco ( Coregonus artedi) in 1955. In 1986, another planktivore, the alewife ( Alosa pseudoharengus), was introduced into Otsego Lake, quickly becoming the dominate fish species (Foster and Gallup 1990). By 1990 walleye were believed extirpated from the lake (Lehman et al. 1990). In 2000 a walleye stocking program was initiated to control the overabundant alewife population and to re-establish a walleye sport fishery (Cornwell 2005).

While the stocking of walleye seems to have been successful in controlling alewife overabundance, a walleye sport fishery has yet to be established in spite of their apparent high densities (Cornwell 2005). One reason this fishery has been slow to develop is a lack of knowledge about walleye habitat utilization and movement patterns in Otsego Lake. Previous studies have focused on walleye behavior in shallow, warm eutrophic lakes (Forney 1963, Holt et al. 1977, Wolfert 1963), reservoirs (Palmer 1999) and rivers (Schoumacher 1965, Paragamian 1989). Otsego Lake is a deep, steep-sided, coldwater lake with oligotrophic morphometrics and mesotrophic nutrient levels. There have been few studies of walleye habitat utilization and movement patterns in deep coldwater lakes. Knowledge of seasonal distribution and movements patterns are necessary in order for a walleye sport fishery to develop.

1 Student enrolled in Fisheries Science 440. Fisheries and Wildlife Department, State University of New York. Cobleskill, NY. 2 Robert C. Macwaters Internship in Aquatic Sciences, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Fisheries and Wildlife Department, State University of New York. Cobleskill, NY. 3 Chairman, Fisheries and Wildlife Department, State University of New York. Cobleskill, NY. The goal of this study is to characterize the distribution of walleye in Otsego Lake. In order to meet this goal, acoustical tags were used to determine walleye habitat utilization and seasonal movement patterns.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Otsego Lake (42.7832°N, 74.8892°W) located in Otsego County, New York has a mean depth of 82 feet, a maximum depth of 168 feet and a surface area of 4,226 acres (Figure 1). The maximum length is 8.25 miles and the maximum width is 1.57 miles (Harman and Sohacki 1980).

Three walleye males and two females used in this study were captured in Cripple Creek (42.8126°N, 74.8947°W, Figure 1) during their spawning run 9-11 April 2006 (Table 1). Walleyes 69, 71, 75, and 76 provided the most useful information. Walleye 73 was located only once and was considered lost in April. The fish were located a total of 58 times over 10 months, although there were times of the year when some fish could not be located.

Walleye were tagged with Sonotronic acoustical tags (Model CT-82-2-I) inserted into the abdomen (following the techniques described in Paragamian 1989). The 9 gram tags had a life expectancy of 14 months and transmitted at a frequency between 69 kHz and 76 kHz.

Surveys were conducted by boating around the perimeter of the lake and searching with Smith-Root Inc. and Sonotronic hydrophone receivers. On calm days, in open water, tags could be heard across the lake. On windy days, or in weedy sections of the lake, tags could only be heard for a couple hundred feet.

Fish location was pinpointed by drifting the boat over the fish As the boat past over the fish a Garmin eTrex Legend handheld GPS unit was used to determine the fish’s position and a Vexilar FL-18 flasher was used to determine water depth.

Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel statistical program. ArcView GIS 9.1 was used to develop the maps and to analyze the position data.

Table 1 Walleye tagging information for 2006 tracking study.

Length Sex Tag Date Carrier Pulse Times (mm) Frequency Pattern Located 456 Male 7 April 2006 73 3-4-6-8 1 506 Male 7 April 2006 69 3-3-3-4 14 535 Male 7 April 2006 71 3-4-3-6 8 598 Female 9 April 2006 76 3-5-5-7 16 593 Female 11 April 2006 75 3-6-6-7 16

Figure 1. Otsego Lake study area including Cripple Creek spawning/tagging site. RESULTS

Distribution

From April through November, 2006, Walleye were primarily located in the shallow weedy north end of Otsego Lake (Figure 2). Females, in particular, spent all their time there. The two males spent much more time in the steep-sided mid-section of the lake (Figure 3) and traveled much farther from the spawning-tagging site than females.

Depth

Walleye were never located in the deep center areas of Otsego Lake (Table 2). Three of the four fish spent over 75% of their time in less than 20 feet of water. Females showed the highest preference for shallow water, being found 84% of the time in water less than twenty feet deep (Chi square test, P < .001), while males spent 59% of their time in waters greater than 40 feet in depth.

The water depth where male #69 was located differed significantly from the other male (P < .013) and the females (P<.001 #75 and P <.02 #76). Male-#69 stayed in shallow water in April and then moved into water deeper than 45 feet. Male #71 and the two females had a similar depth distribution (T-test). All fish moved to deeper water on 21 November, the approximate date of fall overturn (Albright 2007).

Table 2. Water depths of located walleye from April through November 2006.

Male # 69 Male # 71 Female # 75 Female # 76

Date Depth-ft Date Depth (ft) Date Depth (ft) Date Depth (ft) 4/14/06 4 4/21/06 18 4/23/06 10 4/28/06 9 4/23/06 5 4/23/06 42 5/5/06 7 5/5/06 6 4/28/06 7 4/28/06 7 5/10/06 7 5/25/06 13.5 5/5/06 48 5/5/06 13 5/25/06 5 6/6/06 12 7/10/06 51 5/26/06 18 5/31/06 11 6/9/06 7 7/18/06 63 9/8/06 5 6/6/06 6 6/12/06 36 7/25/06 56 11/9/06 20 6/9/06 22 6/20/06 10 8/8/06 55 11/21/06 47 6/12/06 30 6/21/06 9 8/10/06 61 6/21/06 18.5 7/10/06 10 8/16/06 61 7/10/06 8 7/25/06 19 8/21/06 58 7/19/06 8 8/10/06 7 11/9/06 55 7/25/06 11 8/16/06 65 11/15/06 48 8/16/06 16.5 9/8/06 17 11/21/06 66 11/21/06 68 11/21/06 97 Average 45.6 Average 21.3 Average 16.3 Average 22.7 Overall Mean ♂ = 36.7 Overall Mean ♀♀♀ = 19.5

Figure 2. The distribution of walleye in Otsego Lake April-November 2006

Figure 3. Walleye male and female distribution in Otsego Lake April-November 2006 Distance from Shore

From the depth distribution, walleye habitat would have been thought to be near- shore. This was not the case (Table 3). On average males were located 416 feet from shore, while females averaged 793 feet from shore. Overall, females were found significantly farther off-shore than males (P < .001, T-Test).

While there were periods of consistency among locations of individual fish, there was also considerable variation amongst individual fish. For example, the distance from shore for male # 71 ranged from 15-1186 feet while female #76 ranged from 210-1699 feet from shore.

Table 3. Distance from Shore of Males and Females.

Male Walleye Female Walleye

# 69 # 71 # 73 # 75 # 76

Feet From Feet From Feet From Feet From Feet From Date Shore Date Shore Date Shore Date Shore Date Shore 4/14/06 199 4/21/06 726 4/21/06 335 4/14/06 696 4/14/06 249 4/23/06 418 4/23/06 180 4/28/06 1179 4/28/06 280 5/5/06 448 4/28/06 741 5/5/06 718 5/5/06 210 7/10/06 417 5/5/06 133 5/25/06 843 5/25/06 273 7/18/06 453 5/26/06 600 5/26/06 940 5/26/06 219 7/25/06 282 9/8/06 1186 6/6/06 298 6/6/06 1599 8/8/06 345 11/9/06 15 6/9/06 998 6/9/06 1464 8/10/06 555 11/21/06 576 6/12/06 916 6/12/06 1251 8/16/06 407 6/20/06 1001 6/20/06 800 8/21/06 330 6/21/06 1425 6/21/06 1381 11/9/06 249 7/10/06 683 7/10/06 746 11/15/06 214 7/19/06 685 7/25/06 301 11/21/06 342 7/25/06 484 8/10/06 727 8/16/07 638 8/16/06 583 11/21/06 1442 9/8/06 768 11/21/06 1699 Average 358 Average 520 335 Average 863 Average 784

Overall Mean ♂♂♂ = 416 Overall Mean ♀♀♀ = 793

Movement

There was considerable variation in the movement patterns of the four walleye (Table 4, Figures 4-7). Male #71 traveled the most, even though this fish could not be found in the lake in June, July or August (Table 4). Female #75 traveled the least moving significantly less than male #71 (P < .05, T-test) and female #76 (P < .005, T-test).

Males moved the most from April to early May following spawning (Table 4). For example, male #69 stayed in shallow water near the spawning site for two weeks after tagging and then in a few days moved 5,551 feet per day down the lake (Table 4) before remaining relatively stationary in water deeper than 45 feet through November (Figure 4). Male #71 repeatedly moved back and forth across the lake, and disappeared entirely from the end of May to September (Figure 5). Female #76 had spurts of activity in May and June while Female #75 was relatively sedentary throughout the study (Table 4, Figures 6 and 7).

While walleye were never found in the center of the lake over deep water, the tracking records for fish #69 and #71 clearly indicate that at least the males swim across open water over the deep portions of the lake (Figures 4 and 5). Only female #75 showed a strong tendency to move parallel to shore (Figure 6).

Table 4 Average daily movement in feet per day from April through November 2006.

Male #69 Male #71 Female #75 Female #76 Date Feet/day Date Feet/day Date Feet/day Date Feet/day 4/7-4/14 110 4/7-4/21 810 4/11-4/14 361 4/9-4/14 866 4/14-4/23 52 4/21-4/23 4438 4/14-4/21 59 4/14-4/28 35 4/23-4/28 5551 4/23-4/28 2749 4/21-4/23 322 4/28-5/5 143 4/28-5/5 317 4/28-5/5 2262 4/23-5/5 43 5/5-5/25 146 5/5-710 6 5/5-5/26 670 5/5-5/10 49 5/25-5/26 3487 7/10-7/18 146 5/26-9/8 20 5/10-5/25 149 5/26-6/6 434 7/18-7/25 77 9/8-11/9 178 5/25-5/31 115 6/6-6/9 151 7/25-8/8 20 11/9-11/21 439 5/31-6/6 110 6/9-6/12 2060 8/8-8/16 8 6/6-6/9 380 6/12-6/20 1152 8/16-8/21 21 6/9-6/12 413 6/20-6/21 616 8/21-11/9 3 6/12-6/21 168 6/21-7/10 38 11/9-11/15 32 6/21-7/10 106 7/10-7/25 461 11/15-11/21 26 7/10-7/19 138 7/25-8/10 366 7/19-7/25 70 8/10-8/16 940 7/25-8/16 207 8/16-9/8 49 8/16-11/21 39 9/8-11/21 47 Mean = 490 feet/day Mean = 1446 feet/day Mean = 171 feet/day Mean = 687 feet/day

Figure 4. Movement of walleye male #69 in Otsego Lake April-November 2006

Figure 5. Movement of walleye male #71 in Otsego Lake April-November 2006

Figure 6. Movement of walleye female #75 in Otsego Lake April-November 2006

Figure 7. Movement of walleye female #76 in Otsego Lake April-November 2006

DISCUSSION

Habitat utilization of walleye observed in Otsego Lake differed from that documented in shallow warm, mesotrophic-eutrophic lakes and reservoirs. Walleye have been reported to suspend in open water in the main channel of lakes and reservoirs (Palmer 1999, Ager 1976) or prefer shallow coves with woody structure (Williams 1997, Wilson 1997). In Otsego Lake walleye did utilize large embayments but were seldom found in coves and were never found in the main channel (in spite of the ease of detecting them there). While walleye were never found in deep open water in Otesgo Lake, it was not a barrier to their movements. Male #71 repeatedly crossed over the deepest part of the lake, and male #69 also crossed the lake. Three of the four walleye did stay in shallow water less than 20 feet deep as reported by others (Paragamian 1989, Holt et. al. 1977)

Walleye are reported to move most during the spring and fall and much less during the summer (Holt, et al.1977; Paragamian 1989; Ickes, et al. 1999). Other than post-spawning migrations, there was not identifiable seasonal trend in walleye movement or locations in Otsego Lake. Three of the four walleye did not shift to other areas of the lake or change habitat use patterns. While female #76 moved frequently, the most nomadic fish was male #71 who was found in large embayments, coves, steep drop offs, Sunken Island and may have moved up a tributary for the summer period when it couldn’t be found in the lake.

Walleye post-spawning habitat utilization and movement patterns were highly variable. Traditional tagging studies often show that walleye tagged in one area return to that area after spawning (Forney 1963, Schoumacher 1965, Olson et. al. 1978). However, telemetry studies in reservoirs (Ager 1976, Holt et al 1977, Williams 1997) and rivers (Paragamian 1989) have shown that while some walleye remain within a limited area, others move about extensively. In this study male #69 and female #75 seem to home to a specific area and remain there after spawning. However, the two other fish moved frequently. As in other studies (Ager 1976, Paragamian 1989), all fish moved into deeper water at the onset of winter. Only one fish (female #75) showed the tendency reported by Holt et.al. (1977) to move parallel to shore.

In Otsego Lake walleye were difficult to locate on a routine basis. Wind and wave conditions often interfered with acoustical signals and made small boat operations difficult. Thick weed beds also disrupted the signal during the summer and early fall. Two out of five fish disappeared completely. One male (#73) disappeared from the lake two weeks after tagging and well before the beginning of walleye fishing season. Another male (#71) went missing from 26 May until 8 September. These fish may have left the lake and moved into adjacent stream mouths or wetlands.

In order to develop a definitive picture of habitat utilization and movement patterns of walleye in Otsego Lake, more fish need to be tracked and more information is needed, particularly relating to temperature and depth preference. This study could determine the depth of water the walleye was in, but not the actual depth of the walleye. Future studies of walleye movements and habitat utilization should use tags that indicate temperature and depth so that these habitat preferences can be determined. Currently walleye are under-utilized as a fishery in Otsego Lake. Information on habitat utilization, like that gathered in this study, is needed so that anglers can better target their fishing efforts. Prime walleye habitat appears to be in the shallow, weedy north end of Otsego Lake. In the daytime walleye are located hundreds of feet offshore and thus are only accessible to boat fisherman.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded and supported by SUNY-Cobleskill Fisheries & Wildlife Department, SUNY-Oneonta Biological Field Station, the Schoharie County Conservation Association, and the Otsego County Conservation Association. Mark Cornwell, Matt Albright, Tom Brooking, John Forney and John Farrell provided considerable technical support, guidance and assistance to this project. Henry Whitbeck helped develop the GIS maps. Bob Kingsley generously provided access Cripple Creek.

LITERATURE CITED

Ager, L.M. 1976. A biotelemetry study of the movement of walleye in Center Hill Reservoir, Tennessee. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeaster Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 30:311-323.

Albright, M.F. 2007. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 39 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Cornwell, M.D. 2002. Walleye ( Stizostidion vitreum ) reintroduction update: Walleye stocking, gill netting and electrofishing summary 2000-2. In 35 th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, SUNY Oneonta.

Cornwell, M.D. 2005. Re-introduction of Walleye in Otsego Lake: Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top down predator. Occasional Paper No. 40. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Festa, P.J., J.L Forney and R.T. Colesente. 1987. Walleye management in New York State. NYSDEC Bureau of Fisheries. 104p.

Forney, J.L. 1963. Distribution and movement of marked walleyes in Oneida Lake, New York. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 92:47-52.

Foster, J.R. and Gallup, S. 1990. Irruption of alewife population in Otsego Lake. In 23 rd Ann. Rept. (1989). SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, SUNY Oneonta.pp.56- 59.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. 1980. The limnology of Otsego Lake (Glimmerglass). In Bloomfield, J.A. ed. Lakes of New York State. Vol III Ecology of the Lakes of East- Central New York. Pages 1-129. Academic Press, Inc. New York.

Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, D.L. Rosen. 1997. The State of the Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occasional Paper No. 30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Holt, C.S., Grant, G.S.D, Oberstar, G.P, Oakes, C.C and Bradt, D.W. 1977. Movement of Walleye, S tizostedion vitreum , in Lake Bemidji, Minnesota as determined by radio- biotelemetry. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 106:163-169.

Ickes, B.S. and A.G. Steven, D.L. Pereira. 1999. Investigational Report 481, 1999. University of Minnesota. Dept. of Natural Resources. Division of Fish and Wildlife, 1999.

Lehman, K., W. Williams and J.R. Foster. 1990. Extinction of walleye in Otsego Lake. 23 rd Ann. Rept. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta. pp. 52-55.

Olson, D.E., D.H. Schupp, and V. Macins. 1978. An hypothesis of homing behavior of walleye as related to observed patterns of passive and active activities. pages 52-57. In R.L.Kendall, editor. Selected coolwater fishes of North America. American Fisheries Society Special Publication Number 11, Washington, D.C.

Palmer, G.C. 2005. Movements of walleyes in Claytor Lake and the Upper New River, Virginia, Indicated Distinct Lake and River Populations. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 25:1448-1455.

Paragamian, V.L. 1989. Seasonal habitat use by walleye in a warmwater river system, as determined by radiotelemetry. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 9:392-401.

Pegg, M.A., Bettoli, P.W., and Layzer, J.B. 1997. Movement of saugers in the Lower Tennessee River determined by radio telemetry, and implications for management. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 17:763-768.

Schoumacher, R. 1965. Movement of walleye and sauger in the Upper Mississippi River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 94:270-271.

Williams, J.D. 1997. Walleye movement, distribution and habitat use in Laurel River Lake, Kentucky. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Fisheries Bulleting 99, Frankfort, Kentucky.

Wilson, D.M. 1997. Habitat selection and movement of walleye in Paintsville Lake, Kentucky. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Fisheries Bulleting 99, Frankfort, Kentucky

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A survey of the Cherry Valley Creek water quality, summer 2006

Brian Butler 1 Aaron Payne 2

INTRODUCTION

Cherry Valley Creek (CVC) flows from its headwaters in the town of Cherry Valley and runs south to its confluence with the Susquehanna River in the village of Milford. While historical accounts of its water quality are mostly anecdotal in nature, CVC apparently once had water of such a quality to support populations of trout. The DEC had stocked the creek with brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) until 1993. More recently, however, CVC waters have been considered too warm to sustain that fishery (McBride 2006). Prior to the summer of 2006, few surveys had been conducted evaluating the conditions of CVC. The DEC last surveyed the fish diversity in the CVC in 1973 (McBride 2006).

Cherry Valley Creek was monitored during the summer of 2006 at the request of local citizens who were concerned about apparent declines in water quality there (Albright 2006). Interest exists to restore the health of the waterway, though effective management efforts require the documentation of the types of impairments and an understanding of their sources. Residents in the Cherry Valley region proposed to the Biological Field Station (BFS), located in Cooperstown, NY, to conduct a summer-long survey of CVC (Albright 2006). The Otsego County Water Quality Coordinating Committee (OCWQCC) and the Otsego County Conservation Association (OCCA) sponsored this work. The goal of the CVC water quality monitoring was to collect and interpret water quality data so that any impairments could be documented, and to evaluate the existence of any point and/or non-point sources of pollutants. It was felt that this information could provide the basis for management efforts (Capraro 2006).

How development occurred in the past and how it will occur in the future are key considerations in analyzing impairments of the CVC region. The one-acre minimum lot size required by law since has proved inadequate for proper septic filtration due to shallow depth-to-bedrock -- a condition which limits the area in which wastes can be treated through the soil. This condition is exacerbated by the prevalence of karst – limestone terrain featuring sink holes, ravines, and underground streams. Karst topography does not allow adequate absorption of wastes from septic systems (Miller 2006). In 1999, the Village of Cherry Valley expressed interest in developing a municipal wastewater treatment facility to improve treatment of septic waste. However, more testing, funding and planning are needed before any treatment plan can be enacted (Miller 2006).

1 Peterson Family Conservation Intern, summer 2006. Present affiliation: SUNY Oneonta, NY. 2 Biological Field Station Intern, summer 2006. Present affiliation: SUNY Oneonta, NY. A comprehensive plan with emphasis on urban growth boundaries is being considered in the Cherry Valley region (Miller 2006). The future of development in the CVC region would be dependant upon municipal regulations as guided by this plan. Larger minimum lot sizes would allow for greater separation between wells and septic systems and would provide more area in which to absorb the waste from septic systems, thus reducing the likelihood of waste being fed into CVC. The Biological Field Station’s survey of CVC will provide data that Cherry Valley can use to formulate developmental strategies as they relate to the health of the creek.

Other sources of impairment to CVC may include residential point source discharges within the village, urban runoff, road ditching practices, winter road de-icing practices, and non-point discharges from agricultural practices. Providing preliminary information related to these issues is a main objective of this survey.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

As part of the work plan, proposed by local citizens and funded by the OCWQCC and the OCCA, the Biological Field Station (BFS) was tasked with surveying six sites within the CVC region. The six sites included Cherry Valley North (CVN), Cherry Valley West (CVW), Cherry Valley South (CVS), Hawk Circle (HC), Roseboom (RB) and Pleasant Brook (PB). The PB site is not on the main stem of CVC, but was included in the study to provide “reference” conditions, as this site appears relatively pristine. Detailed sampling site descriptions are provided in Table 1 and indicated in Figure 1.

Cherry Valley North (CVN) : N 42° 48.183’ W 74° 44.810’ Cherry Valley Creek headwater north of village of Cherry Valley (Campbell Rd.)

Cherry Valley West (CVW) : N 42° 48.161’ W 74° 45.875’ Cherry Valley Creek headwater west of village of Cherry Valley (above falls off Route 54)

Cherry Valley South (CVS) : N 42° 47.576’ W 74° 45.449’ Cherry Valley Creek south of village of Cherry Valley (at bridge, Route 166)

Hawk Circle (HC) : N 42° 45.562’ W 74° 46.297’ Cherry Valley Creek at Hawk Circle conservancy access road (access from Route 166)

Roseboom (RB) : N 42° 44.393’ W 74° 46.405’ Cherry Valley Creek in town of Roseboom (at bridge, Route 165)

Pleasant Brook (PB) : N 42° 43.202’ W 74° 46.171’ Pleasant Brook (at bridge, Route 165, above confluence of CVC)

Table 1 .Locations and descriptions of sampling sites visited weekly from 25 May to 14 August 2006. Sites can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Map of Cherry Valley Creek region showing six sampling sites.

The parameters studied included physical characteristics (water temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen), the nutrient fractions total nitrogen, nitrate+nitrite, ammonia and total phosphorous, and fecal coliform and total suspended solids. The sampling occurred bi-weekly between 25 May and 14 August 06. A Hydrolab Scout 2 ®, which had first been calibrated in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol, was used to obtain the temperature (degrees Celsius), pH, conductivity ( umho/cm) and dissolved oxygen (mg/L) at each of the six sites. Two water samples were taken at each site. One sample from each site was preserved by acidifying to a pH of less than 1 using 5.7 M H 2SO 4, and was later analyzed for total phosphorous using the ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion (Liao and Marten 2001). Total nitrogen was analyzed using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) following peroxodisulfate digestion as described by Ebina et. al (1983). Ammonia was analyzed using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and nitrate+nitrate-nitrogen was tested for using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003). All of these parameters were analyzed using a Lachat QuickChem FIA+ Water Analyzer ®. The preceding procedure for use of the water analyzing equipment has been summarized by Meehan (2005).

The remaining samples from each site were tested for fecal coliform and total suspended solids. The membrane filter technique (APHA 1992) was used to determine the fecal coliform densities at each site. Set volumes of each sample were passed through a filter such that the desired numbers of colonies (20-80) would likely be achieved at one dilution. Each dilution was processed in triplicate. After each sample was run through their filter, the filter was placed in a Petri dish containing 2.2 ml of growth media and placed in a water incubator at 44.5 o C for 24 hours. The Petri dishes were removed from the water bath and the bacterial colonies that had grown were counted and recorded as the number of colonies per 100 ml of sample.

To determine the total suspended solids at each site, the gravimetric technique was used (EPA 1983). A known volume of each sample was run through a filter which had been dried for 24 hours at 105 o C and weighed to the nearest mg. The filter plus sediment was then placed in an oven, at 105° C to dry. After 24 hours in the oven, the filters were removed and re-weighed. Suspended sediment was reported as mg/l.

RESULTS

Physical parameters are summarized in Table 2 and are presented graphically in Figures 2-5. Nutrient concentrations are summarized in Table 3 and are graphed in Figures 6-9. Fecal coliform and suspended sediments are provided in Table 4 and are graphed in Figures 10 and 11.

Temperature: The range of water temperature across the six sites was from 10.4° C (50.7 o F) to 21.55° C (70.8 o F) over the course of the summer of 2006. The average water temperature for all six sites combined was 16.55° C (61.8 o F). The average water temperature for each site was as follows: CVN (14.45° C; 58.0 o F), CVW (17.53° C; 63.6 o F), CVS (17.16° C; 62.9 o F), HC (16.48° C; 61.7 o F), RB (17.54° C; 63.6 o F), PB (16.45° C; 61.6 o F) (Table 2). Figure 2 shows the recorded temperatures of each site for the dates testing was done.

Dissolved Oxygen: DO Readings ranged from a low of 8.73 mg/l to a high of 11.86 mg/l. The average DO for all six sites combined was 9.76 mg/l. The average DO readings for each site was as follows: CVN (10.16 mg/l), CVW (9.65 mg/l), CVS (9.74 mg/l), HC (9.86 mg/l), RB (9.45 mg/l), PB (9.46 mg/l) (Table 2). Figure 3 shows the recorded dissolved oxygen figures of each site for the dates testing was done.

Conductivity: Readings ranged from a low of 0.073 mmho/cm, to a high of 0.507 mmho/cm across the six sites. The average conductivity for all six sites was 0.339 mmho/cm. The average conductivity for each site was as follows: CVN (0.440 mmho/cm), CVS (0.430 mmho/cm), CVW (0.430 mmho/cm), HC (0.370 mmho/cm), RB (0.302 mmho/cm), PB (0.103 mmho/cm) (Table 2). Figure 4 shows the recorded conductivity levels at each site for the dates tested. pH: pH readings ranged from a low of 7.11 to a high of 8.53. The average pH across all of the test sites was 7.82. The average pH of each individual test site was as follows: CVN (7.59), CVS (8.22), CVW (7.98), HC (7.91), RB (7.85), and PB (7.44) (Table 2). The pH levels o f the CVC test site are sown in Figure 5.

5/25 6/5 6/19 7/5 7/17 7/31 8/14 Average Temperature (degrees C) 15.4 10.14 12.67 17.3 18.31 12.89 11.9 14.09 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 10.27 10.86 9.75 10.35 9.69 10.01 7.44 9.77

CVN Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.447 0.395 0.43 0.393 0.507 0.482 0.525 0.454 pH (units) 7.84 7.46 7.49 7.4 7.58 7.78 7.82 7.62 Temperature (degrees C) 17.22 12.94 18.09 20.69 18.79 17.46 13.59 16.97

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 9.65 10.74 9.13 8.99 9.69 9.71 9.06 9.57

CVW Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.44 0.337 0.448 0.415 0.489 0.46 0.486 0.44 pH (units) 8.53 8.14 8.24 8.12 8.44 7.85 8.48 8.26 Temperature (degrees C) 17.05 12.53 17.67 19.77 18.25 17.71 14.22 16.74 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 10.4 10.3 9.51 8.96 9.47 9.8 8.02 9.49

CVS Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.427 0.333 0.418 0.414 0.467 0.495 0.495 0.436 pH (units) 8.14 7.82 7.87 7.69 7.96 8.39 7.99 7.98 Temperature (degrees C) 13.33 12.27 17.36 19.19 19.25 17.47 15.59 16.35 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 11.86 9.96 8.73 9.5 8.77 10.33 7.8 9.56

HC Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.363 0.283 0.381 0.374 0.426 0.39 0.424 0.377 pH (units) 8.13 7.79 7.85 7.73 8 7.96 8.18 7.95 Temperature (degrees C) 14.98 12.48 18.51 19.3 21.55 18.39 16.87 17.44 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 10.86 9.95 8.83 9.06 8.88 9.14 8.34 9.29

RB RB Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.301 0.224 0.309 0.304 0.358 0.315 0.336 0.307 pH (units) 8.16 7.68 7.79 7.69 7.91 7.89 8.18 7.90 Temperature (degrees C) 15.12 12.07 17.16 17.98 19.09 17.26 14.58 16.18 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 10.11 10.32 9.29 8.75 9.16 9.11 6.98 9.10 PB Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.094 0.0733 0.1009 0.1 0.124 0.126 0.133 0.107 pH (units) 7.8 7.38 7.48 7.11 7.41 7.46 7.57 7.46 Table 2. Physical water quality parameters recorded from the six CVC test sites (as indicated in Figure1), summer 2006. Water Temperature of CVC Test Sites

25.0 25-May 5-Jun 20.0 19-Jun 5-Jul 15.0 17-Jul 10.0 31-Jul 14-Aug 5.0 Temp. (degrees C) 0.0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 2. Water temperatures of CVC tests sites (as indicated on Figure 1) for the dates sampled.

Dissolved Oxygen of CVC Test Sites

14.0 25-May 12.0 5-Jun 10.0 19-Jun 8.0 5-Jul 17-Jul 6.0 31-Jul 4.0 14-Aug 2.0 0.0 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen content in water of CVC tests sites (as indicated on Figure 1) for the dates sampled.

Conductivity of CVC Test Sites

0.60 25-May 0.50 5-Jun 19-Jun 0.40 5-Jul 0.30 17-Jul 0.20 31-Jul 14-Aug 0.10

Conductivity (mmho/cm) 0.00 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 4. Conductivity of the water of CVC tests sites (as indicated on Figure 1) for the dates sampled.

pH of the CVC Test Sites

9.0 25-May 5-Jun 8.5 19-Jun 8.0 5-Jul 17-Jul 7.5 31-Jul pH 14-Aug 7.0

6.5

6.0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 5. pH levels of the water of CVC tests sites (as indicated on Figure 1) for the dates sampled.

Total Phosphorous: The values for total phosphorous ranged from below detectable levels (less that 4µg P/ l) to 726 ug P/L across all six sites (though all samples but three were <40 ug/l) (see Table 3). At each test site, the total phosphorous levels remained relatively constant throughout the course of the test period, though higher concentrations were encountered at several sites on 19 June 06. Concentrations are illustrated in Figure 6, which displays the total phosphorous levels by site.

Total Nitrogen: Total nitrogen levels remained relatively constant at each site over the course of the summer of 2006, with the exception of a spike at CVS on 5 July 06. Across the six sites the total nitrogen values averaged 0.511 mg/l (see Table 3). Comparing total nitrogen concentrations with those of nitrite+nitrite and ammonia (see below) indicates that most nitrogen present is in the nitrite+nitrate fraction. The data for total nitrogen arranged by site are shown in Figure 7.

Nitrite+Nitrate-N: Nitrite+nitrate-nitrogen, which are components of total nitrogen (and paralleled total nitrogen over the study), were consistent within each of the test sites except for the elevated concentration recorded at CVS on 5 July 06. Concentrations are given in Figure 8. The values ranged from 0.036 mg/l to 2.52 mg/l across the six sites during the summer of 2006 and averaged 0.35 mg/l (Table 3).

Ammonia-N: Ammonia-nitrogen, another component of the total nitrogen readings, the presence of which is typically associated with a reducing environment (i.e., lacking in oxygen), (Hutchinson 1957), was typically very low across the six (Figure 9). In approximately half of the analyses conducted over the summer of 2006, concentrations were below detectable levels (less than 0.02 mg/l). The concentrations ranged up to 0.091 mg/l (Table 3).

Total Suspended Solids : Values for total suspended solids ranged from 0.86 mg/l to 42 mg/l (see Table 4). The average value for each of the six test sites for the summer of 2006 is as follows: CVN (7.06 mg/l), CVW (5.68 mg/l), CVS (5.16 mg/l), HC (11.4 mg/l), RB (19.04 mg/l), PB (4.52 mg/l). The levels of suspended solids in the water of CVC test sites are shown in Figure 10.

Fecal Coliform: Colonies of bacteria were measured as colonies per 100 ml of sample. The number of colonies ranged from 27 to 1840 colonies/100 ml of sample, across all six sites, averaging 340 colonies/100 ml (Table 4). Figure 11 shows the coliform colonies found during the survey.

Site Date Ammonia NO3 & NO2 Total Nitrogen Total Phosphorous (mg N/L) (mg N/L) (mg N/L) (ug P/L) 5/25/2006 0.075 0.641 1.000 9.5 6/5/2006 0.051 0.999 1.270 8.5 6/19/2006 BD 0.550 0.277 276.0 7/5/2006 0.019 0.357 0.515 21.7 CVN 7/17/2006 BD 0.644 0.766 15.5 7/31/2006 BD 0.423 0.559 11.6 8/14/2006 BD 0.187 0.271 7.9 5/25/2006 0.055 0.169 0.608 9.1 6/5/2006 0.063 0.392 0.846 19.9

6/19/2006 BD 0.235 0.196 10.6 7/5/2006 0.009 0.147 0.367 8.7 CVW 7/17/2006 BD 0.222 0.485 17.0 7/31/2006 BD 0.116 0.321 14.3 8/14/2006 BD 0.036 0.198 7.1 5/25/2006 0.074 0.431 0.762 20.2 6/5/2006 BD 0.433 0.825 20.2 6/19/2006 BD 0.446 0.266 23.9 7/5/2006 0.052 2.520 2.620 11.2 CVS 7/17/2006 BD 0.401 0.571 26.5 7/31/2006 BD 0.275 0.495 22.8 8/14/2006 BD 0.249 0.266 16.1 5/25/2006 0.080 0.269 0.598 12.1 6/5/2006 BD 0.493 0.676 22.6 6/19/2006 BD 0.391 0.227 16.3 7/5/2006 0.012 0.227 0.361 BD HC 7/17/2006 BD 0.335 0.509 24.4 7/31/2006 BD 0.211 0.378 23.2 8/14/2006 BD 0.116 0.273 10.0 5/25/2006 0.091 0.188 0.491 4.9 6/5/2006 BD 0.366 0.564 26.8 6/19/2006 BD 0.262 0.210 52.5 7/5/2006 0.014 0.219 0.339 16.2 RB RB 7/17/2006 BD 0.327 0.501 25.6 7/31/2006 BD 0.189 0.389 33.2 8/14/2006 BD 0.105 0.240 16.7 5/25/2006 0.065 0.067 0.315 14.0 6/5/2006 BD 0.236 0.495 19.5 6/19/2006 BD 0.146 0.137 73.5 0.015 0.222 0.303 3.0

PB 7/5/2006 7/17/2006 BD 0.222 0.381 13.4 7/31/2006 BD 0.158 0.340 23.5 8/14/2006 BD 0.113 0.264 6.1

Table 3. Water nutrient levels (total phosphorous, total nitrogen, nitrite+nitrate and ammonia) from the six survey sites, as indicated in Figure 1, on CVC, summer 2006. BD indicates levels were below detection (less than 0.04mg N/l or less than 4µg P/l). 726 100 25 May 5 Jun 80 19 Jun 5 Jul 17 Jul 60 31 Jul 14 Aug 40

20 Total Phosphorous Total P/L) (ug 0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 6. Total phosphorous levels by site, as indicated in Figure 1, in CVC for the extent of the 2006 summer survey.

3.5 25 May 3.0 5 Jun 19 Jun 2.5 5 Jul 17 Jul 2.0 31 Jul 1.5 14 Aug

1.0 0.5 Total Nitrogen (mg N/L) (mg Nitrogen Total 0.0 CVN CV CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 7. CVC total nitrogen levels by site (as indicated in Figure 1) for the extent of the summer 2006 testing.

3.5 25 May 3.0 5 Jun 19 Jun 2.5 5 Jul 2.0 17 Jul 31 Jul 1.5 14 Aug 1.0

NO3 & NO2 (mg N/L) (mg NO2 & NO3 0.5

0.0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 8. Nitrite+nitrate levels of CVC shown by site, as indicated by Figure 1, for the duration of the summer 2006 survey.

1.0 25 May 5 Jun 0.8 19 Jun 5 Jul 0.6 17 Jul 31 Jul 14 Aug 0.4

Ammonia-N (mg N/L) (mg Ammonia-N 0.2

0.0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 9. Ammonia levels of the CVC survey sites, as indicated by Figure 1, for the extent of the summer 2006 survey.

Fecal Colonies Total Suspended Site Date per 100 ml Solids (mg/L) 6/5/2006 64 2.43 6/19/2006 57 0.86 7/5/2006 68 3.43

CVN 7/17/2006 447 26.71 7/31/2006 53 1.86 8/14/2006 107 2.29 6/5/2006 103 10.00 6/19/2006 121 3.40

7/5/2006 340 6.20

CVW 7/17/2006 493 6.00 7/31/2006 120 2.80 8/14/2006 0 1.2 6/5/2006 760 10.60 6/19/2006 480 3.60 7/5/2006 1230 4.00

CVS 7/17/2006 1840 5.00 7/31/2006 287 2.60 8/14/2006 60 2.4 6/5/2006 590 21.00 6/19/2006 353 9.40 7/5/2006 493 3.60

HC 7/17/2006 700 13.60 7/31/2006 540 9.40 8/14/2006 67 3.8 6/5/2006 483 23.20 6/19/2006 500 2.80 7/5/2006 420 18.20

RB RB 7/17/2006 660 9.00 7/31/2006 533 42.00 8/14/2006 13 6.8 6/5/2006 84 13.40 6/19/2006 50 2.20 7/5/2006 34 4.00 PB 7/17/2006 80 1.00 7/31/2006 27 2.00 8/14/2006 0 1.2

Table 4. Fecal bacterial colonies and total suspended solids data collected for the six test sites, as indicated in figure 1, in CVC during summer of 2006.

1800 5-Jun 19-Jun 1600 5-Jul 1400 17-Jul 1200 31-Jul 1000 14-Aug 800 600 400

FC ColoniesFC (per 100 ml) 200 0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 10. Fecal bacterial colonies in CVC test sites (as indicated in Figure1) for the dates surveyed.

45 5-Jun 40 19-Jun 5-Jul 35 17-Jul 30 31-Jul 25 14-Aug 20 15 10 5 Suspended Solids (mg/L)) 0 CVN CVW CVS HC RB PB Sites

Figure 11. Amounts of total suspended solids recorded from the six CVC test sites (as indicated in Figure1) during the dates surveyed.

CONCLUSIONS

Water temperatures at each of the CVC test sites were somewhat moderated despite high summer temperatures, presumable due to record precipitation (Blechman 2007) and the resultant high levels of runoff. According to Smith (1985), water temperatures below 23.8ºC (or 75ºF) are favorable for brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) and brook trout ( Salvelinus fontalis ); these fish also require well oxygenated waters. Both these conditions were met at all sites over the course of the survey. Concentrations of dissolved oxygen below 3 mg/L are considered to be too low to support most warm water biota (Novotny and Olem 1994). Concentrations encountered at CVC over the course of the summer were all above 8.73 mg/l.

The pH levels were fairly stable within each test site and tended toward the basic side of the pH scale. This was likely due to widespread limestone throughout the basin (Miller 2006), which imparts elevated alkalinity in waters serving as a pH buffer in slightly basic ranges.

There is no regional consensus for nutrient concentration standards related to stream water quality. However, the data collected over this study would imply a relative lack of impairment. Low concentrations of ammonia at all sites over the summer imply an oxidizing environment with an apparent lack of point sources of nitrogenous runoff (farmyard runoff and septic leachate would likely lead to elevated concentrations of ammonia (Meehan 2004, Cooke et al. 1993)).

The BFS has a long history of monitoring total phosphorus and nitrite+nitrate concentration in tributaries to Otsego Lake The intention of this effort is both to document points of impairment and to track the effectiveness of mitigative projects intended to reduce nutrient runoff. Virtually all those studies have documented mean summer phosphorus concentrations above those measured in CVC. The mean TP concentration at CVC was 24.7 ug/l; if a single concentration noted at CVN was omitted, the mean concentration falls to 18.5 ug/l (it is worth noting that CVN is in the headwaters north of the village, where flows were low and point source impact would be unlikely). Attempts to recognize relationships between land use and phosphorus loading in the Otsego watershed was attempted (though differentiating between land use and land form is difficult). From 1991-1993, Albright (1996) found total phosphorus concentrations highest in a stream draining the urbanized portion of Cooperstown, with concentrations in Willow Brook averaging 150 to 210 ug/l. Streams draining agricultural lands ranged between 32 and 120 ug/l. The streams draining the most undeveloped lands ranged from 20 to 40 ug/l, comparable to concentrations observed in CVC. Nitrite+nitrate concentrations tended to be variable, ranging from 0.2 to 2.2 mg/l. Because of concentration distributions, Albright (1996) suggested this was more a function of land form than land use.

Suspended sediment, as with nutrients, was low in concentration in CVC compared to studies conducted in Otsego Lake tributaries, where sediment values closely mirrored those of total phosphorus. During 1992-1993, mean sediment concentrations ranged from 13.5 to 210 mg/l throughout Otsego’s watershed (Albright 1996). Over the summer of 2006, concentrations averaged 7.8 mg/l in CVC.

Fecal coliform bacteria concentrations encountered in CVC were consistently highest at CVS, the sampling site immediately below the Village of Cherry Valley. This would imply that the village environs serve as a source of these bacteria. However, the actual sources (domestic pets, wild animals, human wastes, etc.) were not documented. It is worth noting that concentrations observed throughout this study were typically lower than those documented historically in Otsego Lake’s watershed. Over the summer of 1998, mean concentrations in Otsego’s tributaries were typically 1,000 to 3,000 colonies/100 ml (Ingraham 1999); over the summer of 2001, concentrations at the same sites were typically 300 to 1,000 colonies/ml (Albright 2002). Concentrations in CVC averaged 340 colonies/100 ml.

In summary, data collected over the summer of 2006 did not document obvious impairment to Cherry Valley Creek, despite anecdotal evidence related to its changing fishery and apparent degradation to its riparian corridor. Two notable points should be made regarding this finding. First, while some environmental stressors to a stream would be evident during typical summer months (such as point sources, septic leachate, and certain types of agricultural runoff) other pollution sources would not. Those would include winter road management activities and agricultural activities related to winter/spring manure spreading and tilling. Second, the summer of 2006 was by no means typical, with frequent rains, often heavy, resulting in the wettest summer on record. High flows are generally associated with elevated pollutants coming from non- point sources (i.e., Albright 1996). However, during this study, samples were collected at regular intervals without regard to rainfall. Therefore, peak concentrations, which tend to occur during the earlier stages of a runoff event (Livingston and Cox 1985), were likely to be missed. Concentrations of point source pollutants, conversely, would decline during periods of elevated runoff due to dilution.

Because of the above points, care should be taken when interpreting the results of this report. The nature of this work perhaps represents too much a “snapshot in time” to adequately evaluate the health of Cherry Valley Creek, or to provide a basis for guidance in restoration and/or protective measures. A more intensive, year round precipitation based study might be meaningful to better understand the quality of this stream. Additionally, an evaluation of the benthic (i.e., aquatic insect) communities of Cherry Valley Creek might lend further insight into its nature and health.

REFERENCES

Albright, D.S. 2002. Analysis of fecal coliform bacteria in Otsego Lake’s northern tributaries, summer 2001. In 34 th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F., L.P. Sohacki and W.N. Harman. 1996. Hydrological and nutrient budgets for Otsego Lake, NY and relationships between land form/lane use and export rates of its sub-basins. Occ. pap. #29. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F. 2006. Personal communication. Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater,17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

Blechamn, A. 2007. National weather observer. Cooperstown, NY.

Capraro, A. 2006. Personal communication. National Resources Conservation Service. Cooperstown, NY.

Cooke, G.D., E.B. Welch, S.A. Peterson and P.R. Newroth. 1993. Restoration and management of lakes and reservoirs. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton.

Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.

EPA. 1983. Methods for the analysis of water and wastes. Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab. Office of Research and development. Cincinnati, OH.

Huthinson, G.E. 1957. A treatise on limnology. Vol. I geography, physical and chemistry. John Wiley and sons, Inc. NewYork.

Ingraham, C. 1999. Analysis of fecal coliform concentrations in Otsego Lake’s northern tributaries, summer 1998. In 31 st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10-107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.

Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem®Method 10- 115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

McBride, N. 2006. Personal communication. Aquatic Biologist. NYSDEC Reg. 4. Stamford, NY..

Miller, E. 2006. Personal communication. Otsego County Conservation Association. Cooperstown, NY.

Meehan, H.A. 2003. Phosphorus migration from a near-lake septic system in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2002. In 35 th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Meehan, H.A. 2005. Procedural overview of Lachat QuickChem FIA+ ® autoanalyzer, summer 2004. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Novotny, V. and H. Olem. 1994. Water Quality: Prevention, Identification, and Management of Diffuse Pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, NewYork.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Smith, C.L. 1985. The inland fisheries of New York State. Department of Environmental Conservation. Albany, NY. Hydroacoustic surveys of Otsego Lake, 2006

Thomas E. Brooking 1 and Mark D. Cornwell 2

INTRODUCTION

In 2006, we sampled Otsego Lake (Otsego County, NY) with acoustics to estimate abundance of pelagic fishes in June and October. This was a cooperative project between Cornell University Biological Field Station, SUNY Cobleskill Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, and SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station. Otsego Lake has a warm-water fishery dominated by bass, esocids, and sunfishes, while a cold-water fishery is maintained by stocking. In recent years, a walleye population has been established through stocking as well. Nearly all of these fisheries are probably strongly affected by a dense alewife population that became established in the late 1980s (Harman et al. 2002). Schooling characteristics and patchy distribution of offshore baitfish populations such as alewife often make conventional netting gear ineffective at providing reliable density estimates. However, hydroacoustics combined with netting often provides more reliable estimates (Wanzenbock et al. 2003). Our report summarizes the results of hydroacoustic surveys of Otsego Lake in the spring and fall of 2006, and comparison to surveys as far back as 1996.

METHODS

Cornell University researchers surveyed the offshore pelagic fish communities using hydroacoustics. Small-mesh netting for alewife was done in conjunction with these surveys by SUNY Oneonta and SUNY Cobleskill staff. Density of fish targets in the acoustics was estimated along transects in the lake, and the catch in gillnets was used to identify targets and to sample length, weight, and depth distribution of alewife.

Hydroacoustic surveys were conducted on the nights of 6 June and 26 October 06. Transects ran from shore to shore along a zig-zag pattern, distributed from the northern to southern ends of the lake. Ten transects were done in the spring survey, and 7 transects were completed in the fall survey due to computer malfunction. In the spring survey, data were collected with the same echo sounder that has been used in the past surveys (Simrad EY500, 70 kHz, 11.4 o beam width). In the fall, data were collected with a new echo sounder with a higher frequency and narrower beam width (Biosonics DtX 123 kHz, 7.8 o beam width) due to breakdown of the 70 kHz unit. Comparison between these different units will be discussed later. The transducers were towed at a depth of approximately 0.5 m, and data was stored directly on the hard drive of a laptop computer. The units were

1Cornell Warmwater Fisheries Unit. Cornell University Biol. Field Station. Bridgeport, NY 13030

2State University of NY at Cobleskill. Fisheries and Wildlife Department. Cobleskill, NY 12043 calibrated in spring and summer of 2006 and the performance checked against a standard copper sphere.

Acoustics data were analyzed with Sonardata Echoview v.4.0 software. On the echograms for each of the transects, the surface (0-2 m) and the bottom (0.2 m from the actual bottom) were removed to leave just the open water area for analysis of fish density. Fish density (#/m 2) was calculated using the area backscattering coefficient and average in-situ target strength. Only targets with a target strength of –61 dB and larger were considered to be fish targets, based on target strength distributions of alewife in cages (Cornell University, unpublished data). Target strength distributions were checked so that echoes which were too small to be fish could be removed, along with the surface, the bottom, and other noise. Noise level at 30 m was estimated to be –80 dB (in the TS domain) thus satisfying a 10 dB signal to noise ratio even for the smallest targets included in the analysis, at the depths where most fish were found. The density of fish per square meter was then multiplied by 10,000 to get the density of fish/ha. Average and standard deviation were calculated based on the actual number of transects done.

Small mesh gillnets were set in conjunction with the spring and fall surveys. Each net was multi-mesh with seven 3 m wide panels of different mesh sizes (6.2, 8, 10, 12.5, 15, 18.7 and 25 mm bar mesh). Nets were 21 m long by 6 m deep and set from the surface downward or from the bottom upward. Three nets were set on the nights of 6 June and 14 June 06 for 7 h each, and in the fall three nets were set on 27 October 06 for 16 h. Species, length, and weight were recorded for all fish caught.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Acoustic fish abundance in June was estimated to be 2522 fish/ha, with a 95% confidence interval of +/- 907 fish/ha based on 10 transects (Table 1). This is significantly higher than the density was in June 2005 (236 fish/ha) probably due to a strong year class in 2006 (fall density 9,526 fish/ha) and high over-winter survival during the warm winter in 2005-06. Targets corresponding in size with alewife were strongly concentrated in the upper 5 m of the water column. In the spring netting survey, 126 alewife were caught in 42 net-h (avg. 3.0 alewife/net-h). Of the alewife catch, 26% were age-1 averaging 80 mm and 3.5 g. Older fish (74% of the catch) averaged 152 mm and 24.8 g. Biomass of alewife in June 2006, estimated from the acoustic abundance and average weight in gillnets, was estimated to be 2.3 kg/ha for yearlings, and 46.3 kg/ha for older fish (total alewife biomass 48.6 kg/ha). Larger fish targets (-35 dB and larger) were estimated to be approximately 7.6 fish/ha (95% CI +/-4.3 fish/ha, Table 2). These were most likely salmonids, thgouh this estimate may include some other predators such as cisco, whitefish, walleye, or bass, which are typically bottom-oriented predators but will sometimes suspend in open water when open water forage is available. This is probably a minimal estimate of predator density since some overlap of target strengths occurred, and since other predators are likely too close to bottom to be detected.

Pelagic fish abundance in October was estimated to be 1,631 fish/ha, with a 95% confidence interval of +/- 2,010 fish/ha based on 7 transects (Table 3). Targets corresponding in size with alewife were concentrated in the upper 5 m of the water column. The distribution of targets throughout the lake was highly skewed; the first 3 transects in the north end of the lake averaged 4,586 fish/ha, while the remaining 4 transects averaged only 394 fish/ha. The area just south of the Sunken Island Shoal (42º 47.32’ N, 74º 53.41’ W) had target densities of 45,596 fish/ha; these targets appear to be fish, rather than noise or other suspicious-looking echoes. Alewife aggregations in the spring might be related to spawning activities, but aggregations of this magnitude in the fall are perplexing, and make the survey results difficult to interpret (the confidence limits encompass zero fish/ha). Further complicating matters is the use of a different acoustic setup and frequency in 2006.

The fall gillnet survey caught 401 alewife (8.4 fish/net-h), of which only 18% were young of the year (<95 mm). YOY alewife averaged 79 mm and 4.0 g in the nets, and older alewife averaged 122 mm and 14.7 g. Abundance of alewife was estimated to be 294 YOY/ha and 1,337 adults/ha. The biomass of YOY and adult alewife in fall of 2006 was estimated to be 1.2 kg/ha and 19.7 kg/ha, respectively, for a total biomass of 20.9 kg/ha. YOY were much less abundant in 2006, compared to last year when there were 8,032 yoy/ha in October. Larger fish targets (-35 dB and larger) occurred in the 15- 40 m depths at a density of approximately 19.4 fish/ha (95% CI +/-19 fish/ha, Table 2).

Abundance of alewife in the fall (Figure 1) has varied in a cyclical pattern, from a low of 1,400 fish/ha in 2000 to almost 11,000 fish/ha in 2002. These alewife densities are mostly within the range of densities observed in the Finger Lakes (1500-4000/ha, Cornell University, unpublished data) though higher in some years in Otsego Lake. Densities of alewife in Cayuta Lake (a small, highly productive shallow lake in Schuyler County) have shown a similar range in densities (2,000-12,000 fish/ha from 1995-2005, Cornell University, unpublished data) as Otsego Lake. Cause for these large, cyclical fluctuations in alewife abundance have often been attributed to cannibalism by adult alewife on their own larvae, predation by walleye and salmonid predators, winter kills and die-offs due to dramatic changes in thermal regimes from sudden wind events (Crowder 1980, Eck and Wells 1987, Jones et al. 1993).

We should note that the two years we used the different acoustics setup had the two lowest alewife densities in the data set, which raises concerns about their comparability. We sampled simultaneously with both units in Fall 2005 on Otsego Lake and on Oneida Lake. The densities in Otsego Lake compared very well (within 5% of each other). However, in the Oneida Lake survey, the density from the Biosonics unit was about 1.9 times higher. It’s possible the higher frequency (with narrower beam angle) is not as comparable in a shallow lake like Oneida, plus there were different size fish targets present in Oneida. We have obtained similar fish densities with 70 and 120 kHz in Lake Erie in past studies (Rudstam et al. 1999). There have been some discrepancies between different acoustics units used, however the 95% confidence intervals generally overlap in surveys done with both units at the same time (Mason and Schaner, 2001). A collaborative proposal between SUNY Oneonta, SUNY Cobleskill, and Cornell University has been submitted to the National Science Foundation to obtain funding for additional acoustic gear to be located at SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station. If approved, this project would provide further monitoring of the alewife population and more intensive analysis of spring and fall hydroacoustic data for alewife and predators, along with comparisons between different acoustic frequencies. This will provide researchers with additional insight into the effects that walleye and salmonid predators may have on the Otsego Lake alewife population and other trophic interactions in Otsego Lake.

Table 1. Otsego Lake spring alewife density from acoustic surveys.

Date Alew (#/ha) # transects stdev 95% SE 2004 907 9 175 114 2005 236 9 214 137 2006 (Biosonics) 2522 10 1463 907

Table 2. Otsego Lake fall alewife density from acoustics surveys.

Date Alew (#/ha) # transects stdev 95% SE 9/16/1996 5170 7 1434 1063 10/12/1997 2053 9 798 521 10/1/2000 (Biosonics) 1382 8 925 774 10/13/2001 8562 9 3811 2490

10/1/2002 10901 16 4886 2394 10/10/2003 3851 16 2901 1421 10/9/2004 2418 9 1571 1026 10/5/2005 9562 9 3555 2322 10/26/2006 (Biosonics) 1631 7 2713 2010

Table 3. Estimated abundance of predator-size echoes from acoustics.

Date Predators (#/ha) N stdev 95% SE 9/16/1996 7.5 7 4.2 3.1 10/12/1997 3.3 9 3.4 2.2 10/13/2001 35.2 9 13.9 9.1 10/1/2002 15.2 16 10.7 5.2 10/10/2003 1.2 16 1.5 0.7 10/9/2004 3.5 9 4.7 3.1 10/5/2005 8.6 9 8.8 5.7 10/26/2006 19.4 7 25.6 19

Figure 1. Fall alewife density in Otsego Lake, 1996-2006, with 95% CI.

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000 Alewife density (#/ha)

2000

0 1998 1999 Oct. 1997 Oct. 2001 Oct. 2002 Oct. 2003 Oct. 2004 Oct. 2005 Sept. 1996 Oct. 2006 Oct. 2000 (Biosonics) (Biosonics)

LITERATURE CITED

Crowder, L. B. 1980. Alewife, rainbow smelt, and native fishes in Lake Michigan: competition or predation? Environmental Biology of Fishes 5:225-233.

Eck, G. W. and L. Wells. 1987. Recent changes in Lake Michigan’s fish community and their probable causes, with emphasis on the role of the alewife Alosa pseudoharengus. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 44(Supplement 2):53-60.

Harman, W.N., M.F. Albright and D.M. Warner. 2002. Trophic changes in Otsego Lake, NY following the introduction of the alewife ( Alosa Pseudoharengus ). Lake and Reservoir Management 18(3)215-226.

Jones, M. L., J. F. Koonce and R. O’Gorman. 1993. Sustainability of hatchery-dependent salmonine fisheries in Lake Ontario: the conflict between predator demand and prey supply. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 122:1002-1018.

Mason, D. M., and T. Schaner. 2001. Final report to the Great Lakes Fisheries Commisison for the acoustics intercalibration exercise in 1999.

Rudstam, L.G., and S. Hansson, T. Lindem, D. W. Einhouse. 1999. Comparison of target strength distributions and fish densities obtained with split and single beam echo sounders. Fisheries Research 42(3): 207-214.

Wanzenbock, J., T. Mehner, M. Schulz, H. Gassner, and I. J. Winfield. 2003. Quality assurance of hydroacoustic surveys: the repeatability of fish-abundance and biomass estimates in lakes within and between hydroacoustic systems. Ices Journal of Marine Science 60:486-492. Water quality and species diversity survey of Thayer Farm ponds, summer 2006

Aaron Payne 1 Brian Butler 2

INTRODUCTION

Obtained through donation in 2000, the Thayer Farm located in Springfield consists of about 100 acres of active farmland surrounded by 164 acres of woodland and 1.6 acres of lakefront property (Gifford 2003, Meehan 2003). Scattered throughout the farm property are eleven man-made ponds (Figure 1). Originally the ponds had been habitually wet areas unable to be farmed; once dug out, they were traditionally used as bait ponds. Many of the ponds lie in close proximity to each other. Ponds 1 and 2 are connected by a small stream and ponds 3 – 8 (collectively called the “chain ponds”) can connect in times of high water (Meehan 2003). The purpose of this study was to begin and continue water quality monitoring of the Thayer Farm ponds as well as to establish baseline information with respect to fish, plant and zooplankton species presence and diversity and to catalogue the ponds’ physical characteristics such as depth at center, surface area and approximate volume. An analogous, though more abbreviated, water quality study was conducted in the summer of 2002 (Meehan 2003).

Figure 1. Map of the Thayer Farm indicating pond designations and locations with black dots identifying water quality sampling locations surveyed over summer 2006 (from Meehan 2003).

1 Biological Field Station Intern, summer 2006. Present affiliation: SUNY Oneonta, NY. 2 Peterson Family Conservation Intern, summer 2006. Present affiliation: SUNY Oneonta, NY.

METHODS

Water quality

Water samples from all eleven of the Thayer Farm ponds were collected over a two-day window beginning on 20 June 2006. The water samples were analyzed for total phosphorus, total nitrogen, nitrite+nitrate and ammonia. The aforementioned tests were preformed once using the Lachat QuickChem FIA+ ® water autoanalyzer. Table 1 shows a summary of methodologies used to conduct the above tests. A Hydrolab Scout II ®, (Hydrolab Corp. 1993) calibrated according to the manufacturer’s instructions preceding its employment, was used to determine parameters such as conductivity (mmho/cm), dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/l), pH and temperature (degrees Celsius) at each site. Hydrolab testing in ponds 1-10 was done from a few meters off shore. The Hydrolab testing was conducted twice in each pond over a three week period, beginning on 20 June 2006. In pond 11 Hydrolab testing was done from a boat at 1m intervals starting at the surface and ending just above the bottom (this was the only pond having a maximum depth greater than 1.7m). All test sites are indicated in Figure 1.

Parameter Preservation Method Reference Total Phosphorus-P H2SO 4 to pH<2 Persulfate digestion Liao and Marten, followed by single 2001. reagent ascorbic acid Total Nitrogen-N H2SO 4 to pH<2 Cadmium reduction Pritzlaff, 2003; method following Ebina et. al 1983. peroxodisulfate digestion Nitrite+Nitrate-N H2SO4 to pH<2 Cadmium reduction Pritzlaff, 2003.

Ammonia-N H2SO 4 to pH<2 Phenolate Liao 2001.

Table 1. Summary of laboratory methodologies used on Thayer ponds nutrient data calculations, summer 2006.

Physical Characteristics

Pond depths were taken from a canoe using a hand held depth-meter. Measurements were taken at three points in transect along the length of each pond for oblong ponds such as ponds 8, 9 and 11. For all other ponds only a center depth measurement was taken. The surface area of the ponds was found using aerial photos with a known scale and a Tamaya Planix 5,6 planimeter, used according to the instruction manual (Tamaya Technics Inc). Surface area and depth measurements were used to calculate approximate volume of the ponds. For the sake of calculating volume, it assumed that each pond was conical in shape. The formula used was volume= surface area x ⅓ maximum depth.

Zooplankton

Zooplankton sampling sites for all ponds were the same as the water quality sampling sites (see Figure 1); samples were taken in the same two-day window, beginning on 20 June 2006. An approximate volume of 5 liters of surface water was concentrated to a volume less than 100mL using a 63µm meshed plankton filter. The samples were put in a sample bottle and kept cool until preserved in 70% ethanol. Each preserved sample was further concentrated to a final volume of 100 ml, giving a final concentration factor of 50x. Three separate 1ml sub-samples were viewed on a Sedgwick rafter cell under a research grade compound microscope with digital imaging capabilities. Any zooplankton found was identified and measured.

Species Presence and Diversity: Fish

The ponds varied in character to the extent that no single protocol could reasonable survey the fish communities. Therefore, three methods of collection were employed, including the use of minnow traps, seining and electrofishing. Five minnow traps were placed in ponds 1-10. Traps were placed in ponds 6-10 on 19 June 2006 and removed 27 June, while traps were placed in ponds 1-5 on 27 June 2006 and removed on 5 July. Traps were baited with bread and crackers and placed in the sites where water quality was evaluated.

Seining was performed on 15 June 2006 and on 14 July 2006 in pond 11. On each day, two locations were seined: off the southwest shore and off the northwest shore. The technique used mimics that of the 2005 Moe Pond study (Dresser 2006). Fish were collected using a 200ft haul seine deployed with a john boat. Lengths (mm) of all fish collected were recorded and scale samples and stomach contents were taken from fish larger than 150 mm. Using a microprojector the annual rings on the scales were counted to determine age of the specimen. A standard gastric lavage was used to dispel the stomach contents into sample bags (Foster 1977). Stomach contents were preserved in 70% ethanol and identified using Perckarsky et. al. (1990).

Seining was also done on 26 July 2006 in ponds 2, 9 and 10. A 25ft shore seine was used to collect fish. Species and number collected was recorded; lengths and stomach contents were not collected because all fish collected were less than 150mm.

Electrofishing was preformed with a Smith-Root backpack unit along the shoreline of ponds 1 and 3-8, in areas that were accessible and depth permitted. Times the ponds were fished ranged from 176 seconds to 350 seconds. Stunned fish were collected using hand-held scap nets and transferred to a five gallon bucket. Note of species and number collected was recorded; lengths and stomach contents were not collected because all fish collected were less than 150mm. Standard electrofishing procedures as outlined by Murphy (1996) were used. .

Species Presence and Diversity: Aquatic Vegetation

The qualitative collection of plants was done in all ponds except pond 9, which was devoid of any visible plant life, on 21 June 2006. Two methods were used in determining species presence and diversity in the Thayer Farm ponds. In ponds 1-8 hand harvesting was done. In ponds 10 and 11 a plant rake was used. Plant samples collected were placed in plastic bags, brought back to the Field Station and identified. Specimens were mounted and curated.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Limnology/ Water Quality

All summer mean nutrient and physical water quality data from the eleven ponds in 2006 are shown in Table 2. That table also shows comparative physical water quality data from the Thayer ponds averaged over summer 2002. Ponds 3 and 4 were not tested in 2002 due to low water levels (Meehan 2003).

Pond 10 exhibited the highest average surface water temperature at 23.84°C, while pond 2 exhibited the lowest average surface temperature at 19.4°C (Table 2). The temperature readings collected by Meehan in 2002 were consistently higher than the 2006 figures, varying up to 8.57°C from the 2006 data.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) values colleted in 2003 were quite dissimilar from the values collected in 2006 (Table 2). The DO values collected from both years ranged of between 1.82mg/l and 14.39mg/l, with the 2002 values differing +/- 6.57mg/l from the 2006 values. Recorded values from both years for pH and conductivity were similar (Table 2), varying +/- 1.54 and +/- 0.120mmho/cm, respectively (Meehan 2003). In 2006, average dissolved oxygen was highest in pond 11 (11.27 mg/l) and lowest in pond 5 (3.12mg/l). Pond 3 had the lowest average conductivity and pH levels (.012mmho/cm and 6.225); Pond 10 had the highest average conductivity reading at .272mmho/cm, and pond 11 had the highest average pH of 8.22.

The levels of total phosphorus (TP) were generally higher in 2003 compared to 2006 with the exception of ponds 1, 7 and 10 (Table 2). Total phosphorus level ranged from 11.7µg P/L in pond 11 to 120µg P/L in pond 1.

The nitrite+nitrate levels were also higher in 2003 compared to those collected in 2006 (Meehan 2003) (Table 2). In 2006, ammonia and nitrite+nitrate readings were below detectable levels (< 0.02 mg N/L) (Table 2). Given that ammonia and nitrite+nitrate were below detection in all instances, and total nitrogen (TN) (which is comprised of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and organic nitrogen) was measurable, (ranging between 0.057mg N/L and 0.268mg N/L), virtually all nitrogen present in the Thayer ponds would have been bound in organic form, such as algae or other dissolved organic materials. Based upon the TN: TP ratio in algal biomass of 7 – 10 established by Vallentyne (1974), algal production in bodies of water with ratios greater than 10 should be expected to be limited by phosphorus; likewise, algal production in waters with ratios less than 7 are expected to be nitrogen limited. Because soluble nitrogen is lacking in the Thayer ponds, and the TN: TP ratios for all the ponds except for ponds 9 and 11 were less than 7 (Table 3) it appears that nitrogen, rather than phosphorus, is limiting algal production. The TN: TP ratios in ponds 9 and 11 fall within the 7 -10 range and therefore could potentially be limited by either nitrogen or phosphorus.

Diss. Total Total Nitrite + Temp. Cond. Ammonia Pond # Date Oxygen pH Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrate ( °C ) (mmho/cm) (mg N/L) (mg/l) (mg N/L) (µg P/L) (mg N/L) 1 19.40 8.40 0.156 7.87 0.199 BD 120 BD 2 18.02 10.71 0.243 7.87 0.125 BD 38.7 BD 3 23.79 7.22 0.124 6.23 0.195 BD 116 BD 4 20.67 4.89 0.135 6.63 0.175 BD 84.2 BD 5 20.24 3.12 0.137 6.61 0.216 BD 80.6 BD 6 20.94 4.45 0.130 7.11 0.268 BD 163 BD 7 22.56 8.89 0.150 7.22 0.194 BD 63.1 BD

8 2006 22.12 6.61 0.217 7.26 0.163 BD 31 BD 9 22.68 8.02 0.220 7.85 0.127 BD 16.8 BD 10 23.85 8.14 0.273 7.70 0.057 BD 15.2 BD 11 (0m) 23.71 11.27 0.205 8.22 0.098 BD 11.7 BD 11 (1m) 21.18 14.39 0.258 7.82 Data not taken 11 (2m) 18.06 9.04 0.258 7.44 Data not taken 11 (2.5m) 17.10 6.39 0.265 7.24 Data not taken 1 22.60 1.82 0.276 7.19 76 0.04 2 24.75 6.86 0.230 7.69 136 0.03 3 Data not taken 4 Data not taken 5 28.81 8.83 0.131 7.83 88 0.04 6 23.96 2.85 0.111 7.30 180 0.04 7 2002 28.60 11.12 0.074 9.36 30 0.03 8 28.13 7.92 0.172 8.80 66 0.02 9 28.59 9.35 0.245 8.09 63 0.08 10 26.80 8.10 0.159 7.90 15 0.02 11 27.07 6.56 0.334 7.72 19 0.02

Table 2. Average physical water properties (i.e. conductivity, dissolved oxygen concentration, pH and temperature) and nutrient data (i.e. total phosphorus, total nitrogen, nitrite+nitrate and ammonia) of Thayer ponds, summer 2006; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1. BD = below detection (< 0.02mg N/L).

Site Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4 Pond 5 Pond 6 Pond 7 Pond 8 Pond 9 Pond 10 Pond 11 0m TN:TP 1.66 3.23 1.68 2.08 2.68 1.64 3.07 5.26 7.56 3.72 8.40

Table 3. The calculated TN: TP ratios (mg N/L: µg P/L) of the Thayer ponds, as indicated in Figure 1, for the summer 2006.

Morphological Characteristics

Table 4 shows the depths, surface areas and estimated volumes of the Thayer ponds. A dash (—) indicates a measurement was not applicable and therefore not taken. The greatest center depth found in the ponds was 2.9 meters in pond 11. The shallowest recorded center depth was 0.9 meters in pond 8. Possible interference of submerged matter and/or plants may have created some discrepancies between measured and actual depths. Due to the shallow nature and locations of the Thayer ponds the likelihood of fluctuations in depths, surface areas and volumes is relatively high. The surface areas of the ponds are shown in Table 4, measured in both hectares and acres. Values for volume are approximated. The smooth sloped nature of the pond bottoms, the center depth typically being the maximum depth, and the mean depth was approximately one-third maximum depth were the grounds for the assumption that pond were conical in shape. The failure to take any irregularities in bottom surface into account when calculating volumes make any recorded figures inexact and disputable. Estimated pond volumes are shown in Table 4.

Center West East North South Surface Surface Volume Pond (m) bank (m) bank (m) bank (m) bank (m) area (ha) area (ac) (m 3) Pond 1 0.6 — — — — 0.03 0.08 61 Pond 2 1.1 — — — — 0.03 0.07 111 Pond 3 1.0 — — — — 0.03 0.08 99 Pond 4 1.1 — — — — 0.03 0.06 91 Pond 5 1.4 — — — — 0.05 0.12 223 Pond 6 1.5 — — — — 0.08 0.21 419 Pond 7 1.5 — — — — 0.08 0.21 404 Pond 8 0.9 1.0 1.3 — — 0.12 0.31 515 Pond 9 1.1 — — 1.0 1.1 0.24 0.58 886 Pond 10 1.6 — — — — 0.03 0.07 154 Pond 11 2.9 4.6 0.7 — — 1.49 3.66 22846 Table 4. Depths, surface areas and approx. volumes of Thayer ponds, summer 2006; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1.

Zooplankton On average, zooplankton densities were 66 individuals/l in the Thayer ponds, the most commonly found being nauplii (larval copepods). Figure 2 shows the quantity per liter by type of zooplankton found in each pond. The largest diversity of zooplankton was found in ponds 1 and 5 in which three different zooplankter types were found. Pond 6 had the highest total number of zooplankton per liter (207/l), and pond 10 had none. The average lengths of the zooplankton collected is shown in Table 5. 140

120

100 Bosmina 80 longirostris Cyclopoid 60 Nauplius

40 Keretalla cochlearis approx. numberapprox.liter per 20 Platyias quadricornis Unknown Rotifer 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 Asplanchna Pond priodontus Figure 2. Approximate number per liter of common zooplankton in Thayer ponds, collected on 20 and 21 June 2006; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure 1.

Average Species Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4 Pond 5 Pond 6 Pond 7 Pond 8 Pond 9 Pond 10 Pond 11 length ( µm) Cladocera Bosmina longirostris — 228 — — — — — — — — — 228 Copepoda Cyclopoid — — — — 343 — — — — — — 343 Nauplius 133 141 — 130 84 117 151 111 185 — — 132 Rotifera Keretalla cochlearis 172 — 160 126 — 94 96 — 81 — 83 116 Platyias quadricornis — — — 218 — — — — — — — 218 Unknown Rotifer 67 — — — — — — — — — — 67 Asplanchna priodontus — — 119 — — — — — — — — 119 Table 5. Average measured lengths of zooplankton collected on 20 and 21 June 2006 from Thayer ponds; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1.

Fish Presence and Diversity

The numbers and type of fish caught in each pond via minnow traps is shown in Figure 3. The category ‘Lepomis’ includes both blue gill ( Lepomis macrochirus ) and pumpkinseed ( Lepomis gibbosus ), many of which couldn’t be distinguished because they were too young. Also found in the minnow traps were golden shiners ( Notemigonus crysoleucas), fathead minnows ( Pimephales promelas ) and yellow perch ( Perca flavescens ). In ponds 2, 7 and 10 no fish were found in the minnow traps. Aside from fish, several other aquatic organisms were caught in the minnow traps. Commonly found in the minnow traps were rusty crayfish ( Orconectes rusticus ), and various types and life stages of amphibians.

25 Lepomis

20 Golden Shinner 15 Fathead Minnows 10 Yellow Perch

Number caughtr 5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 Pond

Figure 3. Fish caught in the Thayer ponds using minnow traps set on 19 June 2006 for ponds 6-10 and on 27 June 2006 in ponds 1-5; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure 1.

The relationship between length and age for fish seined from pond 11, the only pond having a balanced community of both forage and game fish, is shown in Figure 4. For all fish species collected, there was a positive correlation between length and age, (see trend line for large mouth bass ( Micropterous dolomieui ) on Figure 4, for example). Overall, pumpkinseeds were the most frequently documented fish, with 47 collected during the three seines. The next most commonly documented fish were large mouth bass, with32 collected, followed by 17 young of the year ‘Lepomis’, 9 redbreasts (Lepomis auritus ), 4 yellow perch and 1 golden shiner. The data collected from seining ponds in 2, 9 and 10, as well as electrofishing ponds 1 and 3-8, are shown in Table 6. ‘YOY’ indicates young of the year, or fish that were too young to distinguish species.

12

10

8

6

4 Large Mouth Bass Pumpkinseed Red Breast

Age(annual rings) scale Age(annual 2 Yellow Perch Linear (Large Mouth Bass) 0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 Length (mm)

Figure 4. Measured length in millimeters vs. age calculated through annual scale rings of fish seined from Thayer pond 11 on 15 June 2006; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1.

Pond Method Time Fathead Minnow Golden Shinner Pumpkinseed Lepomis (yoy) pond 1 Electorfishing 250 0 0 7 0 pond 2 Shore sein n/a 0 127 0 0 pond 3 Electorfishing 350 3 1 0 0 pond 4 Electorfishing 350 41 0 0 0 pond 5 Electorfishing 182 2 5 1 1 pond 6 Electorfishing 176 0 0 2 0 pond 7 Electorfishing 350 0 1 5 0 pond 8 Electorfishing 350 0 0 8 0 pond 9 Shore sein n/a 221 23 145 0 pond 10 Shore sein n/a 2 0 0 0 Table 6. Methods used, times electrofished and fish collected, from 26 July 2006 seining and electrofishing of Thayer ponds 1- 10; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1.

Figure 5 shows the stomach contents collected from the fish on the 15 June 2006 seining of pond 11. Most commonly found was diptera, with 190 aquatic and 16 terrestrial life stages found (including both aquatic and terrestrial life stages). Stomach contents were collected from 14 pumpkinseeds, 12 large mouth bass, 4 red breasts, 3 yellow perch and 1 golden shiner.

250

200

150

100

Numbersconsumed 50

0 Amphipoda Odonata Coleoptera Diptera Arachnid Mollusca larval fish juvenile fish Taxa

Figure 5. Collective fish stomach contents from 14 pumpkinseeds, 12 large mouth bass, 4 red breasts, 3 yellow perch and 1 golden shiner collected in the 15 June 2006 seining of Thayer pond 11.

Plant Presence and Diversity

Overall 16 different plant species were found in the Thayer ponds. Table 7 shows the plants present in the ponds; an “x” indicated plant presence. Not including pond 9, which had no visible plant life, each pond contained at least 2 different plant species. Pond 11 had the largest diversity,containing 7 different species of plants. Most commonly found throughout the ponds was Veronica sp. (needs verification)

Chara vulgaris x Eleocharis sp. x Elodea canadensis x Juncus spp. x Lemna minor x x x Nymphaea odorata x Potamogeton pectinatus x x x Potemogeton crispus x Potemogeton natans x Potemogeton oblongus x x Potemogeton zosteriformis x x x Sagittaria spp. x x Utricularia vulgaris x Vallisneria americana x Veronica sp. (needs verification) x x x x x

Table 7. Plant presence and diversity in Thayer ponds, summer 2006; pond numbers correspond to pond labels shown in Figure1.

CONCLUSION

The work conducted was designed to serve as a preliminary survey of the Thayer ponds physical and chemical water quality as well as an aquatic vegetation and fish presence and diversity survey. Aimed at being the grounds for detecting drastic changes in any of the above mentioned parameters, such as the introduction of a foreign species, and its effect on the state of the pond, no viable and all inclusive conclusions can be made with out future research and analysis.

REFERENCES

Dresser, K. 2006. Continued monitoring of the dynamics of Moe Pond after the introduction of smallmouth bass ( Micropterous salmoides ) and largemouth bass (Micropterous dolomieui ). In 38 th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai.1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.

Foster, J.R. 1977. Pulsed gastric lavage: An efficient method of removing the stomach contents of live fish. The progressive fish culturist 39:4.

Gifford, K. A. 2003. Thayer Farm Master Plan, 2003. Rensselaer, NY.

Hydrolab Corporation, 1993. Scout 2 operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flowinjection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Liao, N. and S. Marten, 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method).QuikChem ® Method 10- 115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Meehan, H. 2003. Physiochemical Survey of Thayer Farm Ponds. In 35 th Annual Report (2002). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Murphy, B.R. and D.W. Willis. 1996. Fisheries techniques, 2 nd edition. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, MD.

Peckarsky, B.L., P.R. Fraissinet, M.A. Penton and D.J. Conklin, Jr. 1990. Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Northeastern North America. Cornell University Press. Ithaca, NY.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

Somerville, T., and Albright, M.F. 2006. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2005. In 38 th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Tamaya Technics Inc. Digital planimeter Planix 5,6 instruction manual. Tamaya Technics Inc. Tokyo, Japan.

Vallentyne, J.R. 1974. The algal bowl. Can. Fish. Mar. Serv. Misc. Publ. 22.

Further archaeological investigations at the Thayer Homestead: Excavations at the Hop House/Barn

David P. Staley 1

ABSTRACT

Detailed mapping and limited excavations were conducted during 2006 at the Thayer Homestead Site. The subtle outline of a barn foundation was cleared and documented. The rubble alignments suggested the barn was composed of two rooms or spaces on the ground floor. Excavations bisecting one of the alignments found a totally dissolved wall with no apparent stacking or linear integrity. The foundation was casually constructed of dry laid, undressed, irregularly sized and shaped, rounded, locally available stone. Rather than a load-bearing component of the structure, the wall likely functioned to fill spaces between fieldstone piers, sill members of the barn superstructure, and the ground surface. Greater quantities of cut nails and other architectural artifacts were found on the wall mound and the interior of the wall. Unlike areas tested in the south end of the barn, no modern wire nails and roofing materials were recovered indicating that only that end of the barn was remodeled. Oral history regarding the site correlates with the archaeological findings and adds much detail to the record.

INTRODUCTION

The Thayer Homestead is one of several apparently well-preserved 19 th century historic farmstead sites located on SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station’s Rum Hill property in the Town of Springfield, Otsego County, New York (Figure 1). This investigation comprises part of a multi-year, multi-site, cooperative archaeological and historical research effort that will provide basic interpretive data about the sites for the Biological Field Station’s ongoing ecological educational program, contribute knowledge regarding historical agricultural practices, human ecological adaptations, illustrate to visitors the methods, techniques, and utility of archaeology and historical research, and will also provide educational opportunities for local primary and secondary school children.

1 Archaeologist, Project Manager. New York State Museum, Cultural Resource Survey Program, Albany, New York.

Figure 1. Approximate location of Thayer site.

The overall history, context, and research goals for the Thayer Homestead project have been outlined previously (Staley 2006). In brief, the Thayer Homestead site consists of a house foundation, several barn foundations, chicken coop, and pigsty. A variety of historic artifacts such as glass, ceramics, metals, and farm machinery parts can be observed across the site. Based on historic maps, census materials, and oral history the Thayer homestead property was purchased in 1807, the house built in 1814, and used throughout the century by generations of the Thayer family (Reed 2006). Typical of post-Revolutionary War settlers of New York, the Thayers had emigrated from Massachusetts as an extended family to settle on the rocky, steep, upland locations similar to the lands they had left behind (VanWagenen 1963; Ryan 1981; Parkerson 1995). The Thayers were also typical in their balance of agricultural production and the sequence of agricultural adaptations and choices (McMurry 1995). Wood products supported the farm’s establishment, however the Thayer’s broad balance of production shifted through time with an emphasis on grain, sheep and wool, and then to hops, and then dairying and the production of butter and cheese (U.S. Federal Census 1850, 1870; Reed 2006). These transitions were typical of agriculture in this part of New York. At some point in the early 20 th century, the homestead and the upland lands were abandoned and the family occupied lower portions of their land closer to the more developed roadways and lake. Christiana (Dingman) Thayer, wife of Marcena Thayer and the last occupant of the house, died in 1914. The various agricultural structures on the property were used after this date. The house stood until the 1930s, the hop house/barn until at least 1940 (Reed 2006).

RESEARCH GOALS

Some of the larger, broader research questions approachable from the perspective of the Thayer site regard the evolution of farming in Otsego County and in New York. What was the nature of the agricultural and cultural adaptations on these upland properties? Can the relative involvement in the emerging marketplace be traced at both sites? What are the archaeological differences between the Thayer and the neighboring properties and do these provide clues as to the greater longevity, continuity, and success of the Thayer property? Can the archaeological record at the Thayer site reveal anything about the transition of agricultural practices and ultimately provide clues as to why this portion of the property was abandoned?

The limited excavations of the past year have much more humble research goals. Investigations hoped to refine the dimensions of a barn foundation, gather information about construction style and techniques, the age of barn construction and modifications, and perhaps recover information about function.

METHODOLOGY

The area of the barn foundation was cleared of tall grasses, branches, and woody debris exposing the low mounds and aligned rocks and boulders. The on-site grid was extended across the area of the barn foundation and the mounds and boulders were mapped. Students from a Cherry Valley-Springfield (CVS) Archaeology elective class, under the direction of social studies teacher William Nelson, excavated two test units. The test units (TUs 1 and 2) were positioned on the grid and straddled one of the low linear mounds suspected of being a barn foundation (Figure 2). These tests were 1 x 1m in size, dug to sterile soil, and students recorded artifacts recovered in situ , positions of rocks, and variations in soil strata. All sediments were screened with ¼ inch mesh.

Artifact analysis, treatment, and preparations for curation followed standards set forth by the New York Archaeological Council and the New York State Museum. The CVS students from the 2007 class conducted basic cleaning, stabilization, attribute analysis, and cataloguing.

Figure 2. Site map.

RESULTS

Subsequent to clearing, alignments of linear rubble mounds, isolated rubble mounds, and massive individual boulders were revealed as a rectangular outline measuring approximately 10 x 18 m (33 x 60 ft) (Figure 3). An interior wall, one of the more vertically intact and stacked segments, indicated the structure was separated into two rooms or areas. The smaller space or room on the south side of the barn measured approximately 10 x 5 m (33 x 16 ft). A swale or an open-ended depression in the mound might represent an entry centered eastern wall of the main barn space. It may also represent a crawl space feature or an early manure removal feature. Although highly conjectural, the barn superstructure may have been sized and positioned as shown on Figure 4. The barn outline approximates a 9 x 17 m (30 x 56 ft) footprint.

Figure 3. Barn foundation ruin.

Figure 4. Presumed superstructure location.

Two test units (TUs 1 and 2) were excavated spanning a segment of barn foundation. No evidence of an intact wall was observed. The rocks and boulders were of multiple sizes, rounded to irregular in shape, were not dressed, and there was no evidence of mortar. None of the stones were obviously stacked or sorted with only a slight concentration of larger rocks and multiple layers in TU 2 (Figure 5).

The tests found that the artifacts were confined to the compacted and rocky upper levels and thinned with depth. As expected for a barn, artifacts were largely of an architectural class. TU 1, in what might be assumed to be the exterior of the barn, soils were noted as a black silty loam. The arbitrary upper level averaged 14 cm thick and

Figure 5. Plan View of Test Units 1 and 2. contained eight cut nails, two cut nail fragments (with one of these appearing cinched), one large wrought nail that had been cinched. Cinched nails were historically used on batten doors and to fasten hardware. The upper level also contained an iron clasp or link similar to horse tack and a trace of charcoal. The lower level, excavated to 30 cm below the surface, contained four cut nails, and two cut nail fragments and a brick fragment.

TU 2, positioned more toward the interior of the barn, contained soils described as a dark yellow brown clay loam matrix surrounding rocks and cobbles. These compacted soils contained greater numbers and varieties of artifacts in both levels. Artifacts recovered from the upper 15 cm included five medium sized brick fragments, one large cut nail, two medium cut nails, a fine cut finish nail or brad (possible upholstery nail), three cut nail fragments, a gimleted screw, a single fragment of aqua colored window glass, and a possible piece of window glazing. The lower level revealed two more brick fragments, seven cut nails, 11 cut nail fragments, and two small pieces of tarpaper.

DISCUSSION

Oral history provided by William Reed (Reed 2006), the grandson of William J. Thayer or William III (b. 1858), describes some aspects of the barn layout, construction, and function. Mr. Reed recollects the barn located and oriented in the manner of this foundation. The barn was originally a hop house of two floors and no cellar. It was changed into a general barn by his grandfather when he stopped growing hops around 1920. The barn was used after that time to store hay in the loft and grain in bins in the front and to house farm equipment. He specifically recalled a two wheeled racing sulky and a horse drawn grain drill stored in the barn. The barn was built on timber sills supported by a fieldstone foundation made of stones gathered from nearby agricultural fields. A large door faced the road or away from the creek with a smaller door above providing access to the hayloft. There were horse stalls near the front of the barn on one side. At least one window was located on the side facing the house although there were likely others. The interior of the barn was partitioned and separated from the rest of the barn by an interior door. Mr. Reed recalled it being “full of stuff” as his “grandfather would have been considered a pack rat in today’s parlance.” The barn, as well as other buildings, had wooden shingle roofing until at least 1930. Any repairs or modifications would have occurred afterward. Mr. Reed recalls the barn as the last standing structure on the property around 1941.

The data gathered through archaeological investigations correlates with Mr. Reed’s boyhood recollections. The predominance of cut nails and the use of clinched wrought nails corroborate the construction of the barn in the early 19 th century. It is interesting to note that the more modern wire nails and roofing materials have been found only in the southern portion of the barn from STP 3 (Staley 2006; Sardella 2005) suggesting that perhaps only a portion of the barn roof was modernized. The window glass and the glazing suggest a window along this section of wall. The brick fragments remain a puzzle although might be related to any hearth used to provide heat in barn when it functioned as a hop house. The iron clasp, buckle, or link probably functioned to connect a strap, chain, or rope related to horse traction. Further work could precisely identify this unique artifact. The dissolved remains of the fieldstone wall did not suggest a great deal of construction effort or permanence. It seems likely this segment was not a load-bearing component but functioned to fill spaces between fieldstone piers, sill members of the barn superstructure, and the ground surface.

FUTURE WORK

At this stage in the program, we are unable to draw conclusions in regard to any of our overall research questions. We have discovered some facts about the barn and oral history has provided some rich details about the Thayer Homestead. However humble our basic research questions and results, it is hoped that they will ultimately contribute to the greater questions regarding agricultural adaptations. This season’s work will include further mapping, testing, and excavations near the house, barns, and outbuildings focusing on the correlation of oral history and the physical remains at the site. The continued involvement of Mr. Reed is greatly anticipated. The field investigations and continued analysis will involve SUNY Oneonta Anthropology students and high school students from Cherry Valley – Springfield Central School.

REFERENCES CITED

McMurry, S.1995. Transforming Rural Life: Dairying Families and Agricultural Change, 1820-1885. John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.

Parkerson, D.H.1995. The Agricultural Transition in New York State: Markets and Migration in Mid-Nineteenth century America. Iowa State University Press. Ames.

Reed, W. 2006. Personal communications with the author. September 24, October 6, and October 20, 2006.

Ryan, M.P. 1981. Cradle of the Middle Class: the Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge University Press. New York.

Sardella, J. 2005. Analysis of Thayer Farmstead in Cooperstown, New York. Class Paper for Anthropology 343 and Dr. Renee Walker.

Staley, D. P.2006. Preliminary Archaeological Investigations at the Thayer Homestead. In 2005 Annual Report of the Biological Field Station. State University of New York-College at Oneonta, Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, N.Y.

U.S. Federal Census. 1850. Agricultural Schedules of the Seventh Census of the United States. New York State, Otsego County, Town of Springfield. Microcopy 432, Roll 562. 1963 National Archives and Record Service. General Services Administration.

1870 Agricultural Schedules of the Ninth Census of the United States. New York State, Otsego County, Town of Springfield. Microcopy 593, Roll 1059, Vol. 77. 1965 National Archives Microfilm Publication.

VanWagenen, J.1963. Golden Age of Homespun. Hill and Wang. New York.

Continued monitoring of fish community dynamics and abiotic factors influencing Moe Pond, summer 2006

Erika Reinicke 1 Georgette M. Walters 1

INTRODUCTION

Moe Pond (Figure 1) is a eutrophic water body located on the Upper Site of the Biological Field Station in Otsego Country, New York. Moe Pond is the headwater to Willow Brook, a tributary to Otsego Lake (Albright 2005). It is a 38.5 acre (15.6 ha) impoundment with an average depth of 1.8 m and is 3.8 m at the deepest point (Sohacki 1972), though in 2006 the maximum depth encountered was 2.3 m. Historically, Moe Pond had a fish community consisting of golden shiners ( Notemigonus crysoleucas) and brown bullhead ( Ictalurus nebulosus). Golden shiners, being efficient planktivores, suppressed the abundance of zooplankton. Low algal grazing caused lower transparencies in Moe Pond due to algal blooms. During this time, rooted plants were absent (McCoy et al. 2000). In 1999, the unauthorized stocking of largemouth bass (Micropterous salmoides) and smallmouth bass ( M. dolomieu i) caused trophic changes in Moe Pond (Lopata 2004). Following the bass introduction, high piscivory on shiners caused a change in top down predation (Tibbits 2000). As large bodied zooplankton rebounded, algal grazing increased and the pond became more transparent. Clearer waters allowed for the establishment of rooted plants, namely Elodea canadensis, beginning in 2002. It practically covered the pond’s surface in 2002. As the bass’ forage was depleted, they turned to other food sources, including crustacean zooplankton, apparently functionally replaced the shiners as planktivores. The zooplankton population was reduced, causing an increase in phytoplankton and reduced rooted macrophyte communities (Dresser 2005).

Annual surveys of Moe pond were started in 1999 after the discovery of bass by Wilson et al. (2000). The surveys assessed the fish (including relative abundances, diet and age structure), macrophyte and zooplankton communities. Physical and chemical water quality parameters were also assessed on a weekly basis.

The purpose of this study is to continue the monitoring of tropic changes in Moe Pond. Continuing limnological and ecological surveys of Moe Pond will lend to better management of water quality and fish communities of small eutrophic ponds.

1 Robert C. MacWaters Internship in the Aquatic Sciences, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Technology, SUNY Agriculture and Technical College.

Figure 1. Bathymetry of Moe Pond, Otsego County, NY showing the sampling location. Contours in meters (modified from Sohacki 1972).

METHODS

Water Quality Moe pond was monitored weekly from 5 May to 1August 2006. Data were taken at the deepest point of the pond at 2.3m marked with a buoy (N 42 50.153’, W 075 40.112’). Physical data were collected using a Hydrolab Scout or a Eureka Manta. Calibration was done according to manufacturer’s specifications prior to use. (Eureka 2005, Hydrolab 1995). At one meter intervals from the surface to the bottom, temperature (degrees C), dissolved oxygen (mg/l), conductivity( us/cm) and pH were taken. A standard Secchi disk was used to measure transparency.

Surface water samples were collected each week and were analyzed for total phosphorous (ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion; Liao and Marten 2001), total nitrogen (cadmium reduction method; Pritzlaff 2003) following peroxodisulfate digestion (Ebina et al. 1983), ammonia (phenolate method; Liao 2001), and nitrate+nitrate-nitrogen (cadmium reduction method; Pritzlaff 2003). All of these parameters were analyzed using a Lachat QuickChem FIA+ Water Analyzer ®.

Chlorophyll a was also measured each week. The samples were collected in a plastic Nalgene bottle and returned to the lab. Under subdued light, samples were processed in duplicate and run through a Whatman GF/C filter, each filter having 100ml passed through. Then the filters were cut and placed in buffered acetone. The filters were ground with an electric drill to extract the chlorophyll. The amount of chlorophyll a was determined by a Turner flourometric reader (Welschmeyer 1994).

Fish/Zooplankton Community Zooplankton samples were collected using a Van Dorn bottle. Five liters of water was filtered trough a 63um mesh screen, concentrated, and preserved in 70% ethanol in the lab . Volume was recorded to back calculate the number of zooplankton per liter. Three 1 ml samples were viewed in a sedgewich-rafter cell using a compound microscope. Each zooplankton found was measured, identified and recorded.

The fish community of Moe Pond was sampled on 30 May, 5, 14 June, and 11 July, 2006. A 200 ft haul seine was used to capture and collect fish. Similar methods were used in 2000 and 2001 were seining was used to collect fish by Tibbits (2001) and Wojnar (2001). In 2003 and 2004 Hamway (2004, 2005) used an electrofishing boat to collect samples due to an inability to seine because of the large standing crop of rooted macrophytes.

Each seine was conducted on the south shore off the west side corner. Seines were set using a john boat. On 14 June and 11 July seines were also run on the south shore along the east side, directly above the outlet. Captured fish were measured (mm) and a scale sample was taken from fish over 150mm. Scales were taken from above the lateral line, directly behind the operculum. Scales were aged using a microprojector to determine the number of annuli. Pulsed gastric lavage, as described by Foster (1977), was used to extract stomach contents from live fish over 150mm. Stomach contents were then identified in the lab using Pecharsky (1990).

Largemouth bass population size was estimated through the area extrapolation method. The area seined was estimated to be 300m 2 . The number of bass caught per seine was divided by the area seined. The number of fish per m 2 was then multiplied by 155,800m 2 , the area of Moe Pond. Though this method is not considered to accurately estimate population size, it can be considered a proxy of abundance (Lopata 2004), thereby allowing for relative year to year abundance estimates.

Invertebrate Community Survey The invertebrate community at Moe Pond was surveyed on 13 July 2006. The samples were taken using a semi-quantitative method at the south end and the northwest end of the Pond. The sites were chosen due to their similarity in macrophyte cover and benthic composition. Triangle nets were used to collect invertebrates. Nets were swept along the shore for 3 minutes in a 7m section. All rock and plant material was carefully scoured. Materials and organisms collected were stored in glass collection jars and preserved in 70% ethanol. Invertebrate organisms were then identified according to Pecharsky (1990).

Macrophyte Community No formal marcophyte survey was conducted on Moe pond during 2006. However, widespread growth of Elodea canadensis was evident. In addition, filamentous algal growing on the Elodea became prolific, starting in July.

RESULLTS AND DISCUSSION

Limnology Moe Pond limnological data from 1972 to 2006 is presented in Table 1. After bass were introduced in 1999, Moe Pond water quality seemed to improve in that total phosphorus and cholorphyll a decreased and transparency increased (Lopata 2004). However, in 2004 and 2005 conditions seemed to revert to what they had been prior to the bass introduction. In 2006, improved water quality parameters again prevailed.

1972 1994 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 0.85 1.2 1.1 1.26 1.26 2.20 NA >2.2 >2.33 Secchi Depth (m) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.13) (0.13) (0.15) 36.7 26.4 29.05 42.29 56.64 26.91 40-70 NA NA Total phosphorus (ug/l) (3.7) (2.6) (2.12) (2.04) (7.44) (5.49) 0.14 0.11 0.10 0.01 0.31 NA <0.05 NA NA Nitrite+nitrate (mg/l) (0.02) (0.02) (0.01) (.006) (0.04) 25.6 20.4 12.0 9.76 22.94 17.03 20.53 NA 37.1 (2.2) Chlorophyll a (0.20) (8.1) (2.4) (2.49) (4.4) (2.41) (19.4) 17.0 16.0 2.1 26-37 18.0 (0.4) NA NA NA Alkalinity (0.2) (0.5) (0.1) 7.93 8.63 8.66 9.08 6.84 7.3 7.66 6.8-10.2 7.30 pH (0.37) (0.35) (0.32) (0.18) (0.44) (0.07) (0.62)

Table 1. Summer mean values (+/- standard error) of Secchi transparency, total phosphorus, nitrite+nitrate , chlorophyll a, alkalinity and pH for Moe Pond, 1972, 1994 and 2001-2006. In 2002 and 2003, Secchi transparency often exceeded water depth.

Fish Community Golden shiners were not collected over the study, and have not been collected since 2003 (Hamway 2004). Given that, it is likely that they have been extripated from Moe Pond. In addition, there were no smallmouth bass found in 2006. This is the first year smallmouth bass have not been found in Moe Pond since they first appeared in 1999 (Wilson 2000).

Table 2 provides a summary of population estimates (+/- standard error) since monitoring began in 1994, though in 2002 and 2003 luxuriant Elodea growth prevented seining (Hamway 2004). In those years, data represent catch per hour during electrofishing surveys

Year Golden Shiner Largemouth Bass Smallmouth Bass 1994 (McCoy et al. 2000) 7,154:+12,701;-6,356 0 0 1999 (Wilson et al., 2000) 3,210+/- 1,760 1,588+/- 650 958+/- 454 2000 (Tibbits, 2001) 381+/- 296 2,536+/- 1,177 945+/- 296 2001 (Wojnar, 2002) 1,708+/- 1,693 3,724+/-3,447 504+/- 473 2002 (Hamway, 2003) 1 3 206 20 2003 (Hamway, 2004) 1 2 318 1 2004 (Lopata, 2005) 0 6,924+/- 2,912 0 2005 (Dresser, 2005) 0 12,019+/- 3,577 223+/- 257 2006 (Current ) 0 11,555.17+/- 0 Table 2. Golden shiner, largemouth bass and smallmouth bass abundances (+/- standard error), 1994, 1999-2001 and 2004-2006. 1 Indicates years during which Elodea growth prohibited seining. Data reported as fish collected per hour of electrofishing.

A summary of length vs. age is given in Figure 2. Age was estimated by viewing scales. The seined largemouth bass in summer 2006 were all under 380mm and 7 years of age. The figure shows there are three dominant size distributions at young of the year, one year old and three year old fish.

Moe Pond Length vs Age

8 7 6 5 4 3

Age (years) Age 2 1 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Length (mm)

Figure 2. Largemouth bass length vs. age for Moe Pond, summer 2006.

Figure 3 summarizes the diet analysis of largemouth bass over 2006, providing the mean number of each food item per stomach and the percent frequency of occurance (the percentage of bass having one or more of each food item in their stomachs). Consistent with most recent years, dipterans were the most common taxon consumed. However, the second most prevalent taxon found was amphipoda, whereas odonatates has been predominant in previous year (Lopata 2004). Daphnia numbers per stomach, while common, have continued to decrease, as they have since 2004.

Taxa Mean per stomach % Occurrence Largemouth Bass Acariformes 0.01 7.14 Copepod 0.09 7.014 Amphipoda 3.44 42.86 Ephemeroptera 0.07 8.57 Odanata 1.43 32.86 Hemipetra 0.07 7.14 Coleoptera 1.77 25.71 Daphnia 10.81 25.71 Diptera 5.8 68.57 Decapoda 0.07 7.14 Arachnid 0.1 8.57 Ostracod 0.23 4.29 Mollusca 0.07 5.71 Ictaluria nebulosus 2.86 8.57

Table 3. Stomach contents, including mean number of items per stomach and percent occurrence of each, of largemouth bass collected in Moe Pond, summer 2006.

Invertebrate Community Invertebrates collected and documented in 2006 (Table 4) were found to be significantly less then in previous years (Lopata 2004).

South End North End Taxa # Collected Taxa # Collected Hirudinea 2 Hirudinea 12 Planorbidae (Rams Horn Planorbidae (Rams Horn Snails) 0 Snails) 1 Valvatidae (Valve Snails) 7 Valvatidae (Valve Snails) 20 Sphaeriidae (Finger Nail Sphaeriidae (Finger Nail Clams) 0 Clams) 1 Amphipoda (Scuds) 6 Amphipoda (Scuds) 36 Acariformes (Water Mites) 2 Acariformes (Water Mites) 2 Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) 1 Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) 8 Trichoptera (Cadisflies) 4 Trichoptera (Cadisflies) 12 Hemiptera 7 Hemiptera 4 Anisoptera (Dragonflies) 1 Anisoptera (Dragonflies) 2 Zygoptera (Damsleflies) 0 Zygoptera (Damsleflies) 4 Coleoptera (Beetles) 13 Coleoptera (Beetles) 9 Diptera (True Flies) 0 Diptera (True Flies) 0 TOTAL 43 TOTAL 111

Table 4. Invertebrate collected at Moe Pond, summer 2006. The lack of invertebrates could be attributed to the large bass population present in Moe Pond. The rocky shore where the inverts were collected may have actually hindered collection as there may be more invertebrates using plants as cover (Dresser 2005, Lopata 2004). Consistent with 2005 results, there were more species collected at the northern end of the pond. Also, similar to 2004 and 2005, the most abundant organisms found were amphipods and snails (Lopata 2004, Dresser 2005).

Zooplankton Community The mean abundance of zooplankton and their mean lengths, by taxa, for the summers of 2005 and 2006, are provided in Table 5. Mean abundances and lengths for each sampling period id given in Table 6. Densities were found to be significantly lower in 2006 then in recent years. It seems as though as the bass ate other available forage, they turned to alternative food sources, including large bodied zooplankton. The high chlorophyll a concentrations also indicate suppressed filtering rates.

Summer 2005 Summer 2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 32 304 Bosmina longirostris 3 360 Daphnia pulex 15 801 Daphnia pulex 2 204 Copepods Copepods Cylopoid sp. 43 541 Calanoid 1 497 Calanoid sp . 8 466 Cylopoid sp. 13 446 Nauplius sp. 26 218 Nauplius sp. 37 171 Rotifers Rotifers Kellicotia longispina 10 185 Asplanchna priodontus 7 353 Keratella cochlearis 321 103 Kellicotia longispina 7 134 Ostracoda 8 577 Keratella cochlearis 22 109 Unknown Rotifers 17 139 Polyartha vulgaris 0 234 Mean Total /L: 480 Mean Total/L: 92

Table 5. Zooplankton abundances and mean length in Moe Pond, summer and 2005 2006.

Moe Pond Moe Pond 5/25/2006 6/1/2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 0 Bosmina longirostris 10 182 Daphnia pulex 0 Daphnia pulex 0 Copepods 0 Copepods Calanoid 0 Calanoid 0 Cylopoid sp . 0 Cylopoid sp . 16 614 Nauplius sp. 40 154 Nauplius sp. 27 178 Rotifers Rotifers Asplanchna Asplanchna priodontus 23 116 priodontus 7 391 Kellicotia longispina 17 124 Kellicotia longispina 30 139 Keratella cochlearis 13 111 Keratella cochlearis 33 101 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Mean Total/L: Mean Total/L:

Moe Pond Moe Pond 6/7/2006 6/14/2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 0 Bosmina longirostris 3 79 Daphnia pulex 0 Daphnia pulex 0 Copepods Copepods Calanoid 0 Calanoid 0 Cylopoid sp . 17 515 Cylopoid sp . 0 Nauplius sp. 10 122 Nauplius sp. 0 Rotifers Rotifers Asplanchna Asplanchna priodontus 3 712 priodontus Kellicotia longispina 3 118 Kellicotia longispina 17 156 Keratella cochlearis 13 90 Keratella cochlearis 30 82 Polyartha vulgaris 3 234 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Mean Total/L: 49 Mean Total/L: 50

Table 6. Zooplankton abundance and mean length by week, summer 2006.

Moe Pond Moe Pond 6/27/2006 7/5/2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 7 157 Bosmina longirostris 0 Daphnia pulex 0 Daphnia pulex 0 Copepods Copepods Calanoid 0 Calanoid 7 497 Cylopoid sp . 7 539 Cylopoid sp . 40 257 Nauplius sp. 93 148 Nauplius sp. 7 248 Rotifers Rotifers Asplanchna Asplanchna priodontus 0 priodontus 20 242 Kellicotia longispina 0 Kellicotia longispina 0 Keratella cochlearis 30 89 Keratella cochlearis 47 181 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Mean Total/L: 137 Mean Total/L: 121

Moe Pond Moe Pond 7/11/2006 7/18/2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 0 Bosmina longirostris 0 Daphnia pulex 0 Daphnia pulex 3 204 Copepods Copepods Calanoid 0 Calanoid 0 Cylopoid sp . 30 420 Cylopoid sp . 20 339 Nauplius sp. 43 174 Nauplius sp. 47 190 Rotifers Rotifers Asplanchna Asplanchna priodontus 0 priodontus 7 198 Kellicotia longispina 0 Kellicotia longispina 0 Keratella cochlearis 20 147 Keratella cochlearis 17 91 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Mean Total/L: 93 Mean Total/L: 94

Table 6 (cont.). Zooplankton abundance and mean length by week, summer 2006.

Moe Pond Moe Pond 7/24/2006 8/1/2006 mean length mean length Species #/liter (µm) Species #/liter (µm) Cladoceran Cladoceran Bosmina longirostris 0 Bosmina longirostris 7 1020 Daphnia pulex 10 320 Daphnia pulex 3 87 Copepods Copepods Calanoid 0 Calanoid 0 Cylopoid sp. 0 Cylopoid sp. 3 438 Nauplius sp. 73 174 Nauplius sp. 30 148 Rotifers Rotifers Asplanchna Asplanchna priodontus 3 459 priodontus 0 Kellicotia longispina 0 Kellicotia longispina 0 Keratella cochlearis 20 92 Keratella cochlearis 0 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Polyartha vulgaris 0 Mean Total/L: 106 Mean Total/L: 43

Table 6 (cont.). Zooplankton abundance and mean length by week, summer 2006.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 2005. Changes in water quality in an urban stream following the use of organically derived deicing products. Lake and Reserv. Management. 21(1): 119- 124.

Albright, M.F., W.N. Harman, W.T. Tibbits, M.S. Gray, D.M. Warner and R.J. Hamway. 2004. Biomanifulation: A classic example in a shallow eutrohic pond. Lake and Reserv. Manage. 2(3):181-187.

Eureka Environmental Engineering. Amphibian User’s Guide. Eureka Manta TM 2005. Austin, TX.

Foster, J.R. 1977. Pulsed gastric lavage: An efficient method of removing the stomach contents of live fish. Prog. Fish Culturist 39(4): 166-169.

Hamway, R.J. 2003. Continued monitoring of Moe Pond after the unauthorized stocking of smallmouth and largemouth bass. In 35 th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hamway, R.J. 2004. Continued monitoring of Moe Pond after the unauthorized stocking of smallmouth and largemouth bass. In 36 th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W.N. 1972. Aquatic biology studies. In 4th Ann. Rept. (1971). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Hydrolab Corp. 1995. Scout TM operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.

Lopata, 2005. Fifth annual report on the status of Moe Pond following the stocking of Micropterous salmaoides and M. dolomieui. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta.,SUNY Oneonta.

McCoy, M.C.P., C.P. Madenjian, J.V. Adams, W.N. Harman, D.W. Warner, M.F. Albright and L.P. Sohacki. 2000. Moe Pond limnology ad fish population biology: an ecosystem approach. 33ed Occasional Paper. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Pecharsky, B.L., P.R. Fraissinet, M.A. Penton and D.J. Conklin 1990. Freshwater macroinvertebrates of northeastern Norht America. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

Sohacki, L.P. 1972. Limnologyical studies on Moe Pond. In 5th Ann. Rept. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Tibbits, W.T. 2001. Consequences and management strategies concerning the unauthorized stocking of smallmouth bass and largemouth bass in Moe Pond. In 33ed Ann. Rept. (2000) SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Welschmeyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorolphyll and pigments. Limnol. And Oceanogr. 39: 1985-1992.

Wilson, B. J. D.M.Warner and M.S.Gray. 2000. An evaluation of Moe ond following the authorized stocking of smallmouth and largemouth bass. In 32ed Ann. Rept. (1999). ) SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Wojnar, K.A. 2002. The continuing evaluation of Moe Pond after the unauthorized stocking of smallmouth and largemouth bass. In 34 th Ann. Rept. (2001). ) SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) population status in Otsego Lake

Norman D McBride 1

The NYSDEC Region 4 Fisheries Office has been netting Otsego Lake since 1969 to monitor the status of lake trout. The type of gill net and the six net locations have been the same over the 38 year monitoring period. The net consists of three 150 foot long multifilment gill nets sewn together to create one 450 foot net. Each 150 foot net consists of six 25 foot panels of 1.5, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 3, and 3.5 inch stretch mesh. The nets are set overnight in mid-September in water up to 140 feet deep. Typically, three nets are set one day, pulled the next day with the catch processed, and the nets reset in new locations.

During the September 2006 netting, a total of 104 lake trout were captured in five nets (a sixth net was vandalized and removed from the lake by persons unknown) for an average catch of 20.8 fish per net. The lake trout ranged in size from 7.3 to 31.9 inches with the largest fish weighing 11.3 pounds. Twenty seven lake trout were legal (>21 in) size. Of the 104 lake trout collected, 78 were wild fish and 26 were hatchery fish. All hatchery fish stocked since 1994, approximately 5,000 annually, are marked with a fin clip. The catch of 20.8 lake trout (Figure 1) and 5.4 legal size fish (Figure 2) per net are both record catches. These values suggest that the lake trout population in Otsego Lake is at a record high. It is not known if the current high population is sustainable or the result of increasing lake trout abundance that began around 1992.

The current high population can probably be attributed in part to the unauthorized introduction of alewives ( Alosa psuedoharengus ) into the lake sometime in the late 1980s. Alewife were first collect in 1988 and were abundant by 1991. In the pre-alewife period (1969- 86) the catch of lake trout ranged from 3.0 to 7.7 fish per net compared to 9.2 to 20.8 fish per net since 1992 (Figure 1). The pre- and post-alewife catch rate averaged 4.9 and 12.9 fish per net, respectively. The quality of the lake trout population has also improved over the last 40 years. From 1969 through 1986, the catch of lake trout 21 inches and larger ranged from an average of 0.1 to 0.9 fish per net compared to the 1.8 to 5.4 fish per net observed since 1992 (Figure 2). This represents an eight fold increase from the average of 0.4 legal fish per net during the pre- alewife period compared to 3.2 legal fish per net in the post alewife period.

The current lake trout population is at record levels. To maintain angling quality in Otsego Lake, NYS DEC changed the fishing regulations for salmonids effective October 1, 2006. The creel limit was changed from two fish (brown trout, lake trout, landlocked Atlantic salmon) in combination to one fish each. The catch of brown trout and landlocked Atlantic salmon is very low with most of the harvest being lake trout. To reduce the harvest of large lake trout, especially by ice anglers, the limit was reduced to one fish. The size limit on lake trout was also increased to 23 inches but this regulation will not take effect until October 1, 2007. The increased size limit is intended to protect almost all lake trout through their first spawning season. The current 21 inch size limit only protects about half the spawning population.

1 Biologist I (Aquatic) Region 4 Fisheries Office, Department of Environmental Conservation. Stamford, NY. 25

20

15

10 Catch per gillCatch net 5

0

9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5

6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Year

Figure 1. Lake trout netting history of Otsego Lake, 1969-2006.

6

5

4

3

2 Catch per gillCatch net

1

0 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 Year

Figure 2. Lake trout netting of legal fish (>21”) in Otsego Lake, 1969-2006.

Fisheries surveys of Greenwoods Conservancy, 2006

Alex Scorzafava 1

INTRODUCTION

Greenwoods Nature Conservancy is located in the town of Burlington, New York. The property is a 1,200 + acre nature preserve owned by the Peterson Family Trust and is protected through conservation easements held by the Otsego Land Trust. Cranberry Bog, a 70 acre bog/fen (Saba 2001), a 7 acre man made pond named Paradise Pond, and a number of small ponds are found on this property. In the summer of 2006 Paradise Pond, Cranberry Bog, and one of the small ponds near the Zakow farm entrance to the conservancy was seined in order to provide preliminary descriptions of the fish communities there.

In order to seine the larger Paradise Pond, a 200’ haul seine was used. The pond was sampled at four different locations in order to get a better representation of the entire pond. A 25’ shore seine was used on Cranberry Bog and the “Little Pond”.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Paradise Pond

Paradise Pond, a 7 acre manmade pond was seined for species richness on 28 July 2006. Seining was done on the southeast corner of the pond, the middle of the south shore, the southwest corner, and the northeast corner (Figure 1).

↑ N Figure 1. Paradise Pond, with the four seining locations indicated by black boxes.

1 Madison County Intern, Summer 2006. Present affiliation: St. Bonaventure University. Cranberry Bog

Cranberry Bog is located on the Greenwoods Conservancy. The bog receives runoff from a 600 acre area. It is protected under conservation easement by the Otsego Land Trust, and is protected under the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Law for protection of water quality and fragile and important wetland ecosystems ( Pagan, 1995). The bog was seined using a shore seine at two different locations in late July. Both samplings were done at the southern end of the bog near the dam. The sampling locations are shown on the map in Figure 2.

↑ N

Figure 2. Cranberry Bog, with the two seining locations indicated by the black boxes.

Little Pond

In addition to Paradise Pond and Cranberry Bog, a small pond off of Zakow road was sampled. This pond was sampled with a shore seine using the same technique used in Cranberry Bog.

RESULTS

Five different species of fish were found in the seining of Paradise Pond. Bluegill, pumkinseed, largemouth bass, yellow perch, and golden shiners were all found. The densities of those fish greater than 1 year of age are presented in Table 1. In addition to those presented there, 344 young of the year Centrachids (not identified to species) and 214 young of the year Largemouth Bass were collected.

Species Number Seined Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) 41 Lepomis gibbosus (Pumpkinseed) 19 Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass 11 Perca flavescens (Yellow Perch) 7 Notemigonus crysoleucas ( Golden Shiner) 5

Table 1. The numbers of fish species seined from Paradise Pond (young of the year fish were not included in this table).

Three different species of fish were caught in the seining of Cranberry Bog. Yellow perch, chain pickerel, and pumpkinseed were all caught using the shore seine. The densities of the fish caught can be found in Table 2.

Species Number Seined Perca flavescens (Yellow Perch) 3 Lepomis gibbosus (Pumpkinseed) 16 Esox Niger (Chain Pickerel 8

Table 2. Shows the numbers of fish caught in the shore seine during the sampling of Cranberry Bog.

Seining efforts in Little Pond produced only one species of fish, brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus ), with 13 being caught.

REFERENCES

Pagan, Rick. 1995. A study of Cranberry Bog, Greenwoods Conservancy. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY.

Saba, Alexis 2001. The effects of leather-leaf ( Chamaedaphne calyculata ) and speckled alder ( Alnus rugosa ) on plant biodiversity on Cranberry Bog. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY. Summer 2006 trap net monitoring of the littoral zone fish communities at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point

Georgette M. Walters 1

INTRODUCTION

In the summer of 2006 a continuation of trap net monitoring was conducted to evaluate the fish communities at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point, Otsego Lake, NY. This is an on going study from previous years leading back to 1979 (MacWatters 1980) at Rat Cove and 2002 at Brookwood Point (Gray 2002). Both Rat Cove and Brookwood Point are littoral zones, defined as areas at which light can penetrate to the bottom allowing for aquatic plant growth. In turn, many species of fish use this area for reproduction, and as a nursery, the alewife ( Alosa pseudohargenous ) being one (Foster 1995). Alewives were released into the lake by an unauthorized stocking which occurred in 1986 (Foster 1989). This introduction has altered the food web in the lake since alewife effectively consume zooplankton and larval fish (Cornwell 2005). With the reduction of zooplankton and additional nutrient input from the watershed (Harman et al. 1997), the algal crop has increased, decreasing water transparency and increasing rates of hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen depletion in the lake. Since their introduction, trap netting has been utilized to evaluate alewife abundance.

To take advantage of this under utilized forage base, walleye ( Sanders vitreus ) were stocked with permission from the New York State Department of Conservation from 2000 through 2006. Walleye are considered to be a natural predator of alewife and historically were common in the lake (Cornwell 2005). Additional interest has focused on any trophic changes which might follow any reductions in alewife abundance. Trap net data, as well as electrofishing and hydroacousatic data, have been collected on alewife to monitor population levels. Zooplankton communities were evaluated bi- weekly, as were physical and chemical limnological parameters (Albright 2007). Chlorophyll a concentrations were evaluated weekly over the summer (Stevens 2007).

MATERIALS & METHODS

Pennsylvania trap nets were set daily at approximately 0900hrs at both Rat Cove and Brookwood Point Monday through Thursday from 23 May to August 11 (Figure 1). The net was set at the tip of Brookwood Point, perpendicular to the point. The net at Rat Cove was set slightly southwest of the tip on Rat Cove. Nets were checked Tuesday through Friday at 0900hr, making net soak time 24 hours for each net. Fish were held in totes and transported back to the field station dock where species were identified, measured to the nearest (mm) and weighed on a digital scale to nearest 0.1g. They where then released with the exception of alewife, which were placed in plastic bags labeled with location and date and placed in the freezer for later use.

1 Robert C. MacWaters Internship in Aquatic Sciences, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Technology, SUNY Agriculture and Technical College.

Figure 1. Otsego Lake, depicting trap net locations at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The mean catch of both nets has continued to decline from previous years at both Rat Cove and Brookwood Point. Historically, that decline was primarily a reflection of declining numbers of alewife. In 2006, however, the total catch of non-alewife fishes declined as well. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the mean catch per week of all collected fish at Rat cove and Brookwood Point. Figures 2 and 3 graphically display the mean weekly catch of alewife and other fish at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point. The mean catch per week of combined species, and that of alewife, was lower at both sites than had ever been recorded. Also, the percentage of alewife of the total catch at both sites was lower then any previous year. During the current study year, no alewife where caught at Rat Cove. Figure 4 illustrates the decline in alewife catch per site.

While alewife abundance has declined since 2000, the mean length of alewife has generally increased in size from 2000-2006 (Figure 5.) This year’s mean catch shows slightly smaller alewife than the previous 2 years, though the size distribution was quite variable (Figure 6). However, large bodied zooplankton have continued to rebound, suggesting less predation by alewife (Albright et al. 2007)

Worth noting were two large flooding episodes of Otsego Lake during the study period. During these time periods the lake level rose significantly enough to flood both littoral zones. Both trap net sites experienced flooding beyond the normal shore line, perhaps rendering the traps ineffective. Also, visual observations where made of expired and expiring alewife on the surface of the lake after both large flooding episodes.

Rat Cove 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Total mean catch per week 141 96 41 87 25 8.7 5.5 Alewife 120.1 67.8 8 45.2 2.4 0.4 0 Golden Shiner 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.3 0 Pumpkinseed 9.7 20.8 15.1 32.8 12.9 4.6 2 Blue Gill 2 2.9 3.7 1.7 1.5 1.4 0.8 Redbreast Sunfish 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0 Rock Bass 1.6 1.5 3.8 1 1.8 0.5 0.5 Largemouth Bass 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0 Chain Pickerel 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 Atlantic Salmon 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0 0 Yellow Perch 2.5 0.5 1.3 0.3 1.2 0.3 0.6 White Sucker 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.1 1.9 0.2 0.5 Common Carp 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.1 Brown Bullhead 1.7 0.1 6.4 2.6 1.6 0.1 0 Spot Tail Shiner 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 Smallmouth Bass 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 Emerald Shiner 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 European Rudd 0.1 0 0.3 0.7 0.2 0 0.1

Table 1. Total mean weekly catch at Rat Cove and the catch contributed by each species, 2000-2006 (modified from Reynolds and Summerville 2006).

Brookwood Point 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Total mean catch per week 258 151 101 121 37 9.4 4.2 Alewife 224.2 137.3 77.4 94.7 12.6 5.7 1.4 Golden Shiner 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.8 1.6 0.3 0.1 Pumpkinseed 3.1 7.4 12 13.1 12.2 1.1 0.8 Blue Gill 6.5 0.9 0.9 1 0.8 0.5 0.3 Redbreast Sunfish 0.3 0 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.1 Rock Bass 7.7 3.5 4 3.8 3 1.1 0.3 Largemouth Bass 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.8 0 0.1 0 Chain Pickerel 0.3 0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 Atlantic Salmon 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.1 0 Yellow Perch 1.8 0.3 0.2 0 0.6 0.1 0.2 Walleye 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 White Sucker 4.9 0 1.7 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.3 Common Carp 2.1 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.3 0 0.2 Bluntnose Minnow 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 Brown Bullhead 6.7 0 1 3.6 4.2 0 0.1 Spot Tail Shiner 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 Smallmouth Bass 0 0 0 0.6 0.2 0 0 European Rudd 0 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 Common Shiner 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0

Table 2. Total mean weekly catch at Brookwood Point and the catch contributed by each species, 2000-2006 (modified from Reynolds and Summerville 2006)

140 120 Alewife 100 Others 80 60 40

Mean catch per week per catch Mean 20 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Figure 2. Mean weekly alewife and “other” (non-alewife) catch per unit effort at Rat, summer 2006.

250

200 Alewife Others 150

100

50 Mean catch per week per catch Mean

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Figure 3. Mean weekly alewife and “other” (non-alewife) catch per unit effort at Brookwood Point, summer 2006.

250 Rat Cove Brookwood Point 200

150

100

Alewives per set per Alewives 50

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Figure 4. Mean alewife catch per set, 2000-2002 (Gray and Foster 2003), 2003 (Burns 2004), 2004 (Leonard and Cheever 2005), 2005 (Reynolds and Summerville 2006) 2006.

155 150 145 140 135 130 125

Mean size (mm) size Mean 120 115 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Figure 5. Total mean length of alewife gathered in trap nets during the summer of 2000- 2006.

4

3

2

1

Frequency of Occurance of Frequency 0

5 5 0 0 5 5 5 95 00 10 25 35 50 60 70 1 10 1 11 120 1 13 1 14 145 1 15 1 16 1 17 Length (mm)

Figure 6. Length Frequency Histogram of Alewife caught from trap nets at Brookwood Point none where caught at Rat Cove.

CONCLUSION

This year’s data, in conjunction with those of previous years, suggests a decline in the alewife abundance in Otsego Lake. The size of the alewife, although slightly smaller than last year, was still larger than during years prior to 2003. This suggests that they are not being limited by a lack of resources, though might be controlled by predation. Though outside influences may have attributed to catching a smaller mean length for 2006, the overall trend of larger individual fish and a decrease in alewife abundance continues. Monitoring of both study sites is suggested so that future data can be collected and more concrete conclusions can be made.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F. 2007. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 39 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Bio,. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Albright, M.F., Hingula and R. Hamway. 2005. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2005. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Burns, R.E. 2004. Summary of littoral fish trap net catch at Rat Cove and Brookwood Point, Otsego Lake summer 2003. In 36 th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Cornwell, M.D. 2005. Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego Lake: Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top predator. Occas. pap. #40, SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Foster, J.R. 1995. The fish fauna of Otsego Lake watershed. In 28 th Ann, Rept. (1994). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Foster. J.R. 1990. Introduction of the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) in Otsego Lake. In 22 nd Ann. Rept. (1989). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Gray, M.S. and J.R. Foster. 2002. Summary of the trap net alewife ( Alosa pseudoharengus) catch in Rat Cove: 1989-2002. In 35 th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Harman, W. N., L.P. Sohacki, M. F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occas. Paper # 30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Leonard, P.P. and J. Cheever. 2005. Summer 2004 trap net monitoring of the fish community in the littoral zone at Brookwood Point and Rat Cove. In 37 th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

MacWatters, R.C. 1980. The fishes of Otsego Lake. Occas. Paper # 7. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Somerville, T.J. and Reynolds E.W. 2006. Summer 2005 trap net monitoring of the fish community in the littoral zone of Brookwood Point and Rat Cove. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Somerville, T.J. and M. F. Albright. 2006. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2005. In 38 th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Stevens, K. 2007. Chlorophyll a analysis of Otsego Lake, summer 2006. In 39 th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Monitoring the dynamics of Galerucella spp. and purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary and along the Otsego Lake shoreline, summer 2006

Caitlin M. Snyder 1

INTRODUCTION

Both the distribution and effectiveness of Galerucella spp. populations within Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary as a biocontrol of purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) continues to be monitored through the summer of 2006. Annual spring and fall monitoring of the impact of Galerucella spp. on purple loosestrife is updated in this report, as well as an Otsego Lake shoreline assessment of beetle distributions. Details of this study’s history can be found in Albright et al. (2004).

L. salicaria is an emergent aquatic plant that was introduced into the United States from Eurasia in the early 19 th century (Thomson 1987). Inhabiting wetlands, flood plains, estuaries and irrigation systems, purple loosestrife is regarded as an aggressive and highly adaptable invasive species which often creates monospecific stands. Recent efforts, which include both chemical application and the use of biocontrol methods, have focused on controlling L. salicaria where stands impede well-diversified wetland communities (Thomson 1987). Native aquatic plants that are often displaced by the presence of purple loosestrife include cattails ( Typha spp.), sedges ( Carex spp.), bulrushes ( Scirpus spp.), willows ( Salix spp.) and horsetails ( Equisetum spp.).

Efforts to control purple loosestrife at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary have employed applied insect herbivory. In June 1997, 50 adults each of Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla were introduced into Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary (N42°48.6’ W74°53.9), located at the northeastern end of Otsego Lake (Albright 2004). These leaf-eating beetles were initially released in cages from sites 1 and 2 (Figure 1). In 1998, sites 3-5 were introduced into the study in order to monitor the distribution of Galerucella over time to other stands of purple loosestrife (Austin 1998). Sampling sites were established with the intent being to monitor the qualitative and quantitative effects of the beetles on purple loosestrife and also to examine the extent of any recovery by the native flora (Austin 1997). It was expected that these beetles would lessen the competitive ability of purple loosestrife by feeding upon their meristematic regions, resulting in defoliation, impaired growth, decreased seed production, and increased mortality (Blossey et al. 1994).

In addition to the annual spring and fall monitoring of Galerucella spp., L. salicaria , and native plants, observations were made at sites along the shoreline of Otsego Lake in order to assess the current distribution of the Galerucella spp. from their original point of release in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary.

1 Rufus J. Thayer Otsego Lake Research Assistant, summer 2006. Present affiliation: Cazenovia College. METHODS

Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary Monitoring

Spring and fall monitoring were performed according to protocols established by Blossey et al. (1997). Observations of the insects and plants were made within the five 1m 2 quadrats, marked by four visible stakes (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary showing sampling sites. Sites 1 and 2 are 1997 Galerucella spp. stocking sites; sites 3-5 were established to evaluate the spread of Galerucella spp. within the Sanctuary over time .

Spring monitoring, which consisted of five components, was completed on 2 June 2006. This first assessment is typically completed within 2-3 weeks after overwintering adults appear (Blossey 1997). Galerucella spp. abundance was estimated in each life stage (egg, larva, adult) according to the established abundance categories (Table 1). The number of stems of L. salicaria within each quadrat were counted, and the five tallest were measured. The percent cover of L. salicaria and the percent damage attributable to Galerucella spp. were both estimated according to established frequency categories. Fall monitoring, which was completed on 10 August 2006, consisted of the same metrics measured in the spring monitoring along with the identification of native plant species and estimation of their percent cover within each quadrat.

Abundance Categories Frequency Categories Number category range category mid point 0 1 0% A 0% 1-9 2 1-5% B 2.50% 10-49 3 5-25% C 15% 50-99 4 25-50% D 37.50% 100-499 5 50-75% E 62.50% 500-1000 6 75-100% F 87.50% >1000 7 100% G 100%

Table 1. Categories prescribed by Blossey’s (1997) protocol for reporting abundance and frequency categories.

Lake-Shore Assessment Seven loosestrife stands around the shoreline of Otsego Lake, described in Table 2 and shown in Figure 2, were monitored for the presence of Galerucella spp. and signs of their herbivory. This work was a continuation of work initiated in 2005 (Meehan 2006). Shoreline observations were made in order to gauge the dispersion and establishment of the beetles since their release in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary in 1997. Once decimated, the beetles have been observed moving from the area, presumably foraging for new stands of loosestrife (Albright 2004).

This year, lake-shore assessments of beetle dispersion around the lake were completed on 13 July and 7 August 2006. Loosestrife stands were searched for about 5 minutes in order to standardize the search effort where conspicuous populations were not found.

Site 1: N 42º 44.680 ′ W 74º 53.628 ′ East shoreline of Otsego Lake, located opposite Five Mile Point, between a large dead tree that hangs over the water and a dead conifer that was still standing.

Site 2: N 42º 42.354 ′ W 74º 54.882 ′ Southeast shore above the outlet to the Susquehanna River, near a large overhanging willow.

Site 3: N 42º 42.353 ′ W 74º 55.585 ′ Otesaga Country Club, accessed directly across the fairway behind the parking lot.

Site 4: N 42º 42.546 ′ W 74º 55.448 ′ North of the Otesaga Country Club, accessed from boat near the water-walkway.

Site 5: N 42º 43.600 ′ W 74º 54.992 ′ West shoreline at Leatherstocking Creek inlet on Brookwood Point.

Site 6: N 42º 43.898 ′ W 74º 54.910’ Sam Smith’s boatyard accessed by vehicle, north of the boat launch area.

Site 7: N 42º 43.924’ W 74º 54.891 ′ Private house with green shutters, slightly north of Sam Smith’s Boatyard.

Table 2. Descriptions and locations of sampling sites on 13 July and 7 August 2006. Site locations can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Shoreline sites visited to evaluate loosestrife damage, its vigor and evidence of Gallerucella spp. on 13 July and 7 August 2006.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

All monitoring data are represented by abundance and frequency categories defined in Table 1. Changes between these frequency categories can represent a substantial change in abundance (Albright 2004).

Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary

Spring Monitoring (2 June 2006)

Both egg and larva abundances of the Galerucella beetle were similar to the summer of 2005 (Figure 3 & 4) (Meehan 2005). As is typically observed, there were no larvae found because spring sampling generally takes place prior to the laying and/or hatching of the eggs. These results suggest that the monitoring both last year and this year overlapped with period of egg laying for the beetles within Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. Adult abundances in all but one quadrat have significantly increased since 2005 (Meehan 2006) (Figure 5). Consequently, the expanded Galerucella adult population and related herbivory may have been the cause of this year’s increased percent damage estimations observed on purple loosestrife (Figure 6). Since 2001, when the highest number of L. salicaria stems was observed, monitoring has shown a continuing downward trend in number of stems (Figure 7). Compared to 343 stems in 2001 (Groff 2001) and 157 stems in 2005 (Meehan 2005), this summer only 62 stems were observed, a considerable decrease. Similarly, mean percent cover has remained substantially below what it had been prior to 2001 (Figure 8), the year during which Gallerucella densities seemed to achieve that needed to effectively control purple loosestrife. High abundances of adult beetles during the spring monitoring may be due in part to a number of variables. Purple loosestrife serves as the only source of food for beetles; therefore Galerucella spp. populations are directly dependent upon loosestrife densities within the swamp. This demonstrates the population dynamics of host-specific organisms and their dependency upon host populations (Fagan et al. 2002). Even though the quantity of L. salicaria stems this spring has diminished, previous years of plentiful growth would promote an increase in beetle foraging success, reproduction vigor, and ultimately this year’s population size. Percent cover remains consistent with past years, staying well under a frequency midpoint of 20 percent annually since 2002.

7 5 3 1 Abundance category Abundance 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 3. Comparison of Galerucella spp. egg abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories taken from Table 1.

6 5 4 3 2 1 Abundance category Abundance 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 4. Comparison of Galerucella spp. larval abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories taken from Table 1.

6 5 4 3 2

Abundance category Abundance 1 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 5. Comparison of Galerucella spp. adult abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories taken from Table 1.

80 60 40 20 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Mid-point of frequency of Mid-point Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 6. Comparison of percent damage estimates to purple loosestrife leaves from yearly spring samplings. Frequency mid points taken from Table 1.

100 80 60 40 20 Number of stems Numberof 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 7. Comparison of the number of purple loosestrife stems from yearly spring sampling observations.

80 60 40 20

Mid-point of frequency of Mid-point 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 8. Comparison of percent cover estimates by purple loosestrife from yearly spring samplings. Frequency mid-points taken from Table 1.

Fall Monitoring (10 August 2006)

Despite positive results from early spring monitoring, monitoring at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary in the fall has indicated increases in both number of stems and percent cover of purple loosestrife since 2005. The number of stems and percent cover of L. salicaria per quadrat in the fall from 1997-2006, where available, are give in Figures 9 and 10 respectively. Last year, for the first time since 2000, purple loosestrife inflorescences were recorded in the study (Meehan 2006). However, no inflorescences were recorded in any quadrat during this year’s fall monitoring period (though several plants in the sanctuary, outside the quadrats, had flowered by 10 August).

Figure 11 summarizes mean stem height, mean inflorescences per plant and total inflorescences per qudrat in 1997 (prior to the establishment of Gallerucella spp.), in 2005 (Meehan 2006) and 2006. Declines in these categories imply a substantial decline in the vigor of purple loosestrife over time.

120 100 80 60 40 20 Number of stems Number of 0 1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 9. Number of purple loosestrife stems per quadrat during fall monitoring, 1997, 2000- 2006.

100 80 60 40 20 0 Mid-point of frequency of Mid-point 1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 Year

quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5

Figure 10. Mean estimated percent cover by purple loosestrife during fall monitoring, 1997, 2000-2006. 180 160 140 1997 2005 2006 120 100 80 60 40 20 Averagequadrat pernumbers 0 height Inflorescences per plant Total inflorescences per quadrat

Figure 11. Data related to purple loosestrife vigor; average stem heights; total inflorescences per plant, and total inflorescences per quadrat under pre control (1997) and post control (2005 & 2006).

Shoreline Assessment (13 July & 7 August 2006)

Around the perimeter of Otsego Lake, transition to upland sites generally occurs within a few meters of the lake’s shorelines. As a result, ideal wetland habitats for purple loosestrife around the lake are sparse (Meehan 2006). However, small dense stands of loosestrife were found in several locations that had open, non-forested shorelines such that of golf courses, shoreline lawns, and stream mouths. In forested portions, more scattered and less dense stands were observed. Galerucella spp. populations, despite varying densities of purple loosestrife, were consistently low, although signs of their herbivory were present at most sites (Table 3). Few beetles were observed presumably due to the timing during the life cycle. Herbivory, though minimal, indicates that Galerucella spp. continues to disperse around Otsego Lake where purple loosestrife is present.

Within L. salicaria stands, many individual plants were undamaged, while other individuals appeared to be decimated from Galerucella spp. herbivory. This variation was present at most purple loosestrife sites, thus making it difficult to estimate percent damage of the entire stand. Inconsistent herbivory may be attributed to anomalies between meristematic tissue growth between individual plants, differences in habitat, and presence of other arthropods. Minimal damage and apparently low Galerucella spp. populations at shoreline sites may also be related to difficulty of movement and establishment from one patch to another.

CONCLUSIONS

Research and monitoring of Galerucella spp. and L. salicaria populations and dynamics should be continued in the future in order to better understand the proceedings of such a control measure. Knowledge of the dynamics of this system would be valuable to land and resource managers who are working on control measures for unmanaged invasive species. Date Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Forested, Forested, Open, Open, Open Golf Open, rocky Habitat rocky rocky sandy rocky lawn course delta banks banks banks delta edge L. salicaria 13 Frequency 3 3 5 5 4 5 - July % Damage D B D B B C - Flowering No No No Yes No No - Height (cm) <50 <50 50-100 100-150 50-100 50-150 - Galerucella spp. abundance 2 1 1 1 1 1 - L. salicaria Frequency 2 2 4 5 4 5 3 % Damage B C C C B B B 7 Flowering Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Aug Height 50-100 <50 >150 100-150 >150 50-100 <50 Galerucella spp. abundance 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Table 3. Results of Otsego Lake shoreline assessments (13 July and 7 August). Frequency, % damage and abundance categories taken from Table 1.

REFERENCES

Albright, M.F., W.N. Harman. S.S. Fickbohm, H.A. Meehan, S. Groff and T. Austin. 2005. Recovery of native flora and behavior responses by Gallerucella spp. following biocontrol of purple loosestrife. Am. Midl. Nat. 152:248-254.

Austin, T. 1998. Biological control of purple loosestrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using Galerucella spp., summer 1997. In 30 th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta. Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Austin, &. 1999. Biological control of purple loosestrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using Galerucella spp., summer 1998. In 31 st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta. Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Blossey, B. 1997. Purple loosestrife monitoring protocol, 2 nd draft. Unpublished document. Dept. of Natural Resources, Cornell University.

Blossey, B., D. Schroeder, S.D. Hight and R.A. Malecki. 1994. Host specificity and environmental impact of two leaf beetles ( Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla ) for the biological control of purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ).

Fagan, W.F., M.A. Lewis, M.G. Neubert, P. van den Driessche. 2002. Invasion theory and biological control. Ecology Letters 5(1) 148.

Groff, S. 2001. Biological control of purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using leaf-eating beetles ( Galerucella spp.), summer 2000. In 34 th Annual Report (2000). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Meehan, H.A. 2006. Biological control of purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using leaf-eating beetles ( Galerucella spp.), summer 2005. In 38 th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.

Thompson, Daniel Q., Ronald L. Stuckey, Edith B. Thompson. 1987. Spread, Impact, and Control of Purple Loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) in North American Wetlands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 55 pages. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/plants/loosstrf/loosstrf.htm (04JUN99). Preliminary investigation of the impact of recent development on the quantity and quality of Susquehanna River Water along the Route 28 Corridor, Hartwick, New York

Devin Castendyk 1

ABSTRACT

The recent development of a baseball-oriented tourist industry along the Route 28 corridor through Hartwick, New York, has raised the concerns of local residents about the impact of industry-related water use on the quantity and quality of future groundwater resources. Because groundwater and surface waters are directly connected to one another, this study used observations from the Susquehanna River parallel to the Route 28 corridor to identify changes in groundwater quality and quantity. Observations were made and water samples were collected at four points along the Susquehanna River on 15 August 06, while the Cooperstown Dreams Park was in session: two sites were upstream of the Dreams Park facility and two were at or below it. The number of fecal coliform colonies rose sharply between the upstream and downstream sites which may have an impact on water quality. The source of this increase may be the septic system on the Dreams Park property or runoff from adjacent agricultural lands that contain livestock waste. River discharge also decreased slightly between the upstream and downstream sites suggesting that the Susquehanna is losing water to the groundwater system in the vicinity of the Dreams Park property. The most likely causes of this change in discharge are groundwater pumping wells near the Dreams Park property which are either owned by Dreams Park or an adjacent land owner. Two buildings were observed on the banks of the river on the Dreams park property which may be pump houses. More data are needed to explore these possibilities. This study recommends that weekly sampling for the same parameters be conducted during the summer of 2007, that a groundwater modeling study be developed to best quantify the impacts of new pumping wells on the volume of groundwater locally available, and that the modeling study be used to create drought management strategy for the Route 28 corridor in partnership with local and county regulators.

INTRODUCTION

The burgeoning development of the tourism industry along State Highway Route 28 through the Town of Hartwick, New York, herein called the “Route 28 corridor,” has raised the concerns of area residents that the activities of the tourist industry may be excessively depleting the quantity of local groundwater resources and/or degrading the quality of these resources (Figure 1). Of particular concern is a baseball summer camp facility called “Cooperstown Dreams Park” which pumps water from the local groundwater aquifer to irrigate baseball fields and to supply drinking water and sanitation facilities for an estimated 14,000 players and coaches living on site over an 11 week period between June and August (Harris, personal interview, 2006). Irrigation water returning to the groundwater below the site potentially contains plant

1 Earth Sciences Department, SUNY Oneonta.

fertilizer including nitrates (NO 3) and phosphates (PO 4) as well as industrial herbicides and pesticides, whereas leachate from the facility’s septic system may contain microorganisms called fecal coliforms, plus nitrate. Surrounding agricultural and domestic land use may also contribute fertilizers, fecal coliforms, pesticides and herbicides to groundwater and surface water, and most likely farms and homes along the Route 28 corridor affected local water quality to some degree prior to tourism development.

This study uses observations of the water quality and discharge measurements in the Susquehanna River parallel to the Route 28 corridor and inclusive of the Dreams Park facility to interpret changes in the local groundwater system. During rain events, a portion of the rainwater landing upon the ground surface seeps into pore spaces in the soil and eventually increases the volume of groundwater held below the land surface. This groundwater slowly moves downhill through interconnected pore spaces in the sediments that fill the valley and eventually flows into to the Susquehanna River. Because of this connection between groundwater and river water, contaminants added to the groundwater along the Route 28 corridor may cause contaminant concentrations in the Susquehanna River to rise. Moreover, groundwater pumping for agricultural, tourist, and domestic water supplies decreases the volume of groundwater reaching the Susquehanna River which could affect the volume of water flowing down the Susquehanna over time, called “river discharge.” If large volumes of groundwater are pumped from the groundwater system or if pumping wells are situated close to the river banks, water will flow from the river into groundwater system, causing a decrease in river discharge over a section of river. For further explanation, see discussions on sustainable yield by Fetter (2001).

In July 2006, the Otsego County Conservation Association, acting on behalf of residents along the Route 28 corridor, requested that Dr. Devin Castendyk, Assistant Professor in the Earth Sciences Department and Water Resources Program Coordinator at the State University of New York, College at Oneonta, investigate the validity of residents’ concerns. This report presents the preliminary findings of this investigation and provides recommendation for future study. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: (1) Record changes in the discharge of the Susquehanna River upstream and downstream of the Dreams Park site during peak tourist season; (2) Record changes in water quality in the Susquehanna River upstream and downstream of the Dreams Park site during peak tourist season; (3) Interpret the impact, if any, of the tourist industry on the quantity and quality of local water groundwater resources; and (4) Identify current data gaps and propose recommendations for future study.

Figure 1. Map of the Route 28 corridor and the Susquehanna River through Hartwick, New York, showing the location of the Dreams Park facility (gray cross-hatching) in relation to study Sites 1 to 4 (numbered purple circles). Modified from U.S. Geological Survey (1974).

METHODOLOGY

This study was conducted on 15 August 06, which was assumed to correspond to a period of peak of tourist activity, maximum water consumption, and minimum groundwater recharge due to low rainfall. Cheers from spectators at the Dreams Park facility could be heard from the river during sampling, verifying that the facility was in use. Precipitation conditions were slightly less than ideal prior to sampling. Under optimal conditions, river discharge would be measured during a drought period consisting of several weeks without rainfall where groundwater pumping for irrigation would be at a maximum and where groundwater would be the only source of water contributing to the volume of the Susquehanna River, a condition known as “base flow discharge.” Within the 24-hour period prior to sampling, rain gauges at the State University of New York, College at Oneonta recorded 0.43 inches of rainfall; a non-trivial amount of rainfall (Blechman, personal communication 2006). However, little rainfall had occurred over the days prior to sampling such that the discharge measurements should closely approximate base flow conditions.

River observations and water samples were collected at four sample locations on the banks of the Susquehanna River, spaced at approximately 4500 foot intervals, spanning a section of the river above and below the Dreams Park facility (Figure 1). Site 1 situated on the west bank below the confluence of Oaks Creek and the Susquehanna River in Hyde Park, directly below the Route 11C bridge, represented background conditions prior to any impacts by development along the Route 28 corridor and also provided convenient public access to the river. Site 2 was located on the west bank approximately 4500 feet downstream from Site 1, above the Dreams Park facility and roughly parallel to the County Home. One small stream entered the river along the west bank between Sites 1 and 2 but the major gains and losses to river discharge between these points should reflect groundwater input/output. Site 3 was located on the east bank parallel to Dreams Park, approximately 7000 feet from Site 1, immediately downstream of a bridge for the Charlotte Valley Railroad. Patrons at Dreams Park were clearly audible at this location. We observed a small building producing a mechanical noise on the west bank of the river immediately upstream of the railroad bridge which may house a pumping well for Dreams Park. No significant stream inputs entered the river between Sites 2 and 3. A second small building that also produced a mechanical noise was observed shortly after Site 3, and may be a second pumping well for Dreams Park. Site 4, located on the west bank of prominent eastward- bending meander, approximately 11,500 feet downstream of Site 1, represented downstream conditions below the Dreams Park facility. A small stream with notable discharged entered the river immediately above the sample point on the east bank of the river.

Physiochemical observations of river water were recorded at each site, including temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen and pH using a YSI multi-parameter probe. Water samples collected at each site were analyzed for fecal coliforms, total dissolved phosphorous (TP), total dissolved nitrogen (TN), combined nitrite and nitrate (NO 2+NO 3), and ammonium (NH 4) at laboratory facilities at the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station in Cooperstown. One water sample was collected at each site for fecal coliform analysis. The number of fecal coliforms was measured 4 times in each sample and reported as the number of colonies per 100 mL (APHA 1989). One water sample for nutrient analysis was collected at Sites 1 and 2, and duplicate samples were collected at Sites 3 and 4. Nutrients were analyzed

using a Lachat QuickChem FIA+ ® water autoanalyzer following methods by Ebina et al. (1983), Liao (2001), Liao and Marten (2001) and Pritzlaff (2003).

River discharge was measured at each site using methods described by Dunn and Leopold (1978). The river was divided into 10 foot segments along a transect perpendicular to the direction of river flow and the river velocity was measured at the side of each segment using an electromagnetic flow meter by Marsh-McBirney. Velocities were recorded at a depth equal to approximately 60% of the total river depth. Using the width (ft), the average depth (ft), and the average velocity (ft/sec), the discharge (ft 3/sec) flowing through each segment was calculated. The total river discharge at each site was equal to the sum of the discharge through each segment.

RESULTS

The average number of fecal coliform colonies per 100 mL of water increased by 200 colonies between background samples collected above Dreams Park at Sites 1 and 2 and samples collected at Dreams Park and downstream of Dreams Park at Sites 3 and 4, as shown in Figure 2. Two common sources of fecal coliforms include leachate from septic systems and feces from livestock such as cows, sheep, and pigs. Fecal coliforms are a family of water-born, intestinal bacteria and at least one type of fecal coliform, E. coli , is harmful to human health. For example, E. coli found on spinach leafs was responsible for recent health epidemics in the United States (Lambert 2006). As such, the number of fecal coliforms colonies in a 100 mL water sample indicates the potential for the water to contain E. coli and other harmful bacteria.

600

500

400

. 300 Site 1: Hyde Park Bridge 200 Site 2: County Home .

100 Site 3: Dreams Park at Rail Road Bridge Site 4: Downstream from Dreams Park Fecal Fecal coliform colonies per mL100 0 0 4000 8000 12000 Distance from Site 1 (feet)

Figure 2. Average number of fecal coliform colonies per 100 mL measured in the Susquehanna River on 15 August 06. Dashed line indicates the New York State water quality standard for the mean of 5 or more samples collected within one month (NYSDEC 1999).

For water classified as “fresh surface water,” the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) requires that “The monthly geometric mean [of the number of fecal coliform colonies per 100 mL], from a minimum of five examinations, shall not exceed 200” (NYSDEC, 1999). Though more samples are required to determine compliance with this water quality standard, each of the samples collected on 15 August exceeded 200 colonies per 100 mL and a notable increase in the number of colonies occurred beside the Dreams Park site (Figure 2).

Low nutrient concentrations were observed at each site. Total phosphorous concentrations were relatively constant and ranged from 23.3 to 33.7 µg/L (Figure 3). Total nitrogen concentrations (not shown) were also relatively constant and ranged from 0.027 to 0.037 mg/L. The combined concentration of nitrite (NO 2) and nitrate (NO 3) increased downstream but was well below the New York State water quality standard for fresh surface water of 10 mg/L (NYSDEP 1999). Ammonium (NH 4) concentrations (not shown) were below the instrument detection limit of 0.04 mg/L at each site, and well below the New York State water quality standard for fresh surface water of 2 mg/L (NYSDEP 1999). Sources of nutrients include fertilizer and livestock waste resulting from agricultural land use, and leachate from septic systems.

River discharge increased by 15 ft 3/sec over the 4500 feet between Sites 1 and 2, and by 13 ft 3/sec over the 4500 feet between Sites 3 and 4 (Figure 5). With the exception of two small streams, no obvious surface water inputs or outputs were observed along the river, suggesting that the observed increases in flow between these points was due to groundwater input. Opposite conditions were observed between Sites 2 and 3, where discharge decreased by 19 ft 3/sec, indicating that water is flowing from the river to the groundwater aquifer near the Dreams Park.

40

35 30

25 …. 20 Site 1: Hyde Park Bridge 15 Site 2: County Home 10 Site 3: Dreams Park at Rail Road Bridge

Total Phosphorous(ug/L) . 5 Site 4: Downstream from Dreams Park 0 0 4000 8000 12000

Distance from Site 1 (feet)

Figure 3. Concentrations of total phosphorous ( µg/L) measured in the Susquehanna River on 15 August 06.

0.12

0.10

0.08

0.06 Site 1: Hyde Park Bridge 0.04 Site 2: County Home Site 3: Dreams Park at Rail Road Bridge

NO2 + NO3 (mg/L) . …. 0.02 Site 4: Downstream from Dreams Park 0.00 0 4000 8000 12000 Distance from Site 1 (feet)

Figure 4. Combined concentrations of nitrite (NO 2) and nitrate (NO 3) measured in the Susquehanna River on 15 August 06. Values are well below the New York State water quality standard for fresh surface water of 10 mg/L (NYSDEP 1999).

210

Gaining 200 Losing Conditions Gaining Conditions Conditions 190

180 Site 1: Hyde Park Bridge Site 2: County Home 170 Site 3: Dreams Park at Rail Road Bridge River Discharge (ft3/sec) Discharge (ft3/sec) River . Site 4: Downstream from Dreams Park 160 0 4000 8000 12000 Distance from Site 1 (feet)

Figure 5. Discharge (ft 3/sec) of the Susquehanna River measured on 15 August 06. Lines illustrate the change in discharge between each site.

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The most significant findings of this preliminary investigation are the increase in the number fecal coliform colonies (Figure 2) and a decrease in discharge (Figure 5) in the Susquehanna River adjacent to the Dreams Park facility. The source of fecal coliforms may have been either septic systems or agricultural fields containing livestock waste. It is possible that leachate from the Dreams Park septic field increased fecal coliform numbers in the groundwater which drained into the Susquehanna and caused the number of fecal coliforms in the river to increase. Alternatively, agricultural fields adjacent to the Dreams Park facility may have contained livestock waste that washed directly into the Susquehanna during the rain event on 14 August, the day before sampling. Rain water landing on animal waste could also have infiltrated into the groundwater below the agricultural fields which then flowed into the Susquehanna.

To investigate these possibilities, the groundwater on both banks of the Susquehanna River parallel to Dreams Park should be sampled and measured for fecal coliforms between July and August. Wells on the Dreams Park property that are situated close to the river could provide useful groundwater samples (see below). Simple and inexpensive piezometers made of PVC piping could be installed into the river banks and used to obtain groundwater samples where wells do not currently exist. The Susquehanna River along with small streams entering the Susquehanna between Sites 1 and 4 should be sampled at the same time as groundwater wells. New York State Department of Conservation requires a minimum of five samples collected within a one-month period to determine whether fecal coliforms levels exceed the state water quality guideline of 200 colonies per 100 mL (NYSDEC 1999), therefore at least five rounds of sampling should be planned. It should be recognized that the one-day fecal coliform numbers recorded at all four sites already exceeded 200 colonies per 100 mL, and that reporting a water quality infringement to the state may have impacts beyond the local tourist industry, namely the farmers and home owners in the area.

In regard to discharge, several factors can cause a river to change from “gaining” conditions observed between Sites 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, to “losing” conditions observed between Sites 2 and 3, such as climate, geology, and groundwater pumping (Fetter 2001). During prolonged periods of low rainfall, the regional water table adjacent to the river can lower below the river surface elevation, in which case water will flow from the river to the groundwater aquifer. Climate conditions would impact a longer section of the river than explored in this study, and since gaining conditions were observed between Sites 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, climate is unlikely to be responsible. An abrupt, large change in permeability of the sediments underlying the river could also lead to water leaving the river provided the hydrologic gradient sloped away from the river banks. Given the profile of the Susquehanna River Valley through Hartwick, there is no evidence to suggest that the hydrologic gradient naturally slopes away from the river, nor is an abrupt, large change in the permeability of stream sediments likely here. The most likely cause is groundwater pumping.

Pumping water from an aquifer at a greater rate than it can be replaced by groundwater flow creates a “cone of depression,” or dewatered zone, around a well. If the well is located close to a river, the cone of depression can extend to the river causing water to drain from the

river into the aquifer. Whereas no obvious surface water diversions were observed between Sites 2 and 3, two small buildings were observed within 50 feet of the river on the Dreams Park property above and below Site 3 (Figure 5). Judging from the size of these structures and the constant mechanical noise emanating from both, it is possible that these are pump houses. If so, the cone of depression produced by these wells could be responsible for the reduction in the discharge of the Susquehanna River.

The decrease in discharge between Site 2 and 3 could also suggest that the net volume of groundwater withdrawals from the entire Hartwick aquifer system exceeds the net volume of groundwater recharging the upland regions of the aquifer, causing water to flow from the river to the aquifer to match demand. This scenario is less likely because the region receives a considerable amount of rainfall such that a very large amount of water would need to be removed for this to occur. Exploring this question requires more data coupled with detailed groundwater modeling (see below).

Although changes in fecal coliform numbers and river discharge coincide with the location of the Dreams Park property, it would be premature to attribute these changes to Dreams Park without more data. It is possible that these trends are temporally anomalous and do not represent average conditions along this stretch of the Susquehanna over time, that fecal coliforms are generated from a source other than Dreams Park, or that other pumping wells along the river could be producing the observed discharge changes. More observations are needed over time to verify these trends, to determine the cause of these variations, and to determine whether the observed changes constitute a significant impact to the Susquehanna.

The objectives of future research should be as follows: to determine whether changes in fecal coliforms and river discharge only occur between June and August, when Dreams Park is in full operation; to determine whether these changes consistently occur throughout these months; and to determine whether these trends represent significant impacts on the water quality and water quantity of the Susquehanna River. One cost-effective strategy would be to provide funds for the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station to employ 2 interns to sample and measure the discharge of the Susquehanna River at the same sites used in this study once a week during the summer of 2007, beginning in late May and concluding in early September. It is important to collect data for at least two weeks on either side of Dreams Park’s operational season to establish background conditions in the Susquehanna. While it is essential that fecal coliform analyses be conducted, nutrient analyses should also be performed as future data may prove important. Turbidity may also be explored as these data are useful for water management studies. From a logistical perspective, permission to access the river should be requested from the property owners at the end of Clintonville Road from State Route 33 on the east bank of the river, as this is a convenient river access point.

The best method to investigate the broader concerns of residents (i.e. the impact of recent development on the quantity and quality of groundwater available along the Route 28 corridor), is to develop a groundwater model of the region. Developing an accurate model that provides useful information about available water supplies will require substantial field data and modeling time, both of which can contribute to significant costs. On the other hand, a simple, inexpensive model could be produced that requires minimal real-world data, but the results would have little

value to planners. Some basic model inputs include the location of wells in the study area, the well logs for these wells, the average pumping rates for these wells, and the frequency of well operation. Some of this data may already be in possession of Mary Beth Vargha at the Otsego County Planning Office in Cooperstown, New York. Additional data can be requested by going door to door and requesting data from homeowners. Again, student interns through SUNY Oneonta may be a cost-effective means to obtain this information. A geophysical study using seismic, resistivity and gravity methods could be performed by students in the Earth Sciences Department at SUNY Oneonta to explore the nature and depth of sediments and bedrock below the site. Although a geophysical study could be performed free of charge, this would require site access and a flexible time frame. The results of the geophysical study could be very valuable when compared to available well data. An aquifer pump test would be essential to determine the properties of the aquifer (i.e. transmisivity, hydraulic conductivity, and storativity) and accurately determine model inputs. Finally, data on the average river discharge of the Susquehanna River, precipitation rates, and water levels in observation wells would need to be monitored over time in order to accurately calibrate the model. It may be acceptable to monitor river discharge from the Hyde Park bridge (Site 1) and to use meteorological data from SUNY Oneonta or Cooperstown for model input. As with any modeling exercise, the need for unforeseen data by the modeler should be recognized at the onset if a useful model is to be generated. Ultimately, the model output should be validated using field observation and calibrated if necessary.

The most useful products that can be expected from this modeling study are the identification of domestic wells the have the potential to “go dry” by the development of future wells, and an estimated volume of groundwater reaching the Susquehanna River as a result of groundwater pumping. Those funding this future research should recognize that there is a possibility that the model will show there is enough precipitation landing in the watershed in an average year to supply all the water demands along the Route 28 corridor despite development. This was the conclusion of a group of students from SUNY Oneonta who conducted preliminary water balance calculations for the Route 28 corridor during a class titled GEOL 382 Introduction to Hydrogeology in the fall of 2005. However, these calculations did not consider extremely dry conditions which may occur during a drought.

To increase the value of the model study and help finance the expense, one option is to frame the study in the context of a drought management plan. Determining the potential effects of drought conditions on the water supply along the Route 28 corridor would be timely as the Route 28 corridor is now a major income-generating resource for the county which a drought could threaten, and the potential for a drought may be greater now than in past years given the recent climate variations and the occurrence of extreme weather events such as the Flood of 2006. In fact, precipitation during June and July 06 was 2.5 times the historical mean for this period (Blechman 2007). Such a study could become a valuable management tool if efforts are coordinated with local municipalities and watershed managers, such as the Town of Hartwick, the Otsego County Soil and Water Conservation District and Susquehanna River Basin Commission, to produce a Drought Management Strategy for the Route 28 corridor. Furthermore, framing the groundwater modeling study in the context of drought management has the potential to somewhat reduce animosity between opposing groups by addressing a greater

common concern. Finally, there may be additional funds available from State and Federal sources if a drought management strategy is specified as a goal of the modeling effort.

CONCLUSIONS

This preliminary investigation has shown that fecal coliform levels increase and river discharge decreases along a section of the Susquehanna River parallel to the Dreams Park facility, even during a summer experiencing precipitation rates 2.5 times of those normal (Blechman 2007). Since the data presented herein only reflect one day of sampling, more data need to be collected over time to see if the same trends occur in the same locations before, during, and after the facilities operational season. The source of fecal coliforms must be objectively identified along with the cause of the water loss. There is also a need to determine whether these changes in water quality and water quantity represent significant changes to the Susquehanna River from a regulatory standpoint. For these reasons, this study recommends weekly sampling at the same sites for the same parameters during the summer of 2007.

The best method to address the residents’ concerns over water availability is to create a computer groundwater model of the Route 28 corridor. This will require significant data to minimize the model’s assumptions and increase its accuracy, yet some of this data could be obtained from residents or collected by students at minimal cost. One possible option that might increase external funding options and improve relationships between residents, businesses, and municipalities would be to propose a Drought Management Study for the Route 28 corridor to determine water availability, growth potential, and drought indicators, and to prepare an action plan to minimize financial loses during the next major drought.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Sara Jane Zurmuhlen, 2006 summer intern at the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, for her assistance in the field and for conducting fecal coliform analyses. I would like to thank several colleagues at the State University of New York, College at Oneonta for their assistance with this manuscript: Mathew Albright, Biological Field Station, for the generous use of equipment and resources and for nutrient analysis; Dr. Donna Vogler, Biology Department, for reviewing this work; and Jim Greenburg and Diana Moseman, TLTC, for graphical support. Finally, I would like to thank my GEOL 382 Introduction to Hydrogeology class in the fall semester of 2005 for the enthusiasm and hard work they applied toward investigating this local water resources issue.

REFERENCES

APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater,17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.

Blechman, A. 2007. National weather observer. Cooperstown, NY 13326.

Blechman, J. 2006. Meteorology Program Director and Chair of the Earth Sciences Department, State University of New York, College at Oneonta, Oneonta, New York. Interviewed on August 15 th , 2006.

Dunn, T., and Leopold, L. 1978. Water in environmental planning, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 818 p.

Ebina, J., Tsutsui, T. and Shirai, T. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.

Fetter, C.W. 2001. Applied hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 598 p.

Harris, J. 2005. Groundskeeper, Cooperstown Dreams Park, Hartwick, New York. Interviewed in October, 2005.

Lambert, B. 2006. Shredded lettuce is now chief suspect in E. Coli Outbreak, New York Times , December 14, 2006, Section B, pg. 9.

Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10- 107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.

Liao, N. and Marten, S. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

NYSDEC. 1999. New York Department of Environmental Protection, Rules and Regulations, 6 NYCRR Part 703, surface water and groundwater quality standards and groundwater effluent limitations. New York State Department of Environmental Protection, Albany, New York. World Wide Web address: http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/regs/part703.html . Accessed on January 11, 2007.

Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.

U.S. Geological Survey .1974. Cooperstown Quadrangle New York – Otsego Co., 7.5 Minute Series Planimetric, 2 nd ed., New York State Department of Transportation, Albany.

APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Physiochemical and river discharge data measured at Sites 1 through 4 on the Susquehanna River, August 15 th 2006.

Parameter Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4

Temperature (°C) 22.2 22.7 22.8 22.7

Conductivity (µS/cm) 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 8.7 8.3 8.6 8.4 pH 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.4

River Discharge (ft 3/sec) 188 203 184 197

Appendix 2. Fecal coliform data collected from Sites 1 through 4 on the Susquehanna River, on August 15 th , 2006.

Sample Sample # Colonies # Colonies Average # Number volume per sample per colonies per (mL) volume 100 mL 100 mL

Site 1 5 18 360 310 10 33 330 50 128 256 100 294 294

Site 2 5 19 380 269 10 28 280 50 99 198 100 216 216

Site 3 5 21 420 493 10 67 670 50 225 450 100 430 430

Site 4 5 29 580 532 10 73 730 50 179 358 100 458 458

Appendix 3. Nutrient data collected from Sites 1 through 4 on the Susquehanna River, on August 15 th , 2006.

Sample Total Total Nitrite (NO 2)+ NH4 Number Phosphorous Nitrogen Nitrate (NO 3)

µg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L Site 1 23.3 0.272 0.031 BD Site 2 32.7 0.340 0.092 BD Site 3a. 32.0 0.343 0.110 BD Site 3b. 35.3 0.305 0.109 BD Site 3 33.7 0.324 0.110 BD Average Site 4a. 29.9 0.402 0.112 BD Site 4b. 31.0 0.342 0.111 BD Site 4 30.5 0.372 0.112 BD Average BD= below detection, < 0.04 mg/l

BFS Technical Report # 23 AQUATIC MACROPHYTE MANAGEMENT PLAN FACILITATION LAKE MORAINE, MADISON COUNTY, NY 2006

1. MACROPHYTE BIOMASS MONITORING 2. MONITORING EFFECTS OF SELECTIVE HERBICIDE SONAR® 3. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

WILLARD N. HARMAN MATTHEW F. ALBRIGHT ALEX SCORZAFAVA

SUNY ONEONTA BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION 5838 ST HWY 80 COOPERSTOWN, NY 13326

Background (Harman et al., 2000)

Moraine Lake (420 50’ 47” N, 750 31’ 39” W) is located in Madison County NY. It was originally formed by to the damming of a valley by deposited glacial moraine and has since been artificially raised. The lake is divided into two basins separated by a causeway and interconnected by a submerged culvert. The upper basin is approximately 79 acres, has a mean depth of 3.7 feet (1.1 m) and a maximum depth of 12.0 feet (3.7 m). The lower basin occupies 182 acres, has a mean depth of 17.7 feet (5.4 m) and a maximum depth of 45 feet (13.7 m). The lower basin is where most of the recreational activities take place such as fishing, boating and swimming (Anon., 1991).

Moraine Lake is thought to be meso-eutrophic. This is indicated by depleting levels of dissolved oxygen in the hypolimnion during summer stratification, and the large numbers of aquatic macrophytes and algae present (Anon., 1991). Nutrient loading to the upper and lower basin of the lake is believed to be the result of the development of residences around the lake. The septic systems from the residences are believed to be a significant source of the problem in nutrient introduction (Harman et al. 1998). Many of the systems are out of date and undersized. These factors, coupled with the fact that the soils in the area around the lake have poor percolation rates, shallow depths to bedrock and a steep slopes make the lake vulnerable to nutrient loading (Anon., 1991)

INTRODUCTION

The monitoring of aquatic macrophyte communities in Moraine Lake has been performed by the SUNY Biological Field Station (BFS) since 1997. The purpose of this monitoring has been to evaluate efforts to control the invasive, non-native Eurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum). Due to the popularity of recreational activities on the lake, the Moraine Lake Association has expressed concern about the prevalence of milfoil. Eurasian water-milfoil has stems which can exceed 2 meters in length. The stems branch near the water’s surface and can cause a canopy of floating stems and leaves (Borman et al.1999).

Various methods have been used in the past in an attempt to control the amount of macrophyte growth (Blanchard 2005). Copper Sulfate (CuSO4) has been used as a non- selective herbicide. Diquat (1,1’-ethylene-2,2’-bipyridiylium dibromide salt [Cl2 H12N2Br2]) was applied in 1972-73 to control planktonic algae. Another method used was applying Sizamine (6-chloro-N2,N4-diethyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4,diamine [C7H12CIN5]) in order to control macrophyte and algae production. These methods, along with mechanical harvesting, have all been used with varying success on the lake (Harman 1978). Sonar® (fluridone) was added in the littoral zones of both basins in 1996, again in the south basin in 2001 and in the north basin in 2004 (Harman et al. 2005). The upper basin of the lake was stocked with Euhrychiopsis lecontei, a weevil known to feed on the water-milfoil. This was done in 1998 and 2000 in hopes of controlling the spread of the milfoil. Since the stocking there have been no signs of a population increase of beetles nor have there been signs of increased damage on the milfoil (Harman et al.1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003).

Because the Lake Moraine Association has been satisfied with Sonar® in the past, they opted to again apply this product throughout the littoral zones of both basins in 2006. This product is non-toxic and it interferes with chlorophyll metabolism in the plant and thus inhibits plant growth. Research by the BFS has substantiated manufacturer’s claims that Sonar® can control Eurasian milfoil with a considerable degree of specificity, provided target concentrations are maintained for the appropriate duration, and that milfol control can last up to four years (Blanchard 2005).

In an attempt to control the spread of milfoil, 16.5 gallons of Sonar® were applied to the lake on 19 June 2006. Due to heavy rains and flooding that occurred in the area around Moraine Lake shortly after the application, another 16.5 gallons were added on 18 July 2006. This was done in order to keep the concentration at a high enough level to affect the milfoil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The lake was sampled on 12 June, 6 July, 1 August, 1 September, and 4 October of 2006. In preparation for the collecting phase, 25 plastic garbage bags were labeled each with a number (corresponding to the collection site) and a letter (corresponding to the replication at the site). There were five sample locations designated for macrophyte collection. Two of the locations were in the North Basin, while three were in the South Basin (Figure 1). At each sampling site on the lake a weighted line that was marked in 1 meter intervals was thrown from the boat in a random direction. A diver would swim along the weighted line with a net having a diameter of 0.32 meters (surface area = 0.08 m2). At five locations along the line the diver would sample from the surface to the bottom and collect all the plants within the area of the net. After each collection, the diver would return to the boat and trade the full net for an empty one. Once the full net was brought into the boat the contents were placed into a corresponding bag and placed in a cooler with ice. Water was tested for pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen and temperature in profile at the deepest point in each basin using a Hydrolab Scout 2® on each sampling date. A water sample was also taken from each basin and brought back to the lab to be analyzed for total phosphorous using the ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion (Liao and Marten 2001). Total nitrogen was analyzed using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) following peroxodisulfate digestion as described by Ebina et. al (1983). Ammonia was analyzed using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and nitrate+nitrate-nitrogen was tested for using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003). All of these parameters were analyzed using a Lachat QuickChem FIA+ Water Analyzer®.

Once the samples were brought back to the main lab, each bag was separated by species using Crow and Hellquist (2000a, 2000b) and Borman et al. (1999) as guides. The different samples were placed in labeled containers and dried to a constant weight using an industrial plant dryer at 105 oC. Once the samples had completely dried out they were weighed and recorded. The mass of the plants was then divided by 0.08 (the surface area of the collection nets) in order to report the mass of plants per square meter of lake.

Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Moraine Lake, Madison County, NY. Contours in feet. WQ1 and WQ2 indicate were water quality data were collected, sites 1-5 indicate where plant biomass was sampled. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water Quality Analysis

Thermal stratification was evident in the South Basin when sampling commenced on 12 June. Waters were anoxic from 8 m down throughout the sampling period. Conductivity (ranging from 250-370 umho/cm) and pH (ranging from 7.1-8.9) were consistent with earlier BFS findings. The mean transparency was 3.9 m (range = 2.5-5.0). The North Basin was marginally stratified on 12 June, and the bottom waters were anoxic in July and August. Mixing was evident in September into October. Conductivity and pH values were similar to those in the South Basin.

Surface total phosphorus concentrations were similar to those in past years, ranging from 17-32 ug/l in the South Basin and 17-32 ug/l in the North Basin. Ammonia was below detection (less than 0.02 mg/l) at all samplings. Nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen exhibited parallel dynamics in both basins. On 12 June and 6 July, concentrations were relatively high (~ 0.40 and 0.71 mg/l, respectively). Following that, concentrations dropped to ~0.05 and 0.30 mg/l, respectively. It seems possible that the flooding rains in the interim may have flushed nitrogenous compounds from surface waters.

Plant Biomass

The amounts of macrophyte biomass per species and by site in 2006 is shown in Tables 1-25. These data are graphically represented along with data from 1996 (Fuller 1997), 1997 (Harman and Albright 1998), 1998 (Harman et al. 1999), 1999 (Harman et al. 2000), 2000 (Harman et al. 2001), 2001 (Harman et al. 2002), 2002 (Harman et al. 2003) and 2004 (Harman et al. 2005) in Figures 2-6 for sites 1-5, respectively. Figures 7 and 8 show the relationship between the amount of Eurasian water-milfoil to all the other aquatic macrophytes in both the upper basin and lower basin of the lake for years where data are available since 1996. The distinction is given to milfoil because its control is the objective of management.

Eurasian water-milfoil was present in both basins at the onset of the summer of 2006, and it dominated the plant community at site 3 from June-July (Figure 4) and at site 4 from June-August (Figure 5). By the 1 August sampling date, it was evident that the Sonar® was having an affect on the milfoil, in that milfoil, when collected, appeared unhealthy. By 1 September, milfoil was virtually absent, with a small amount having bleached stems collected only at site 4 (Figure 5). None was collected at any site during the 4 October sampling.

Previous work has documented the non-target effects of Sonar® on Elodea canadensis, a species recognized to be sensitive to floridone (i.e., Harman et al. 2002). In 2006, that plant was common in sites 1, 2 and 3 until 1 August. It was absent after that. Following the Sonar® application on 13 May 2001, the biomass of all species was suppressed for a few months, but most had rebounded by September (except for Elodea canadensis and Myriophylum spicatum, which exhibited suppressed growth for 3-4 years) (Harman et al. 2002). In 2006, however, all species showed substantial declines, with practically no living plant material being collected at sites 2-5 on either of the September or October sampling dates. On 1 September, filamentous algae was observed groing over much of the bottom, particularly on senescent and dead plants. On 4 October, a substantial bloom of blue-green was underway. Site 1 did not exhibit as severe mortality. Growth of Ceratophyllum demersum, Chara vulgaris and Vallisneria americana was robust on 1 September. On 4 October, Chara was widespread and dominant.

Site 1: 6/12/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 158.13 0.00 84.50 94.88 0.00 67.50 Chara vulgaris 4.25 1261.63 67.25 0.00 1278.50 522.33 Vallisneria americana 32.88 2.75 42.75 60.00 21.00 31.88 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 16.60 0.00 13.50 134.00 0.00 32.82 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 88.48 0.00 47.50 0.00 0.00 27.20 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 681.72

Table 1. Macrophyte biomass, site #1, 12 June 2006.

Site 2: 6/12/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 322.13 129.75 93.00 0.00 0.00 108.98 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 73.13 38.63 23.38 0.00 0.00 27.03 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 1.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 Elodea canadensis 1015.38 581.50 522.75 0.00 0.00 423.93 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 108.25 84.50 74.50 0.00 0.00 53.45 Potamogeton crispus 2.13 12.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.83 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 616.48

Table 2. Macrophyte biomass, site #2, 12 June 2006.

Site 3: 6/12/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 572.13 55.13 266.25 145.88 470.13 301.90 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 353.50 45.75 0.00 71.50 159.75 126.10 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 2.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 Elodea canadensis 537.38 786.25 37.38 0.00 74.13 287.03 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 157.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 31.48 Potamogeton crispus 29.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.93 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 752.90

Table 3. Macrophyte biomass, site #3, 12 June 2006.

Site 4: 6/12/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 330.50 7.88 2075.25 61.75 1132.00 721.48 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 594.50 711.88 110.63 1272.00 990.00 735.80 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 119.88 104.50 74.13 168.63 62.75 105.98 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 1563.25

Table 4. Macrophyte biomass, site #4, 12 June 2006.

Site 5: 6/12/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 6.75 0.00 4.88 0.00 2.33 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 47.63 0.00 0.00 13.63 12.25 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.08 Potamogeton crispus 44.63 243.13 19.25 18.25 214.63 107.98 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 122.63

Table 5. Macrophyte biomass, site #5, 12 June 2006.

Site 1: 7/6/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 17.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.58 Chara vulgaris 361.75 386.13 627.88 572.25 356.25 460.85 Vallisneria americana 176.50 103.13 89.25 125.25 176.88 134.20 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 173.38 142.13 36.75 57.88 102.13 102.45 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 701.08

Table 6. Macrophyte biomass, site #1, 6 July 2006.

Site 2: 7/6/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 30.25 8.13 128.50 1.38 50.13 43.68 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 6.63 9.38 35.00 25.63 0.00 15.33 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 1264.88 134.25 249.75 56.38 1022.88 545.63 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 53.13 54.25 19.75 67.63 38.95 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 1.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 643.95

Table 7. Macrophyte biomass, site #2, 6 July 2006. Site 3: 7/6/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 4.88 299.38 201.50 1104.00 378.63 397.68 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.63 0.00 1.13 Ceratophyllum demersum 182.63 170.63 65.50 258.50 82.50 151.95 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 4871.00 14.13 19.38 403.75 534.75 1168.60 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.13 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 1719.48

Table 8. Macrophyte biomass, site #3, 6 July 2006.

Site 4: 7/6/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 922.38 248.38 300.75 1985.88 2384.38 1168.35 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 244.75 1236.38 1563.75 158.88 36.13 647.98 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 1816.33

Table 9. Macrophyte biomass, site #4, 6 July 2006.

Site 5: 7/6/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 30.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.13 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 1169.63 115.00 293.13 166.38 177.00 384.23 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 390.35

Table 10. Macrophyte biomass, site #5, 6 July 2006. Site 1: 8/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.75 0.00 1.55 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 1813.13 1633.50 669.63 177.00 1784.25 1215.50 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 230.38 273.38 236.38 351.25 261.13 270.50 Elodea canadensis 0.00 4.75 3.63 10.13 5.75 4.85 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 391.75 164.13 202.25 137.63 124.50 204.05 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 1696.45

Table 11. Macrophyte biomass, site #1, 1 August 2006.

Site 2: 8/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 9.25 0.00 0.00 26.88 7.23 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 30.75 0.00 89.25 125.75 186.50 86.45 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 1209.13 333.63 761.00 1389.25 480.38 834.68 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 177.25 0.00 0.00 25.63 40.58 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 21.38 17.88 7.85 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 976.78

Table 12. Macrophyte biomass, site #2, 1 August 2006.

Site 3: 8/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 36.75 228.88 0.00 43.25 61.78 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 319.50 25.63 132.88 0.00 95.60 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 47.88 1.25 609.00 0.00 0.00 131.63 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 289.25

Table 13. Macrophyte biomass, site #3, 1 August 2006.

Site 4: 8/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 193.75 305.38 8.13 2025.00 506.45 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 455.63 358.63 1221.63 618.13 530.80 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 1037.25

Table 14. Macrophyte biomass, site #4, 1 August 2006.

Site 5: 8/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 111.75 32.38 0.00 28.83 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 968.75 655.00 0.00 588.63 17.25 445.93 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 474.75

Table 15. Macrophyte biomass, site #5, 1 August 2006.

Site 1: 9/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 11.75 0.00 27.75 348.75 17.63 81.18 Chara vulgaris 53.50 155.38 551.75 23.25 30.38 162.85 Vallisneria americana 0.00 194.38 181.50 67.38 169.50 122.55 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 16.25 1.50 118.38 69.25 1.63 41.40 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 407.98

Table 16. Macrophyte biomass, site #1, 1 September 2006.

Site 2: 9/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 0.00 Table 17. Macrophyte biomass, site #2, 1 September 2006.

Site 3: 9/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 1.75 0.00 0.00 0.35 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 12.75 0.00 0.00 2.55 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 20.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.05 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 7.15

Table 18. Macrophyte biomass, site #3, 1 September 2006.

Site 4: 9/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 6.75 174.50 0.00 174.38 0.00 71.13 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 89.38 6.13 57.75 25.38 509.25 137.58 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 208.70

Table 19. Macrophyte biomass, site #4, 1 September 2006.

Site 5: 9/1/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 20.13 2.13 93.50 0.00 23.15 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 23.28

Table 20. Macrophyte biomass, site #5, 1 September 2006.

Site 1: 10/4/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chara vulgaris 1305.63 1236.50 215.63 473.75 354.38 717.18 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 23.00 0.00 18.75 12.88 0.00 10.93 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 728.10

Table 21. Macrophyte biomass, site #1, 4 October 2006.

Site 2: 10/4/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 3.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.60 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 0.60

Table 22. Macrophyte biomass, site #2, 4 October 2006.

Site 3: 10/4/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 0.10

Table 23. Macrophyte biomass, site #3, 4 October 2006.

Site 4: 10/4/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 1.25 2.88 0.00 1.75 5.88 2.35 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 2.35 Table 24. Macrophyte biomass, site #4, 4 October 2006.

Site 5: 10/4/06 Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Dry Wt. (g/m2) Myriophyllum spicatum 13.75 2.13 0.50 0.00 8.88 5.05 Megalodonta beckii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Zosterella dubia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Najas flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 6.75 0.00 3.50 0.00 11.50 4.35 Chara vulgaris 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Vallisneria americana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Elodea canadensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus aquatilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stuckenia pectinata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Potamogeton pusillus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Nitella flexilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 9.40

Table 25. Macrophyte biomass, site #5, 4 October 2006. 2000 others milfoil 1800

1600

1400

1200

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600

Average Dry Wt.(g/m^2) 400 NO 200 DATA 0 6/2 7/7 9/7 7/6 8/1 9/1 6/18 6/27 7/17 9/20 6/27 7/29 8/27 9/24 5/27 6/30 7/24 8/24 9/22 5/27 6/29 7/26 8/26 9/28 5/31 6/20 7/25 8/22 9/29 5/29 6/25 7/30 8/29 9/26 5/29 6/24 7/30 8/20 9/25 5/29 6/26 7/30 8/20 10/3 7/29 10/5 6/12 10/4 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 2. Comparison of dry weight (g/m2 ) of EWM and other plants combined, site #1, 1996-2006. Each bar represents the mean of five replicate samples. Arrow represents Sonar application.

2000 Others Milfoil 1800

1600

1400

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AverageWeight Dry (g/m^2) 400

200 NO DATA 0 6/2 7/7 9/7 7/6 8/1 9/1 6/18 6/27 7/17 9/20 6/27 7/29 8/27 9/24 5/27 6/30 7/24 8/24 9/22 5/27 6/29 7/26 8/26 9/28 5/31 6/20 7/25 8/22 9/29 5/29 6/25 7/30 8/29 9/26 5/29 6/24 7/30 8/20 9/25 5/29 6/26 7/30 8/20 10/3 7/29 10/5 6/12 10/4 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 3. Comparison of dry weight (g/m2 ) of EWM and other plants combined, site #2, 1996-2006. Each bar represents the mean of five replicate samples. Arrow represents Sonar application. 2000 Others Milfoil 1800

1600

1400

1200

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Average Dry Weight (g/m^2) 400

200 NO DATA 0 6/2 7/7 9/7 7/6 8/1 9/1 6/18 6/27 7/17 9/20 6/27 7/29 8/27 9/24 5/27 6/30 7/24 8/24 9/22 5/27 6/29 7/26 8/26 9/28 5/31 6/20 7/25 8/22 9/29 5/29 6/25 7/30 8/29 9/26 5/29 6/24 7/30 8/20 9/25 5/29 6/26 7/30 8/20 10/3 7/29 10/5 6/12 10/4 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 4. Comparison of dry weight (g/m2 ) of EWM and other plants combined, site #3,1996-2006. Each bar represents the mean of five replicate samples. Arrow indicates Sonar application.

2000 Others Milfoil 1800

1600

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1200

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AverageDry Weight (g/m^2) 400

200 NO DATA 0 6/2 7/7 9/7 7/6 8/1 9/1 9/20 6/27 7/29 8/27 9/24 5/27 6/30 7/24 8/24 9/22 5/27 6/29 7/26 8/26 9/28 5/31 6/20 7/25 7/12 9/29 7/30 9/26 5/29 6/24 7/30 8/20 9/25 5/29 6/26 7/30 8/20 10/3 7/29 10/5 6/12 10/4 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 5. Comparison of dry weight (g/m2 ) of EWM and other plants combined, site #4, 1996-2006. Each bar represents the mean of five replicate samples. Arrow indicates Sonar application. 2000 Others Milfoil 1800

1600

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Average Dry (g/m^2) Weight 400 NO NO NO NO NO 200 DATA DATA DATA DATA DATA 0 6/2 7/7 9/7 7/6 8/1 9/1 5/27 6/30 7/24 8/24 9/22 5/27 6/29 7/26 8/26 9/28 5/31 6/20 7/25 8/22 9/29 7/30 9/26 7/29 10/5 6/12 10/4 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 6. Comparison of dry weight (g/m2 ) of EWM and other plants combined, site #5, 1996-2006. Each bar represents the mean of five replicate samples. Arrow indicates Sonar application.

1200 Others Milfoil

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400 AverageBio (g/m^2) Mass 200 NO DATA 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 7. Comparison of mean annual biomass of EWM and other aquatic plants, 1996- 2006 in the upper basin. Arrow represents Sonar application. 1200 Others Milfoil

1000

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400 Average Bio Mass (g/m^2) 200 NO DATA 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 8. Comparison of mean annual biomass of EWM and other aquatic plants, 1996- 2006 in the lower basin. Arrow represents Sonar application.

CONCLUSIONS

Monitoring by the BFS since 1996 has demonstrated that Sonar® has the potential to control the growth of Myriophyllum spicatum with reasonable specificity, and for multiple growing seasons, provided that application rates are appropriate and concentrations are held in the target range for the proper duration. The original application in May 1996 seemed to control milfoil (though difficulties with sampling protocols make the assertion somewhat anecdotal), but only for one or two growing seasons. The May 2001 application in the South Basin demonstrated good specificity, with milfoil control lasting four seasons. Likewise, the May 2004 application in the North Basin seemed quite specific, though a lack of data collection in 2005 limits documented control to one year. The application in 2006, however, appears to have practically eradicated rotted plants throughout both basins of the lake, with the exception of the area near the lake’s outlet (see Figures 3-6).

On 19 June 06, the targeted application rate of 16.5 lbs of product was applied. It appears that the ensuing, flooding rains were assumed to have flushed the product out of the system, so the full application was repeated (16.5 lbs) on 18 July. It would seem that an over application resulted in a broad spectrum plant kill. While this might appeal to some lake users, the eradication of native plants is not the objective of a sound management plan, and as such the most recent treatment should not be considered a successful one.

REFERENCES

APHA, AWWA, WEF. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 18th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, D.C.

Anon. 1988. Madison County septic system survey. Madison County Planning Department, Wampsville, NY 13163.0

Borman, S., R. Korth, and J. Tempte. 1999. Through the Looking Glass. A Field Guide to Aquatic Plants. Wisconsin Lakes Partnership.

Crow, G. E. and C.B. Hellquist. 2000a. Aquatic and wetland plants of Northeastern North America. V.1. Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms: dicotyledons. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Crow, G. E. and C.B. Hellquist. 2000b. Aquatic and wetland plants of Northeastern North America. V.2. Angiosperms: monocotyledons. The University of Wisconsin Press.

Fuller, R. 1997. Unpublished data. Colgate University, Hamilton, NY 13346.

Harman, W. N. 1978. The effects of Simazine® on the molluscan fauna of Moraine Lake, New York. The Nautilus. 92(3) 129-134.

Harman, W.N. and M.F. Albright. 1997. Aquatic macrophyte survey of Lake Moraine, Madison County, summer 1997, as related to management efforts by Sonar application. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta NY.

Harman, W. N., and M. F. Albright, P. H. Lord and D. King. 1998. Aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation of Lake Moraine, Madison County, NY. Tech. Rept. #5. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY.

Harman, W. N., M.F. Albright, P. H. Lord and M. Miller. 2000. Aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation of Lake Moraine, Madison County, NY. Tech. Rept. #9. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY.

Harman, W. N., M. F. Albright, P. H. Lord and M. E. Miller. 2002. Aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation of Lake Moraine, Madison County, NY. Tech. Rept. #13. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY.

Harman, W.N., M.F. Albright and K. Blanchard. 2005. Aquatic plant management plan facilitation of Moraine Lake, Madison County, NY. Tech. Rept. # 22. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., Oneonta, NY.

SePRO Corporation, 1999. Options for Aquatic Plant Management. 11550 North Meridian Street Suite 600, Carmel, IN 46032.

Slater, John. 2006. Personal Communication. Moraine Lake Association.

BFS Technical Report # 24

Trapa natans: Invasions and Effects and Water Chestnut (Trapa natans L.) in an Oneonta, NY Wetland

Submitted to:

NYS Power Authority

WILLARD N. HARMAN MATTHEW F. ALBRIGHT WILLOW EYRES

SUNY ONEONTA BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION 5838 ST HWY 80 COOPERSTOWN, NY 13326

March 2007

INTRODUCTION

Exotic species introductions have extensively influenced biological communities worldwide. A variety of aquatic invasive plant species, in particular, have become nuisance infestations in many locations, disturbing ecosystems, displacing native species and interfering with water uses. This paper discusses the problems associated with aquatic invasive plants as well as the biological and ecological aspects of invasion using Trapa natans L. (water chestnut) as a template. The history of its invasion and establishment in the northeastern United States was traced through a review of available literature. The plant’s biological and ecological characteristics were studied to give insight to the debilitating effects of aquatic invaders on water ecosystems, such as the alteration of geomorphology, water chemistry, macroinvertebrate communities, and stand structure of native species. Specific sites of invasion were analyzed, which included the Hudson River Basin, the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, the Great Lakes Region and Southern New England.

BIOLOGY OF Trapa natans

Water chestnut (Trapa natans) is an aggressive annual aquatic plant native to Europe, Asia and the northern countries of Africa (Ding and Blossey 2005). The plants was once thought to belong to the Trapaceae family, however modern molecular research puts Trapa under Lythraceae in the order Myrtales (Stevens 2001). It grows best in shallow, nutrient rich lakes, rivers and ponds and is generally found in waters with a pH range of 6.7 to 8.2 and alkalinity of 12 to 128 mg/L of calcium carbonate (Naylor, 2003). Water chestnut is a dicotyledonous herb with a floating rosette of leaves around a central stem. Species exhibiting rosettes respond to water movements and buoyant tissues in the stem, and leaves maintain stability on the surface of the water. The spongy inflated leaf petioles of T. natans also help the rosette to float. Many aquatic rosette species have a leaf mosaic with a wide range of leaves that develop on arenchymatous petioles; Trapa demonstrates this mosaic (Figure 1) (Groth et al. 1996). The leaves of floating plants are forced to physiologically deal with being exposed to air and water simultaneously. Carbon dioxide and oxygen move through stoma in the upper epidermis. Floating leaves will usually take a circular peltate form (Sculthorpe 1967). The lamina (the expanded part of the leaf) of T. natans is rhombic in shape and is toothed toward the tip of the leaf (Naylor 2003). The leaves have little or no lignin and the vascular tissues are generally poorly developed in the leaves (Sculthorpe 1967). The upper stem swelling has a lacunate pith and four or five rings of air spaces in the cortex whereas the remaining pith is compact having only two rings of cortical lacunae in the lower stem (Naylor 2003). The inconspicuous flowers are found on the leaf axils of younger leaves above the water. The meristem elongates and produces new leaves as it grows so that the older leaves and developing fruit are further down the stem and underwater (Sculthorpe 1967). The single seeded mature fruit are woody and bear four sharply pointed horns. Water chestnuts begin to flower in early June and the nuts will mature approximately a month

later. Flower and seed production continue into the fall until the first frost kills the rosettes. When mature, the fruits fall from the plant and sink to the bottom of the body of water. Seed dormancy can be from four months to twelve years. The horns may act as anchors to limit movement of the seed, thus keeping them at suitable water depths (Naylor 2003). Winter survival of the nuts generates the bed of Trapa at that site the following year. A small fraction of nuts are also carried on buoyant, detached floating ramets (a clonal offshoot) allowing the nuts to be dispersed to downstream sites (Groth et al. 1996). Water chestnut has adventitious roots that develop in pairs on either side of the leaf scars at lower nodes of the floating stem. The roots are feathery and can often reach to the sediment, but usually remain suspended in the water column (Groth et al. 1996). The roots also contain chlorophyll which has often misled people to think they were submerged leaves with segments comparable to the terrestrial roots of such species as Bergia capensis or Heteranthera zosteraefolia (Sculthorpe 1967). Some oxygen reaches the internal tissues of the roots by diffusing in solution along the epidermal gradient but oxygen also diffuses from photosynthetic sites. There is a system of cortical lacunae for diffusion (Sculthorpe 1967). Like many other aquatic plants, Trapa has no primary root system, just the adventitious roots that extend from the hypocotyls (the primary organ of plant extension). The lateral roots contain only one strand of xylem and phloem. Although the most important function of the roots is to absorb nutrients, they also provide an anchor for plant, but the developmental origin of the roots is unclear (Groth et al. 1996). Aquatic annuals are quite unique in that a large number of them propagate clonally, whereas most terrestrial annuals do not. In an annual species, clonal growth multiplies the opportunities of an individual for sexual reproduction without producing overlapping generations of ramets. The explosive growth of this exotic plant may be due to several phenomena. There is some evidence that this species behaves as a perennial in parts of North America, and the rapid expansion of populations of the plant may be due to the proliferation of clonal fragments that subsequently proliferate the following year. The increase may also be via an increase in the rate of seed production. Typically, in this species, only one seed within the nut develops, but it may be that under low density conditions, two seeds develop. It is also possible that phenotypic plasticity allows it to develop more flowers per rosette, or more flowers may successfully develop into nuts, at low density (Groth et al. 1996). Typically a Trapa plant is capable of producing three primary ramets and they develop in a specific order. The first ramet arises from the center of the nut; the second develops on the side opposite the hypocotyls, and the third between the first shoot and the hypocotyls (Groth et al. 1996).

Figure 1. The distinguishing rosette (1), nut (2), leaflet showing buoyancy bladder (3) and root stalk with filiform rootlets (4) of T. natans. Modified from http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/tranatdr.jpg

DISTRIBUTION Water chestnut is native to the warm temperate regions of Eurasia and North Africa. There is some discrepancy in the literature as to which decade Trapa natans first entered the U.S., and when it established. Naylor (2003) states water chestnut was first recorded in North America near Concord, Massachusetts in 1859. Hummel and Findlay (2006) state that it was first introduced to the U.S. in 1875, while Pemberton (1999) states it was first observed in 1884, growing in Sanders Lake, Schenectady, New York.

Populations have become established in many locations in the northeastern United States, including the Hudson River, Lake Champlain, Oneida Lake and six of its tributaries, the Nashu River in New Hampshire and the Connecticut River in Connecticut. In the United States it has been documented in Connecticut, Delaware, New York, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Virginia, and Pennsylvania (Pemberton 1999) (Figure 2). Trapa also thrives in the Great Lakes Basin. In 1998, water chestnut was found in the South River in Quebec, which is connected to the Lake Champlain outlet via the Richelieu River. Its spread has continued because of the suitability of habitat. In 2001, Trapa was found in the Pike River, which flows into Mississquoi Bay (Pemberton 1999).

Figure 2. Distribution of Trapa natans in the US (2004). Source: http://www.anr.state.vt.us/dec/waterq/lakes/images/ans/lp_wc-usamap.gif

VECTORS OF INVASION AND DISPERSAL Water chestnut was introduced into the wild sometime before 1879 by a gardener at the Cambridge Botanical Garden in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The gardener reported planting it in several ponds. It was also introduced in Concord, Massachusetts, where it was planted in a pond adjacent to the Sudbury River. By the turn of the century, it proliferated in the pond and the river. Since then, water chestnut has spread to other states and other river and estuary systems (Naylor 2003). Ballast waters also offered an easy means for Trapa nuts to gain entrance to America (Mills et al. 1996). Water chestnut has also become naturalized in Australia as well (Heywood 1993). Hellquist (1997) believes that, once introduced, Trapa is dispersed primarily by ducks and geese, but it is unlikely that the nuts could be carried over long distances. Although observations have been made of Canada geese with Trapa fruits attached to their feathers, the size and weight of the propagules make it unlikely they would remain attached during prolonged flight. Because Trapa fruits fall to the bottom of lakes and rivers, there is a low probability of getting tangled in plumage. It has also been

determined that muskrat eat Trapa fruits and many also facilitate their dispersal (Les et.al. 1999). Trapa is also believed to be a determined “hitchhiker”, which accounts for its dispersal from the Hudson River to Lake Champlain on boats (clinging to ropes and nets) using the barge canal (Countryman 1970). Wind and wave action disperse plant pieces and fruits locally. Trapa fruits have long been consumed by humans and were sold by street vendors in western New York State from about 1925 to 1935. Canned Trapa fruits are sold in gourmet food shops and plants are still being cultivated for the edible nuts, however most tinned “water chestnuts” are in fact Cyprus esculentus (Les et al. 1999). The Trapa fruit contains much starch and fat, and are a staple food in eastern Asia, Malaysia, and India (Heywood 1993).

INFESTATION IMPACTS ON HUMANS The impacts of a water chestnut invasion are not only devastating ecologically, but also negatively affect humans. In most areas the biggest problem has become the interference of water chestnut in recreational and economic uses of navigable waters. Dense mat and root systems can completely cover the surface of the water, preventing swimming and canoeing and tangling in propellers of motor boats. In addition, the spiny seeds of the chestnut have been known to cause harmful injury to bathers and beach users. Similarly to infestations of Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), the mats are favorable sites for mosquito breeding. Water chestnut also affects the aesthetic value of an area. The plant is likely to be regarded as unattractive in large quantities and can be unsightly when washed ashore. Recreational fishing is also affected as many fish populations tend to avoid the infested areas because normal biological processes are terminated or severely reduced (NEMESIS 2005) Economically, efforts to reduce plant population sizes and stop its spreading have been costly. In the Chesapeake Bay region alone, $2.8 million have been spent in the past 20 years for mechanical harvesting, herbicide applications and hand pulling and monitoring programs (NEMESIS 2005). Because of the nuisance of water chestnut and other aquatic invasives, more precautions are being taken and more legislation being created. For example, many states have created strict legislation to require permits for all water withdrawals and water transports to prevent the spread of any invasive plants. Bulk water transporters that offer such services as filling swimming pools, hydroseeding, irrigation, spraying for dust control and roadbed compaction at construction sites, and similar activities often withdraw water from rivers or lakes at convenient access points. Many states now require pipes, hoses and tanks of trucks to be inspected and thoroughly cleaned (Mills 1996).

CHESAPEAKE BAY WATERSHED A distinct feature, and one of the Chesapeake Bay’s vital natural resources, is the beds of submerged aquatic plants that inhabit the shallow water areas. In addition to its high primary productivity, this vegetation is significant because it is a food source for waterfowl, a habitat and nursery for many species, a shoreline control system and a

nutrient buffer. However, over the past 50 years, there have been several distinct periods in which significant changes occurred within the submergent aquatic vegetation. These ecological changes began with the Zostera marina wasting disease in the 1930s and Myriophyllum spicatum and Trapa natans proliferation in the 1950s. These two periods in effect caused widespread changes in the vegetation populations during the 1960’s and 70’s (Orth et al. 1984). Within the Chesapeake Bay watershed, water chestnut first appeared in 1923, on the Potomac River near Washington D.C. as a two acre patch. The plant spread rapidly, covering 40 miles of river in just a few years. By 1933, 10,000 acres of dense beds extended from D.C. to Quantico, Virginia. Water chestnut was first recorded in the Bird River in Baltimore County for the first time in 1955 (Orth et al. 1984). The Maryland Department of Game and Inland Fish and Tidewater Fisheries used mechanical removal and an herbicide (2,4-D, the only fully licensed herbicide successfully used against water chestnut) to control it. However, in 1964 it reappeared in the Bird River and an additional 100 acres were discovered in the Sassafras River in Kent County, of which 30 acres were mechanically removed. This effort was highly successful as no plants were reported in surveys until 1997 when a water chestnut population was again discovered in the Bird River (Naylor 2003). The infestation spread from approximately 50 plants in the summer of 1997 to over three acres in 1998, demonstrating the explosive propagation ability of Trapa natans. This population increased again into the Sassafras River and a substantial mechanical and volunteer harvesting effort began on both rivers in 1999, resulting in the removal of almost 400,000 pounds of plants from the two rivers. This undertaking was successful but researchers realized that viable nuts still remain in the sediments and that continuous follow-up measures will be necessary (Naylor 2003).

HUDSON RIVER BASIN The Hudson River Basin drains parts of five states (New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Vermont) as well as six physiographic regions (the Canadian Shield, the Folded Appalachians, the Catskills, the Hudson Highlands, the New England Upland, and the New Jersey Lowland). A study by Mills et al. (1996) found there to be 113 exotic species in the fresh waters of the Hudson River basin, of which Trapa natans was listed. In fact, the study placed water chestnut third on the list (after Potomogeton crispus and Rorripa nasturtium) of plant species to have had the most significant ecological impacts on the basin. In the Hudson River Basin, water chestnut is typically found in low energy environments in lakes and rivers, especially in the freshwater tidal sections. The authors suggest that in many regions, alterations of the environment through cultural eutrophication, siltation, and hydrological modifications only contributed to the success of Trapa, as well as many other invasive species in the basin such as Myriophyllum spicatum and Lythrum salicaria (Mills et al. 1996). Most of the exotic plants were first reported in the Hudson River Basin in the 19th century. Several vectors brought in large numbers of exotics. Plants, in particular, originated chiefly as escapees from cultivation or in the solid ballast of ships. The high number of exotics in the Hudson River is probably due to the long history of human

commerce throughout the region. Therefore, this human activity has influenced the number of species in the Hudson River Basin and has strongly influenced the kinds of species that are present (Mills et al. 1996). In the Hudson River, from the Tappan Zee Bridge to Troy, water chestnut covers approximately 2% of the water’s surface. Bed sizes range from 12m2 to almost 100,000m2, with an average size of 1500m2. These numbers again demonstrate the explosive propagating capability of Trapa (Hummel and Findlay 2006). A study by Hummel and Findlay (2006) analyzed the effects of water chestnut beds on water chemistry and therefore its detrimental effects on the Hudson River. Since under favorable conditions, Trapa is capable of covering almost 100% of the water’s surface, it often shades out submerged aquatic vegetation such as Vallisneria americana, Potamogeton perfoliatus and even the extremely invasive Myriophyllum spicatum. These dense beds also affect gas exchange, light penetration and invertebrate and fish populations. Water chestnut was also observed to be a source of dissolved organic carbon in the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, which indicates that there is a direct correlation between rates of photosynthesis and increases in dissolved organic carbon (Hummel and Findlay 2006). The effect of aquatic plants on water velocity has direct implications for transport of water column constituents such as particulate matter, plankton, and detritus. Because sedimentation, deposition increasing as flow decreases, water chestnut beds may enhance settling of suspended solids thus reducing turbidity and contributing to local accumulation of fine sediment (Pierterse and Murphy 1990). The presence of water chestnut and other vegetation can also affect flow in a channel of water in one or more of the following ways: (1) reducing water velocities, thus raising water levels. (2) raising the water table on adjacent lands causing waterlogged soils and leaching of nutrients, and (3) changing the magnitude and direction of currents, therefore increasing the risk of local erosion, and interfering with other water uses (navigation, recreation) (Pierterse and Murphy 1990). These detrimental effects can be seen in various sites in the Hudson River Basin. The effects of large water chestnut beds on fish populations in the tidal freshwater Hudson River have also been studied. Fish species diversity is low under the beds, and the species with the largest populations are those that tolerate low dissolved oxygen content. Constant movement of fish into and out of the beds suggests water chestnut is not used continuously as protection from predators. The high plant surface area of the beds, however, provides habitat for various invertebrate species and significantly increases potential prey for fishes. Very large beds, however, reduce dissolved oxygen which negatively affects some fishes and invertebrates. Very large beds exert the greatest control on water quality and the two largest beds constitute 50% of the total Trapa coverage on the Hudson. Invertebrate and fish communities might gain from the separation of large beds into small disconnected beds so that they provide foraging habitat for fishes without creating the harmful effects of the large beds (Hummel and Findlay 2006).

THE GREAT LAKES REGION During the historical development of the Great Lakes Basin, human activity has played a major role in the introduction of nonindigenous organisms into the world’s largest bodies of freshwater. Plants, in particular, had several vectors for reaching the Great Lakes. Mills et al. (1993) suggest that Trapa may have accidentally escaped from ornamental gardens or cultivation areas. Ballast water, however, is the vector most commonly thought to have brought water chestnut to the Great Lakes. Ballast was in use by the late1880’s and was being dumped into to the Great Lakes at that time. In 1875, work to enlarge the canals from the St. Lawrence River to Lake Superior began to allow it to accommodate a ship 79 meters long with a 13 meter beam. Even though these ships were not the massive boats seen in the St. Lawrence Seaway today, the ballast they brought into the Great Lakes was substantial. With the opening of the enlarged seaway system in June 1959, the amount of ballast water released into the lakes increased dramatically (Mills et al. 1993). In many respects, the aquatic plant invasion history of the Great Lakes is similar to the nearby Hudson basin. Both regions have a large number of exotic vascular plants, fish and large invertebrates. Most are Eurasian in origin. Both areas can contribute the presence of exotic species to unintentional and deliberate releases. A large number of these species have had a significant ecological impact; however, the Hudson River received much higher numbers of exotic introductions in the 19th century, while the 20th century was the high point for introductions in the Great Lakes region. The primary reason for this is the timeline of settlement from east to west. Also the plant exchange between the Hudson and the Great lakes was not symmetrical. The Hudson River Basin received many more species from the American Interior Basin than the Great Lakes region did from the Atlantic Slope. This probably happened because the freshwater biota of the Atlantic Slope is much poorer than that of the American Interior Basin, so that when these two regions were connected by the Erie Canal and other human activities, the total movement of species was from the west to east (species-rich to species-poor) (Mills et al. 1996).

SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND The southern New England region includes the southernmost portions of Vermont and New Hampshire, the southeastern portions of New York, and all of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Although the Chesapeake Bay Watershed and the Hudson River basin are partially included in this region and have been previously discussed, this perspective provides a good overview and a larger geographical scenario. Non-indigenous aquatic species have persisted in Southern New England and their introduction continues. The number of aquatic plants has increased steadily in the region over the past 150 years, with no signs of slowing. Trapa natans is one of the earliest recorded non-indigenous plants in the region. According to Les et al. (1999), the earliest reliable record for water chestnut is sometime before 1879, in Middlesex County, Massachusetts with only five other species arriving earlier. Those species include Acorus calamus, Nasturtium officionale, Potamogeton crispus, Marsilea quadrifolia, and Callictriche stagnalis. Nearly all plant species have persisted and flourished in the region

and there is no sign that the introduction of other non-indigenous aquatics will diminish. Les et al. (1999) noted T. natans to be quite a nuisance weed in North America, but that it is extirpated or endangered in much of Europe. On the list of New England’s 10 major aquatic weeds (Steward 1990) Trapa natans is the only genus exclusively non-indigenous to North America. As many as 88% of the invasive aquatics probably first entered the country as cultivated plants, and nearly 76% of introduction cases are implicated by escapes (Les et al. 1999).

LAKE CHAMPLAIN, VERMONT Although there is not much information on water chestnut in Lake Champlain, the available data can be used to consider the capabilities of water chestnuts to invade the Champlain Region and its extent of infestation. In Vermont, water chestnut occupies significant areas of southern Lake Champlain and extends over a range of 54 square miles (Figure 3). Six Lake Champlain tributaries support water chestnut populations. Five other lakes or ponds in Vermont have now been confirmed with water chestnut. Annual surveillance followed by hand pulling has kept water chestnut controlled in those waters. The plant was first introduced into the lake in the 1940’s. In 2001, water chestnut was found and hand pulled from the Lemon Fair River near Middlebury. Control efforts and research continue (Dick 2004).

Figure 3. Distribution of Trapa natans in Lake Champlain, VT. Source: http://www.lcbp.org/atlas/HTML/is_chestnut.htm

EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES Trapa natans and many other invasive aquatics can invade an area and severely alter an ecosystem. Wetlands, in particular, seem especially vulnerable to these invasions because they are landscape sinks, which accumulate debris, sediments, water and nutrients. Even though less than 6% of the earth’s land mass is wetland, 24% of the world’s most invasive plants are wetland species (Zedler et al. 2004). Wetland invaders contrast with many terrestrial invaders in that: seeds are often dispersed by water, plants and plant parts can be dispersed by flotation, and aerenchyma protects below ground plant tissues from flooding in anoxic soils and has the ability for rapid nutrient uptake, thus allowing for rapid growth (Zedler et al. 2004). In wetlands, non-indigenous species abundance associates with road density, suggestive of that landscape position interacting with dispersal pathways and disturbances to help plant establishment. Wetlands fed by surface water from agricultural and urbanized watersheds usually have many invasive species. Wetlands that are not fed primarily by surface water have small watersheds, depending on other sources for their water supply like rainfall or groundwater. These wetlands are usually species rich and relatively free of invasive plants (Zedler et al. 2004). There are many characteristics of wetlands that provide an area for opportunistic plant invaders such as: runoff, nutrient cycles, sediment composition, open standing water, human made structures, and salinity cycles. The characteristics that benefit an invasion by Trapa natans will be discussed in more detail. Floodwaters accumulate in wetlands, and anoxia becomes a cumbersome challenge for most species, except those that are flood tolerant. These species usually possess aerenchyma tissues or pressure ventilation. Plants with aerenchyma can also achieve high plant biomass, potentially growing very rapidly. Trapa stems contain aerenchyamtous tissues and therefore have that advantage. Trapa also has a great advantage in that its adventitious roots positively respond to changes in water depth and nutrient availability. Dense, floating rhizome mats provide another advantage for reasons discussed earlier (Orth et al. 2004). Wetlands have shown to be significantly altered by plant invaders. Many invasive plants are unwanted because of the effects they have on habitat structure. Species that alter the physical structure of a site have high potential for shifting hydrological conditions and animal uses. Invasive plants are commonly understood to shrink both plant and animal diversity. As low species richness sometimes grants greater invisibility, the potential for positive feedback does exist (Zedler et al. 2004). Invasive plants that differ from native species in biomass and productivity, tissue chemistry, morphology, or phenology, can alter soil nutrient dynamics. Invasive species can affect food webs in multiple ways, by altering the quantity and quality of food, by changing food supply, or by changing susceptibility to predators (Zedler et al. 2004). Sedimentation is both a cause and effect of wetland invasions. Wetlands in which sediments are flowing in, invasive plants find canopy gaps and bare soils to colonize. Where sturdy invasive plants colonize stream banks, sediments accumulate and alter geomorphology. The outcomes are similar in both habitats in that the topography is simplified and this is detrimental to the recipient community’s ability to support diversity in vegetation. At the same time, sediments carry nutrients (especially phosphorous) that

cause eutrophication and more rapid growth of many invasive plants (Zedler et al. 2004). Overall, invasive species are reported to significantly alter geomorphologic processes by increasing erosion rates, increasing sedimentation rates, increase soil elevation, or impact the effective geometry or configuration of water channels (Gordon 1998). Species that alter geomorphology are also likely to influence hydrological systems by altering hydrological cycling, altering water table depth, or altering surface flow patterns. Non-indigenous species with evapotranspiration rates higher than those of the native flora may significantly alter the water cycles. In a study by Gordon (1998), the author found that nitrogen-fixing invaders will alter biogeochemical cycles, effect soil nutrient availability and significantly alter water chemistry. This in turn will effect submerged vegetation and phytoplankton. Aquatic macrophytes that form canopies also have their own set of effects on bodies of water. Extensive covers of floating plants, such as those produced by Trapa, shelter the surface from wind, reduce turbulence and aeration, restrict mixing and promote thermal stratification. Frodge (1990) hypothesized that the structure of the plant canopies are functionally important to variations in water quality and that in dense beds the canopies can vertically divide the water column. The study found that water quality differences and daily changes were strongly connected to the development of dense surface canopies. Significant differences in water temperature and dissolved oxygen were observed between the surface and the sub-canopy water. The low sub-canopy dissolved oxygen concentrations, and lack of daily change in dissolved oxygen, indicated a reduction of sub-canopy photosynthesis, even during daylight hours. The self-shading by macrophytes can, therefore, change the lower stem area to a site of oxygen demand rather than an area of oxygen surplus. However, the plant canopy effect appeared to be dependent on the size and geometry of the body of water. A deeper lake with a larger ratio of open water would be naturally buffered to the effects of the plant beds. The study even suggested that the areas above and below the canopies could be considered fundamentally different habitats (Frodge et al. 1990). In eutrophic waters, aquatic macrophytes such as Trapa can grow vigorously and play a significant role in removing nutrients from polluted water. Floating leaved plants are characterized by a short life span, which results in high rates of biomass turnover. Nutrient availability has been described to affect the leaf life-span of terrestrial plants, and even thought there are small amounts of data for aquatic macrophytes; the same is hypothesized to be true. In a study by Tsuchiya (1993), the data showed that with increased nitrogen availability, net production of T. natans increased as well, concluding that growth may be restricted by nitrogen flux. The study also discussed Trapa’s ability to take up nitrogen from both the water and from the sediment (Tsuchiya 1993). Yet another effect of Trapa on ecosystem processes is in the area of invertebrate communities. As mentioned before, water chestnut leaves release oxygen into the atmosphere while the stems and roots consume oxygen from the water, so beneath the large, dense beds the water may become hypoxic (low oxygen) or even anoxic (devoid of oxygen). Also, because Trapa has a different architecture than submerged plants, and depletes water of dissolved oxygen, it has been thought to support distinctive communities of macroinvertebrates and fish. In a study by Strayer et al. (2003), the authors compared the macroinvertebrate fauna associated with Trapa with those of the

nearby beds of Vallisneria, the species Trapa is thought to have displaced in the freshwater tidal Hudson River. Within the two habitats, they found that macroinvertebrate density was higher in Trapa than in Vallisneria, and higher in the interior of the Trapa beds than near the edges. As expected, the density of epiphytic macroinvertebrates was positively correlated with plant biomass. In contrast, the density of benthic macroinvertebrates was nearly unrelated to plant biomass. Epiphytic invertebrate communities on Trapa were distinct from those on Vallisneria, with the communities of Trapa characterized by Cricoptopus sp., Actinolaimus sp., Pristina leidyi, Nais variables, Sida crystallina and Ablabesmyia sp. (Strayer et al. 2003). Similarly, benthic invertebrate communities differed significantly between the beds of the two macrophyte species. Species characteristic of the benthic habitats under Trapa included: Pyrrhalta nympheae, Dreissena polymorpha, Sida crystallina, and Gammarus tigrinus. In general, invertebrates were larger from Trapa than from Vallisneria and densities were higher in Trapa, but this was probably a result of high biomass in Trapa beds (Strayer et al. 2003).

METHODS AND ATTEMPS OF CONTROL Biological control possibilities were investigated in the early 1990s. Surveys were conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1992 and 1993 that sought natural enemies of water chestnut in Northeast Asia (Pemberton 1999). Galerucella birmanica, a beetle that consumes up to 40% of water chestnut leaf tissue, was found to have various other plant hosts, thereby making it unsuitable for bio-control purposes in the U.S. Other insects that fed exclusively on water chestnut were identified but were found to be non- damaging. Predators found in the warmer climate of India have potential but could not withstand the cooler temperatures of water chestnut-infested Northeast regions of the United States (Pemberton 1999).Other promising candidates include: Galerucella nymphaeae L., Nanophyes japonica Roelofs and Nanophyes sp.

Hand removal is an effective means for eradication of smaller populations because water chestnut roots are easily uplifted. Their removal is important because floating plants can spread seeds downstream. The potential for water chestnut seeds to lay dormant for up to 12 years makes total eradication difficult. However, hand-harvesting from canoes and raking have been useful. Research has also attempted to hinder populations by manipulating water levels (Naylor 1999).

For large-scale control of water chestnut populations herbicides and mechanical harvesting can be effective. Aquatic plant harvesting boats are often employed in instances where waterways are blocked. For example, mechanical harvesting in 1999 on the Sassafras River removed an estimated 260,000 pounds of water chestnut (Naylor 1999). Unfortunately, mechanical harvesting boats cannot operate in some of the shallow areas that water chestnut can inhabit. For this reason, mechanical harvesting has been complemented by hand harvesting in Maryland on the Bird and Sassafras rivers. Herbicide 2,4-D has been tested, and deemed safe for use by federal and state agencies. Used widely in the U.S., it has shown to be non-adverse on neighboring wildlife. Maryland and Virginia used 2,4-D in the 1960s to eradicate Eurasian water milfoil

populations in the Bay. Due to public perception, the use of herbicides is seen as a last resort option. Integrating all possible methods for water chestnut removal will be the most effective course for eradication (Naylor 1999).

The best method for control, however, remains to be prevention. Programs in many areas have developed systems for boat cleaning and inspection to prevent the water chestnut, and other invasive species, from entering a water source altogether. This has proven to be effective with cooperation and much more economical. For example, the state of Maine began a courtesy boat inspection program in 2001 to reduce the risk of transporting invasive species via boats, trailers and equipment (Anon. 2005).

CONCLUSIONS Elton (1950) stated in his book The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals, “…quite a large number of species are able to achieve a worldwide distribution as it is, either because the ecological barriers that hold in others are not barriers to them, or because, which is partly the same thing, they have exceptionally good powers of dispersal (page 33).” Today, this “power of dispersal” is termed propagule pressure. The exact number of propagules necessary for Trapa natans or other invasive plants to establish is unknown; however, it has been determined by Lockwood et al. (2005) that increased pressure increases the probability of introduction and establishment of invasive species. This increase in pressure is a benefit due to increased genetic variability helping to overcome stochastic events, climate, or biotic interactions. The durability of the Trapa fruit and the plant’s tolerance for different habitats could imply that a relatively lower propagule pressure is needed for Trapa to establish. Lockwood et al. (2005) also discussed the idea that disturbed locations, which could be experiencing physiological stress or resource flux for example, would lower the necessary propagule pressure. Our findings support this theory, as the Chesapeake Bay Basin, Lake Champlain Region, Southern New England, and especially the Hudson River Basin were quite disturbed by human influences by the time Trapa invaded throughout the 19th century. In all of these areas, there were also previous plant invaders that may have increased the ability of Trapa to invade, an idea also investigated by Lockwood et al. (2005). The literary findings for this paper also show support for the “enemy release hypothesis”. This hypothesis poses that exotic species are successful because they have escaped the specialist herbivores and pathogens present in their native range (Levine et al. 2004). In its native range of Eurasia and northern Africa, Trapa does not grow and spread overwhelmingly and in some countries it is even threatened or endangered. For example, the species has been entered in the Red Data Books of Ukraine (1996) and Bulgaria (1984), and is protected in the Danube delta (Ukraine and Romania). This demonstrates that in these regions, water chestnut is very susceptible to herbivory, competition, pathogens and other factors. In summary, several generalizations can be made about the water chestnut and its effects on the communities it invades. The unique morphology of the water chestnut roots, nuts and leaves give the plant a natural advantage by creating dense canopies that

shade out other competitors, in turn effecting nearly all aspects of a water habitat (for example, hydrological cycles, sedimentation, erosion, water chemistry and temperature). Flora and fauna are directly affected by these alterations. Research has demonstrated that many native fish and macroinvertebrate species, as well as native macrophytes, are significantly affected, as are mammals and amphibious organisms. The quick dispersal and growth rates of the water chestnut make it difficult to control and even more difficult to eradicate, although efforts to do so via hand pulling, mechanical, and herbicides have proved effective but are costly, time consuming and labor intensive. Many habitats may benefit from dividing up large beds of Trapa to mitigate some negative effects. Efforts should be aimed at keeping the water chestnut populations in the northeastern US (and out of large rivers such as the Ohio, Mississippi and Susquehanna Rivers) and limiting its abundance there, as its spread into other lakes and rivers could lead to larger infestations in other states and regions. The ability of Trapa natans to tolerate a wide range of habitats, grow fast and produce durable nuts makes it such a successful invader.

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Water Chestnut (Trapa natans L.) in Oneonta, NY Wetland End of Year Summary Report January 2007 For: New York State Power Authority c/o Julius Fuks From: SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station Project Advisor: Dr. Bill Harman Project Coordinator: Matt Albright Graduate Student Research: Willow Eyres Property Owner: Louis Blasetti

Research Objectives

The objectives of this project are to eliminate water chestnut in a wetland draining into the Susquehanna River near Oneonta, Otsego County, NY as well as to ascertain nutrient export from this wetland as a result of control activities and to study the impacts on non-target aquatic submergent vegetation.

Background

Currently, there are only three known populations of the invasive Trapa natans in the Susquehanna River Basin. One small population inhabits Goodyear Lake, in which ongoing hand pulling efforts may be effective. Another population inhabits Cincinnatus Lake, while the third inhabits a 40 acre wetland near Oneonta. The area is privately owned by Mr. Louis Blasseti. The water chestnut population was first observed five years ago and has since grown to approximately two acres in size, crowding out other previously dominant aquatic plant species: Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogeton crispus, Elodea canadensis, and Lemna minor.

There is concern over the adverse effects that water chestnut could have in the Susquehanna drainage basin. An incident of water chestnut introduction into the Chesapeake Bay region demonstrates its invasive and dominating abilities in the waters of the Mid-Atlantic States. During one year in a reach of the Sassafras River (Kent County, Maryland) the water chestnut population grew from about 50 plants to 1000s covering over three acres of surface water. There, it caused major changes in water circulation, temperature, light penetration, native plant populations, as well as navigation and recreation (Naylor 2003). Management plans for the water chestnut included hand- pulling efforts as well as several applications of the herbicide 2,4-D. After several years of continued control, the region has begun to recover (Naylor 2003).

In an effort to prevent further dispersion of this Oneonta water chestnut population, it was thought best by project advisors to use a chemical weed killer. In past years, hand-pulling efforts were ineffective. Monies from the New York Power Authority, the Millennium Pipeline Company and a legislative grant from the NYS

Senate were donated and used to purchase a quantity of the herbicide 2,4-D and to develop a work plan. The herbicide was applied by the Allied Biological Company on 26 August 26 2006. All necessary permits were issued by the Department of Environmental Conservation.

2,4-D is an herbicide that is toxic to broad leafed plants but less harmful to grasses. The formulation used is a butoxyethyl ester of 2,4-D, also termed Aqua-Kleen® by Cerezagri-Nisso. Aqua-Kleen® has been used successfully for selective control of noxious aquatic plants including water milfoil, coontail, spatterdock and water stargrass for more than two decades (Aqua-Kleen 2005). Known as a hormone weed killer, the herbicide is an aryloxyalkanoic acid or a “phenoxy herbicide”. These chemicals have complex plant interactions resembling those of auxins (growth hormones). Once absorbed, 2,4-D is translocated within the plant and accumulates at the growing points of roots and shoots where it inhibits growth. This herbicide has low soil absorption, a relatively short half-life and a high potential for leachability. Aqua-Kleen® can be used in specific areas without impacting untreated areas of the lake or water body. While some formulations of 2,4-D are highly toxic to fish, the compounds used for this project are not (Aqua-Kleen 2005). Aquatic invertebrates do not in general seem to be sensitive to the herbicide and toxicity to birds is low (Dow 2006).

Experimental Approach

Water depths were first recorded in effort to develop a bathymetric map (see Appendix 1). (Currently, the pond is not shown on state or county maps). Delineation lines and GPS points were also documented to define the limits of open water. My preliminary work at the wetland began with a survey of the dominant aquatic and wetland plant species: identifications, collections of voucher samples, and preparation of herbarium specimens. Appendix 2 provides a list of plant species found. Water samples have been taken at the deepest part of the area of open water as well as at the outlet monthly (see Appendix 3).

To show the effects of the herbicide on biomass and distribution of both the water chestnut and non-target plants, a “Rake Toss Procedure” developed by Cornell University was performed with the help of the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station summer interns. The work involved tossing a double sided rake 9m from the boat and dragging in the aquatic plants, then quantifying each species using predetermined categories. Dry weights have been documented for each category, and approximate biomasses have been established (Lord and Johnson 2006). Appendix 4 provides the raw rake toss data collected on 16 June 06. Using Delorme™ software and aerial maps obtained from National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), the distribution and biomass of the aquatic plants will be mapped and used for comparing subsequent years. Appendix 5 is a 2004 aerial map of the site. During the growing season of 2007, the numbers will be compared to elucidate the effectiveness of the herbicide on the chestnut, determine effects on non-target plant species and water quality. We have hopes of greatly diminishing the population, thereby reducing propagule pressure downstream in the river.

As expected after the first application, the herbicide worked quickly on the water chestnut, with evidence of brown leaves within two weeks. Plants began to fragment and sink in the water column. Root hairs turned brown. Additional members of the water chestnut population in the lake were removed during a two day hand-pulling effort later that summer, coordinated by the Otsego County Conservation Association. However, the chestnut showed regrowth after approximately one month, sprouting new shoots. These new plants did not reach maturity and drop seeds before the growing season ended. The herbicide probably would have been more effective if applied earlier in the summer, therefore we are concerned that the original population may have dropped some seed. Permit restraints, however, hindered a more timely application. We plan, based on the chestnut population size in the spring and available money, a second herbicide application in 2007.

Water quality and analysis documents concentrations of all nutrient fractions in May and June abruptly decreasing in early July. This correlates with the record flood conditions experienced in late June, which may have purged nutrient rich waters from the system. We will be watching closely in the spring of 2008 in an attempt to develop further explanations for variations in nutrient concentrations

Many hectares of wetlands are chemically treated annually to control exotic plants in New York State. Does control of large populations of ecologically dominant plants release significantly large amounts of nutrients into aquatic systems already stressed by eutrophication? Given the potential for federal regulation of nutrient loading (via total maximum daily loads [TMDL’s]) in the Susquehanna Drainage Basin in the near future, how important are such considerations to agencies implementing large plant control programs in the region. My work and analysis of water quality information will begin to give insight into the importance of these concerns.

REFERENCES

Aqua-Kleen. 2005. Cerexagri: Aquatic habitat management. [Online]. Accessed 14 Nov 2006. http://www.cerexagri.com/aquatic/aquakleen.asp

Herbicide 2,4-D. 2006. Dow AgroSciences LLC. [Online]. Accessed 28 Oct 2006. http://www.dowagro.com/ca/prod/frontline-2.htm

Lord, P. H. and R. L. Johnson. 2006. Point Intercept Rake Toss Relative Abundance Method. Cornell University Research Ponds.

Naylor, M. 2003. Water Chestnut in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed: A Regional Management Plan. Maryland Department of Natural Resources.

Appendix 1. Blasetti Wetland Water Depths Oneonta, NY

100 70

70 90

70

170 120

60 60 90

60

70 90

90

FIG. Various water depths (cm) Elevation: 1,066 feet ↑ Scale: 2.5cm= 500 feet 18T 049 Easting 469 Northing N

Appendix 2. Wetland and Aquatic Plants Species(** indicates dominant species)

Alnus incana Brassenia schreberi Carex sp. Ceratophyllum demersum** Cicuta bulbifera Cornus ammomum Dryopteris sp. Elodea canadensis** Impatiens capensis Juncus effusus Lemna minor** Lysimachia nummularia Lythrum salicaria** Lysimachia quadrifolia Onoclea sensibilis** Polygonum amphibium** Potamogeton crispus** Potamogeton natans Potamogeton pectinatus Rumex verticillatum Sagittaria latifolia Solanum dulcamara Spirodela polyrhiza Spyrogira sp.** Symplocarpus foetidus Thelypteris sp. Trapa natans** Typha latifolia** Wolffia colombiana W. borealis

Appendix 3. Ammonia, nitrite+nitrate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations, 2007.

Ammonia NO3 + NO2 Total Nitrogen Total Phosphorus mg/l mg/l mg/l ug/l 22-May 0.793 2.330 8.620 2510.0 30-May 0.614 3.060 11.500 2950.0 15-Jun 0.641 2.390 8.190 2410.0 10-Jul 0.004 0.160 0.635 38.8 21-Jul 0.010 0.140 0.637 33.4 22-Aug 0.084 0.010 0.621 79.5 3-Sep 0.028 0.010 0.409 25.3 3-Sep OUTLET 0.089 0.008 0.468 46.4 15 Sep DEEP 0.051 0.013 0.401 37.2 15 Sep OUTLET 0.086 0.008 0.426 34.7

Appendix 4. Plant rake data, 16 June 06.

Appendix 4 (cont.). Plant rake data, 16 June 06.

Appendix 4 (cont.). Plant rake data, 16 June 06 (cont.).

Appendix 5.