S P A T I U M , International Review, No. 8, June 2002., ISSN 1450-569X

SCOPE AND AIMS The review is concerned with a multi-disciplinary approach to regional and urban planning and architecture, as well as with different aspects of land use, including housing, environment, etc. It attempts to contribute to better theoretical understanding of a new spatial development processes and to improve the practice in the field.

EDITORIAL BOARD Prof. Dobrivoje To{kovi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) - President Vladimir Macura, Ph.D. (Belgrade) - Vice-president Prof. Milutin Lje{evi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Borislav Stojkov, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Predrag Cagi} (Belgrade) Prof. Milica Jovanovi}-Popovi} (Belgrade) Mihailo ^anak, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Nedeljko Borovnica, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Zoran Manevi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Nada Mila{in, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Miodrag Vujo{evi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Branko Bojovi}, Arch. (Belgrade) Igor Mari}, M.Sc. (Belgrade) Ines Mari~i}, Arch. (Belgrade) Acad. Vladimir Nikolaevi~ Belousov (Moscow) Vlatko Korobar, Ph.D. (Skopje) Evangelija Hadzitrifonos, Arch. () Prof. Juhani Pallasmaa (Helsinki) EDITORS Nada Mila{in, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Milica Baji}-Brkovi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Branislav Deri}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Du{an Joksi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Vladimir Macura, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Prof. Dobrivoje To{kovi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Miodrag Vujo{evi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) Mila Pucar, Ph.D (Belgrade) Slavka Zekovi}, Ph.D. (Belgrade) EDITOR IN CHIEF Nada Mila{in, Ph.D. SECRETARY Ines Mari~i}, Arch. COMPUTER DESIGN Omiljena D`elebd`i}, M.Sc. COVER PAGE DESIGN Ines Mari~i}, Arch. PUBLISHER Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Nenad Spasi}, Ph.D., director ADDRESS Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia "spatium" Yugoslavia, 11000 Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II E-mail: [email protected] fax: (381 11) 3370-203 FINANCIAL SUPPORT Ministry of Science, Technology and Development of the Republic of Serbia Printed in Yugoslavia by GRAFO-@IG - Belgrade

CONTENTS

Introductory note to this issue of SPATIUM by the Editorial Board

George Petrakos 1 THE SPATIAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT IN Associate Professor of Spatial SOUTH-EASTERN Economics, University of Thessaly Head, Department of Planning and Regional Development Director, South and East European Development Center (SEED) Dimitris Economou Professor of Planning, University of Thessaly Department of Planning and Regional Development

Branko Cavri}, Ph.D., 14 THE NEW PLANNING PARADIGM IN University of Botswana, Department of THE LATEST YUGOSLAV STATE ALLIANCE OF Environmental Science Urban and SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO Regional Planning Programme, Gaborone, Botswana

Valentina Lavren~i~ 26 SLOVENIAN SPATIAL PLANNING SYSTEM Janja Kreitmayer - KEY CHANGES OF PAST DECADE - National Spatial Planning Office, Ministry for The Environment and Spatial Planning Republic of Slovenia

Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews, Ph.D. 31 CITY URBAN DESIGN IN A FREE MARKET Urban Planning Institute of the ECONOMY - THE CASE OF LJUBLJANA, Republic of Slovenia SLOVENIA

Ljiljana Grubovi}, MSc 37 URBAN TASK FORCE London School of Economics

Institute of Urban 41 OBSERVATORY OF SPATIAL PLANNING AND Environment and Human ENVIRONMENT IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE Resources (UEHR), Panteion University Athens - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY -

Information CONFERENCE ”PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION”

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INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THIS ISSUE OF SPATIUM BY THE EDITORIAL BOARD

The overwhelming part of this issue of SPATIUM covers the contributions of the foreign participants to the Conference PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION, organised by the Institute of Architecture and Urban&Spatial Planning of Serbia, held in Belgrade, on 20/21 June 2002. Also, the integral version of the Executive Summary of Final Report of the Project OBSERVATORY OF SPATIAL PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENT IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE is published here, in order to veritably reflect the key role of the Institute of Urban Environment and Human Resources (UEHR), Panteion University of Athens, in initiating, organising, developing and performing this Project.

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THE SPATIAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE*

Assoc.Prof. George Petrakos, Prof. Dimitris Economou

This paper analyses for the first time the spatial structure of South-eastern Europe in an effort to assess regional imbalances, border conditions, urban hierarchies and detect the adjustments of the region to the forces of integration and transition. The analysis is based on a unique data base compiled from national sources and is carried on with the use of statistical, diagrammatic and cartographic methods. The analysis shows that South-eastern Europe is characterized by increasing regional disparities, an increasingly superior performance of the metropolitan regions, serious discontinuities at the borders which have, in most cases, generated over-time border regions with below average performance and finally an urban system with serious deficiencies in medium sized cities. These findings suggest that regional policy should become a permanent ingredient of indigenous and international development initiatives, which need to pay a greater attention to the needs of border regions, encouraging and promoting programs and policies of cross-border cooperation.

Key words: regional inequality, urban system, transition, South-eastern Europe

INTRODUCTION* argue that the process of transition in Central is very complex, the available evidence seems and Eastern Europe is associated with increa- to reveal some general patterns. It shows that A growing literature is now concerned with the sing regional disparities. His analysis of in countries sharing common borders with the regional aspects of the transition process and , Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria has EU and being at a short distance from the the type and evolution of regional disparities in revealed many similarities but also significant European core, spatial adjustments have been Central and Eastern Europe. A recent paper differences among these countries. The latter favouring metropolitan and western regions. In (Petrakos 2001a) and several previous studies1 are related to national characteristics (such as addition, countries with a better record in terms

institutional factors), to economic factors (such of transforming their economy, and with a * This research was undertaken with support from: (a) as the level of development), to the success of larger size, tend to experience increasing the European Union Phare ACE Program and (b) the restructuring and catching up, to size and to disparities less often and less intensively than Hellenic Ministry of Planning, Environment and Public geographic co-ordinates. Although the process countries with a less successful record and a Works. of spatial adjustment to the forces of transition smaller size. However, disparities have 1 A number of early reports have paid attention to the increased at various rates and degrees in all spatial aspects of the transition process. Petrakos transition countries to levels that are higher (1996a) has attempted a theoretical inquiry 1996), although regional unemployment patterns have than those in most of the EU countries. concerning the interaction of the various processes of remained stable (Fazekas 2000). FDI and domestic transition and space. At the same time, a number of capital prefer metropolitan and western regions In other parallel literature concerned with the empirical papers appeared. Evidence from Estonia (Lorentzen 1996, 1999), turning an already shows that core-periphery differences have increased, unbalanced pre-1989 situation of the regions into a prospects of countries or macro-regions in the with Talin and Western coastal regions benefiting the serious core-periphery and east-west disparity new European economic environment and their most from the new orientation of the country (Nemes-Nagy 2000). Additional evidence comes from adjustment to the market and policy driven (Raagmaa 1996). Evidence from East Germany already Poland (Gorzelak 2000), indicating that different forces of transition, a number of papers have indicates that development is highly selective and regions adjust in a different way to the new economic focussed on the less advanced and most depends on the behaviour of foreign capital. environment. Another study (Ingham et.al. 1996) problematic European Region: the Balkans2. In emerges as a development pole with strong links with shows that the regional pattern of unemployment is the West German and the international economy but relatively stable in the 1990-1994 period, indicating this literature it is argued that one of the factors weak local linkages and low spread effects that initial best performing regions are also final best that has affected the performance of the (Haussermann 1993). Similar trends have been performing regions and initial losers are final losers detected in The Slovak Republic, where , with also. This basic picture is also supported by reports for 9% of the national population, generates 30% of the Albania (Petrakos 1996b), Bulgaria (Minassian and country's GDP (Balaz 1996). In Hungary, disparities Totev 1996, Petrakos 1996b) and Romania (Ramboll 2 See for example: Petrakos and Totev (2000), increased during the early years of transition (Fazekas 1996, Constantin 1997). Petrakos (2000a), Petrakos and Totev (2001).

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1 Region is related to its ‘unfavourable geo- compared to the national average. In section 4 where y0 is regional GDP per capita at the graphy’. Besides the lack of adjacency or we examine the urban structure of the region beginning of a time period and yt is the same proximity of all Balkan countries to the and finally, in section 5 we draw our variable at the end of a time period. Obviously,

European development centre, the region is conclusions and present some policy the yt/y0 ratio indicates the growth of regional characterised by a relatively high degree of recommendations. GDP per capita in the (0, t) period. As a result, fragmentation, as it is comprised of many a positive relation (β>0) of this dependent relatively small countries, which, generally REGIONAL INEQUALITIES IN SOUTH- variable with the initial value y0 would imply speaking have poor economic interaction EASTERN EUROPE that regions with a higher initial value of y (Petrakos 2000a, Petrakos 2001b, 2001c). would tend to have a higher growth In order to evaluate the level and evolution of performance. On the other hand, a negative This paper intends to analyse the spatial regional inequalities in South-eastern Europe relation (β<0) of the dependent variable with aspects of the development process in South- in the 1990s we used an extensive regional the initial value would indicate that the best eastern Europe on the basis of statistical, database compiled from various national performing regions tend to be those with the diagrammatic and cartographic analysis. There sources by the University of Thessaly South lower initial values. This indicates that positive and East European Development Center are a number of reasons that make such an values of the estimated coefficient β are (SEED)2. The analysis in based on the analysis useful. First, we would like to have associated with tendencies of regional following indicators of spatial inequality: more concrete evidence about the regional divergence, while negative values with evolutions in a European macro-region that has • The coefficient of variation (CV)– or σ- tendencies of regional convergence. been characterised by relatively low levels of convergence coefficient (σ/ x ) – defined as development and relatively poor performance the population weighted standard deviation Finally, the β-density coefficient is the slope under transition. For a number of countries this of regional GDP per capita divided by its coefficient of the regression of GDP per capita might well be the first time that any sort of mean value on regional population density. A positive value regional analysis becomes available in the of this coefficient for GDP per capita indicates • The ratio of maximum to minimum regional international literature. Second, we would like that regions with a higher population density GDP per capita (max/min) to have a better understanding of the type of enjoy a higher level of GDP per capita. This disparities that have been characterising the • The β-convergence coefficient estimated coefficient is a measure of inequality based on region and especially the condition of the from an econometric model in the tradition of agglomeration economies. border regions. Earlier work (Petrakos 1996b, Barro and Sala-I-Martin (1991) and 1997) based on the experience of Albania, • The β-density coefficient estimated from the Table 1 presents for each country the weighted Bulgaria and Greece has indicated that South- regression of regional GDP per capita on coefficient of variation (CV) or σ-convergence eastern Europe is a highly fragmented regional population density. coefficient, the max/min ratio, the β- economic space with national development convergence and the β-density coefficients for axes that do not meet with each other, and The coefficient of variation (CV) is a dime- years with available information in the early and border regions that are characterized by low nsion-less index that allows cross-country, late 1990s. The inter-temporal character of the levels of development. Finally, we will attempt cross-variable and over time comparisons of information allows for a first assessment of the to have a first look into the structure of the the level of regional disparities. The value of impact of transition on spatial disparities and Balkan system of urban centres in an effort to the coefficient is basically determined by the on the prospects for a balanced type of identify poles or axes of development on a value of standard deviation of a variable and, as restructuring and growth in the Region. A first macro-geographical level and examine the a result, it is affected by all observations. In observation is that all countries (except possibilities for balanced growth at the national principle, the greater its value, the greater is Albania) have experienced an increase in their level. Therefore, our analysis intends to the level of regional disparities. The max/min CV and that, at the end of the period, all have contribute to the understanding of the ratio is also a dimension-less index of CV values that are higher than that of Greece. economic conditions in South-eastern Europe disparities, but its value is affected only by the Some countries like Romania and Bulgaria and of the prospects for development and two extreme observations of the variable under have experienced a relatively high increase in cooperation by adding the spatial dimension. consideration. In principle again, the greater its their CV, while others, like FRY have been value, the greater is the spread of the characterised by high values of CV throughout The rest of the paper is organised as follows: In observations and the greater the level of the period. Also, all countries (with the section 2 we examine the evolution of regional disparities. exception of FYROM) have increasing max/min inequalities in an effort to see in which ratios, which in the late 1990s are higher or β countries the process of transition has The -convergence coefficient is estimated significantly higher than that of Greece. FRY is increased inequalities. In section 3 we examine from the regression: an exceptional case of inequality measured by the pattern of regional inequalities and y/y = α + β y + e (1) max/min ratio, as the most advanced regions of especially the performance of border regions t 0 0 the country have GDP per capita values that are more than 20 times higher than those of the

less advanced regions3. A second observation 1 In the rest of the paper the term ‘Region’ (with upper 2 This database includes regional information for case R) will refer to Southeastern Europe as a Albania, Bulgaria, Bulgaria, , Greece, FRY, European Region, while the term ‘region’ (with lower FYROM and Romania. It also includes digital maps at case r) will refer to refer to national subdivisions, the NUTS III level and accurate information about the 3 This extraordinary type of inequalities highlights one usually NUTS III level regions. location and size of cities of over 10 thousand people. of the contributing factors to the Kosovo crisis.

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Table 1. Indicators of regional inequality in South-eastern Europe rest of the economy agglomeration economies are in operation.

Figure 1 provides comparative information Countries Year Weighted Max/Min b-convergence b-density about the spread of regional GDP per capita Coefficient of ratio Coefficient around the national average for the early and Variation (CV) late 1990s. The increase in disparities in Albania 1990 0.317 2.87 8.899 13.980 visually evident in all countries with the 1998 0.294 4.11 (2.950) (2.058) possible exception of FYROM and Greece. Some countries (especially Bulgaria, FRY and Bulgaria 1999 0.428 2.80 Romania) tend to develop a metropolitan or FYROM 1991 0.439 6.36 1.130 2.188 core-periphery pattern of development, while some others (Albania, FYROM and Greece) 1995 0.658 3.91 (3.933) (1.769) have a more evenly spread distribution. FRY Greece 1990 0.201 2.80 1.736 1115.994 stands out as an exceptional case of serious 1997 0.237 2.75 (8.999) (1.832) inequality in Europe, with an unacceptable distance dividing the capital region of Belgrade Romania 1994 0.164 1.80 0.103 1.219 from the poorest regions in Kosovo. This dista- 1998 0.408 3.17 (11.447) (5.868) nce has occurred not only because of the relative improvement of Belgrade, but also N. Yugoslavia 1991 0.507 7.97 0.494 -1.706 because of the relative deterioration of the 1998 0.573 23.13 (6.867) (-0.819) condition in most regions in Kosovo. Source: Own estimates from SEED regional database The dominant and improving position of the is that the β-convergence coefficient is also implies that increasing inequalities in metropolitan regions is also verified by the data positive and statistically significant in all former socialist countries are – at least partly – in Table 2, which provides relative GDP per countries for the period under examination. an inevitable by-product of marketization and capita figures for the capital cities of all This finding, which indicates that GDP per restructuring of the economy and, as a result, a countries in the early and late 1990s. We capita growth is higher in the most advanced condition that may have to be tolerated to observe that in the period under examination regions, provides evidence that serious some extent if they intend to achieve a higher capital regions have experienced a relative divergence trends are in motion in all countries level of efficiency. The exception of FRY is improvement of their position in all countries1. in the Region. Finally, we observe in the last explained by the fact that some of the most The region of Tirana had in 1998 (1990) a GDP column that the β-density coefficient is densely populated regions of the country, in per capita figure that was 39 (28) percent positive and statistically significant in all Kosovo, are characterized by the lowest figures higher than the national average. The region of countries except FRY. This is an indication that of GDP per capita. When the Kosovo regions Sofia-city had in 1999 a figure that was 71 more densely populated regions enjoy some are excluded from the regression, the β- percent higher than the national average. The sort of agglomeration economies, which allow density coefficient becomes positive and region of Skopje had in 1995 (1991) a figure for a more efficient organization of activities. It statistically significant, indicating that in the that was 46 (66) percent higher than the national average. The region of Attica had in Figure 1: Regional variation in GDP per capita in Balkan countries (national average=100) 1997 (1991) a figure that was 30 (15) percent higher than the national average. The region of 300 Bucharest had in 1998 (1994) a figure that was 91 (31) percent higher than the national

250 average. The region of Belgrade had in 1998 (1991) a figure that was 74 (52) percent higher than the national average. The regions of 200 Bucharest (Romania) and Belgrade (FRY) have the highest difference from their respective

150 national averages, while the regions of Tirana (Albania) and Attica (Greece) the lowest. Although the picture is not uniform, the 100 analysis reveals a central point: One of the factors contributing to greater inequality in the 1990s is the strengthening of the position of 50

1 0 Keep in mind that data concerns capital regions, not 1990 1998 1997 1999 1991 1995 1991 1998 1994 1998 1990 1997 capital cities. GDP per capita figures for cities should Albania Bulgaria FYROM Yugoslavia Greece Romania reveal even higher differences from the national average.

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Table 2. - GDP per capital (national average = 100) in metropolitan / capital regions in GEOGRAPHICAL PATTERNS OF REGIONAL South-eastern Europe INEQUALITY Capital region Country Year GDP per capita In this part of the analysis we examine some Tirana Albania 1990 128 critical aspects of the economic geography of 1998 139 Southeastern Europe with the use of a series of Sofia – city Bulgaria 1999 171 Maps. Map 1 presents population density at the NUTS III level for all countries with Skopje FYROM 1991 146 available regional data2. We observe that 1995 166 serious variations exist at the Balkan and the Attica Greece 1990 115 national levels, as some regions have higher 1997 130 concentration of population and activities than Bucharest Romania 1994 131 others. In general, each country has a 1998 191 metropolitan region with the highest density, Belgrade N. Yugoslavia 1991 152 which, in several cases is the most visible part 1998 174 of a broader area with a higher than average Source: Own estimates from SEED regional database concentration of population and activities3. We also observe that in several cases, the border metropolitan regions, a process that seems to seem to be relatively high by EU standards. zones are among the regions with the lowest be equally affecting the West and the East This may be an issue of concern in the densities. This is most visible in the case of (Lever 1993, Coffey and Bailly 1996). immediate future. Given that some EU Greece, where 40 years of isolation in the post- countries experience high levels of inequality war period have led to significant population As a result, earlier assessments that the despite the existence of long-established and erosion along the entire border zone. Similar process of transition in the East is associated well-funded regional policies, the odds for low population densities can be observed in with increasing inequality at the regional level transition countries with non-existent, poorly the Albanian borders with Greece4, the (Petrakos 2001a) seem to receive significant designed and under-funded regional policies Bulgarian borders with Greece and FRY, the empirical support from our findings. To one (Gorzelak 2000) do not seem to be very good. borders of FYROM with Bulgaria and the degree or another, all countries provide clear borders of FRY with Bulgaria. Finally, one signs that the reforms and the transition could argue that at the macro level the map policies initiated in the early 1990s have a does not reveal any ‘continuum’ of high clear impact on their spatial balances. This is Table 3. - Indicators of regional inequality population density across borders. The true also for Greece, an EU country in EU countries (1997) existing concentration of population and experiencing greater competition in the Countries Weighted Max/Min activities gives the impression that national integrated post-EMU markets with varying rates Coefficient of 1 ratio development axes do not meet or cross of success at the regional level . How serious Variation anywhere, verifying the assertion that the are these inequalities by international (CV) standards? One way to answer this question is 0.119 1.44 to compare the CV and the max/min ratios of Netherlands 0.216 2.32 the countries in South-eastern Europe with the 2 Bosnia is a special case, as before 1990, when it was respective figures of the EU countries, which Portugal * 0.232 1.82 a region of former Yugoslavia, it did not have any are provided in Table 3 in an ascending order. Spain 0.232 2.44 further regional divisions. After Dayton, Bosnia is We observe in Table 3 that the Scandinavian divided into two spatial – ethnic entities for which Greece 0.237 2.75 there is no available information. Croatia was divided and Mediterranean countries of the EU into regions in 1994. (Sweden, Spain, Greece, Finland) have, in Finland 0.268 1.97 3 In that respect, these areas could be characterized general, a lower level of regional inequality Italy * 0.271 2.23 as national ‘development axes’. For example, Attica is the most visible part of a South-North development than the western or central countries (Belgium, Ireland 0.287 2.00 Austria, Germany, France). We also observe axis in Greece, which concentrates more than 70% of Denmark 0.298 2.43 the national population. In Albania, the region of Tirana that most Southeast European transition is the central part of a development area in the countries have levels of inequality that are UK * 0.310 3.11 Western coastal part of the country, while in Bulgaria a comparable to or higher than those of Austria, Belgium 0.334 2.92 (less visible) development axis connects the region of Germany or France. Of course, CV indicators Sofia with Varna in the Black Sea. In FRY one could Austria 0.402 2.71 are not directly comparable, as countries differ vaguely speak about a North-South development axis Germany 0.492 7.43 connecting Novi-Sad with Belgrade and Voivodina, while in size and some of them do not have NUTS III in Romania it is difficult to identify a development axis data available. The point, however, remains that France 0.525 4.39 on the basis of the concentration of population. 4 regional inequalities in South-eastern Europe Source: Own estimates on the basis of Eurostat Regio This Albanian region is characterized by the significant database. presence of a Greek minority, which, after 1989 has shown a higher than average tendency to migrate to * CV estimated on the basis of NUTS II data Greece on a temporary, but also on a permanent basis. 1 Petrakos and Saratsis (2000) have shown that the Therefore, it is possible that the lower population process of economic integration has affected densities in the Albanian borders with Greece have performance at the regional level in Greece. been affected by post-1989 migration flows.

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Balkan region is one of the most fragmented advanced parts of a South-North development claimed (under certain political conditions) for spaces at the European level (Petrakos 2001c). axis covering most of the eastern part of the the cities of Skopje and Thessalonica, which country. In Albania, the variations in regional may be the natural extension of the South- In Map 2 we present the most recent information GDP per capita reveal a North-South North development axis. Other possible axes about population change at the regional level for development axis in the Western coastal part of could be the ones connecting Belgrade with countries with available data. At the macro level, the country very similar to the one found on the Sofia through Novi-Sad, or Belgrade with as we move from the South to the North and basis of Map 1. In the case of FYROM, Map 3 Budapest in the North7. from the East to the West, we observe that we presents a differentiated spatial pattern of meet regions with negative or highly negative development compared to Map 1. GDP per A second general observation is that national population change. In general, the Southern and capita figures reveal a clearer North-South axis border regions are in several cases South-western part of the region is characterized of development connecting Skopje with the characterized by lower than average levels of by positive population change, while the Greek borders. In the case of Bulgaria, the development. This is certainly the case for a Northern and Eastern part is characterized by development pattern maintains more or less a part of the border zone of Greece (especially its negative population change. In addition, the horizontal West-East axis connecting Sofia with western part), the Western borders of Albania process of population change is characterized by the coastal cities of Varna and Burgas in the with FYROM and FRY, the Eastern borders of a national pattern. The vast majority of regions in Black Sea. FRY clearly maintains a North-South FYROM with Albania and the Western borders 1 Greece and Albania experience some sort of divide and the greatest regional variation of FYROM with Bulgaria, the Eastern borders of population growth, FRY and FYROM have a among all Balkan countries4, as the regions Bulgaria with FYROM, and the Southern 2 mixed pattern , while in Romania most regions around Belgrade and the Northern regions have borders of Romania with Bulgaria. This is also experience a population decline in the 1990s. In a GDP per capita that is several times higher partially the case with the Southern borders of Bulgaria all but the capital region have than that of Kosovo. In the case of FRY, FRY with Albania and FYROM and the Northern experienced a negative population change population density and GDP per capita borders of Bulgaria with Romania and the record in the same period. statistics produce a different picture, as higher Southern borders of Bulgaria with Greece. In Map 3 we present the regional variations of population densities in the regions of Kosovo The conditions prevailing in border zones with GDP per capita around the national average for are not associated with a better than average respect to their development levels are further all Balkan countries with available information. growth potential. Finally, Romania is another discussed with the help of Map 4 and Table 4. Before we look into the regional patterns we case where statistics on the concentration of In Map 4 we group the border regions of each should note that, at the national level, the population and the level of development follow country in border zones and estimate the Balkan countries are characterized by very different spatial patterns. While population relative GDP per capita of each zone with different levels of development. Greece stands tends to have higher density in the Southern, respect to national average. Each border zone out as the most advanced country of the region Eastern and (some) Central regions, the includes all regions bordering on each with a GNP per capita equal to 12,110 USD in variations in GDP per capita produce a different neighbouring country. Table 4 provides the 1999, while Albania (930), Bulgaria (1,410), pattern. Besides Bucharest and the port region GDP per capita figures for each zone in the Croatia (4.530), FYROM (1,660), FRY (1,429), of Costanza, the relatively most advanced early 1990s and the late 1990s. As a result, the and Romania (1,470) are well below this level3. regions are found mainly in the Central and Table allows us to estimate the evolution of the Western part of the country bordering on Serbia Therefore, two regions from different countries 5 relative position of each border zone in the with the same position in the Map do not (Voivondina ) and Hungary. post-1989 period. necessarily have the same or similar levels of One general observation that can be made on The data in the Table reveals some interesting development. The only common characteristic the basis of the Map is that there are serious they have is the same position with respect to facts: First, the majority of border zones in flaws in continuity as the borders function as South-eastern Europe are characterized by GDP their national average. Map 3 provides more real barriers to economic activities and do not accurate information about regional variations per capita figures that are lower or significantly allow development axes to easily expand lower than the respective national averages. at the national level and the formation of beyond borderlines. Of course there are cases development poles or axes. To some extent, it Second, the 1990s are characterized by a where cross-border development axes seem to variety of adjustments to the new conditions, verifies the findings of Map 1 (based on be (or could be) under formation. This can be population density) with some interesting claimed for the coastal cities and regions of differences. Starting from Greece, we observe Bulgaria (Burgas, Varna) and Romania that Athens and Attica stand out as the most passing through the coastal cities of Bulgaria and (Costanza), which have a potential to form a Romania. 6 Black Sea development axis . This may also be 7 It is difficult to assert the probability that these (or other) cross-border development axes will become 1 Despite serious emigration to Greece and Italy, reality. Their future depends very much on the will of the Albania maintains positive population growth records 4 Without underestimating all other factors, this countries to promote regional cooperation and regional due to high fertility rates. North-South divide in GDP per capita levels is integration, removing or reducing barriers to cross- 2 In both countries the Southern regions, or those with undoubtedly one of the contributors to the recent border interaction. It also depends on the provision of a serious presence of Albanian population, have a Kosovo crisis. transportation infrastructure, which is absolutely positive record. In some regions positive population 5 Voivodina is in the Northern part of FRY, where a necessary for any activity. For example, if the ‘Adriatic’ change is also related to immigration from Bosnia. significant Hungarian minority exists. highway connecting Dubrovnik in Croatia with Patras in 3 Although figures in PPP tend to favor transition 6 This will be greatly facilitated by a Trans-European Western Greece ever materializes, it will provide a great countries, the differences in GNP per capita levels highway connecting Alexandropolis (a coastal city in stimulus for cooperation and development in the entire remain significant. North-eastern Greece) with St. Petersburg in Russia, Western Balkan region.

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as some border zones improved their relative Table 4. GDP per capita in border regions in South-eastern Europe standing at the national level, while some (national average = 100) others lose further ground. The border zones that lose ground and have, in the late 1990s, Border Bordering to: (row) GDP per capita below the national average are: regions of: (a) the border zone of Albania with FRY, the (column) border zone of FYROM with Bulgaria, the Year Albania Bulgaria FYROM Greece Romania FRY Croatia Bosnia border zone of Romania with Bulgaria, and the Albania 1990 - - 58 102 - 84 - - border zones of FRY with Albania and Croatia. 1998 - - 81 111 - 78 - - In most cases they are border zones of countries engaged directly or indirectly in Bulgaria 1999 - - 80 75 87 78 - - Regional conflicts (Albania – FRY, FRY – Croatia), or countries with problematic FYROM 1991 60 85 - 96 - 56 - - international relations for a long period of time 1995 61 65 - 108 - 56 - - (Bulgaria – Romania, FYROM – Bulgaria). On the other hand, the most interesting case of Greece 1990 74 87 102 - - - - - improving relative standing concerns the 1997 73 97 108 - - - - - border regions along the northern Greek borders. In the Greek – Albanian frontier, the Romania 1994 - 91 - - - 100 - - Albanian border zone has improved its relative standing to levels of GDP per capita that are 1998 - 86 - - - 97 - - higher than the national average1, while the Greek border zone has maintained the same FRY 1991 47 92 36 - 131 - 162 88 relative standing. In the Greek – Bulgarian 1998 42 91 38 - 157 - 94 98 frontier, the Greek side has considerably Source: Own estimates from SEED regional database improved its relative standing to levels that are close to average GDP per capita, while for the 2 serious regional differences in development The presence of a minority on either side of the Bulgarian side there is no reliable data . In the levels are found to exist within each country, border does not seem to impede progress in Greek – FYROM frontier, both border zones of with the most pronounced case of inequality relative standing. On the contrary, it may act as Greece and FYROM have improved their being recorded in FRY. In this, but also in other a stimulus to further interaction, benefiting relative standing to levels of GDP per capita cases, regional problems are associated with mostly the less advanced side of the border3. that are above the national average. Other the presence of a minority. This implies that This is the case in the border zones of Albania cases of relative improvement have been one effective way to deal with pressing matters with Greece, Albania with FYROM, FRY with observed in the border zone of FRY with of regional inequality is to address minority Bosnia, FRY with Romania and Romania with Romania (where a Hungarian minority is problems first. Second, and partly as a result of FRY. An interesting conclusion of this analysis present), in the border regions of FRY with the above, regional problems tend to be more is that good international relations and Bosnia (due to proximity with the Serbian part acute in border regions, either because of the intensive cross-border cooperation in trade and of the Federation) and in the border zone of presence of minorities, or because of investment may prove to be an effective way to Albania with FYROM (due to the nearby unfavourable geography and pre-existing deal with rising spatial inequalities in the presence of an Albanian minority in FYROM). conditions in international relations. Region. Overall, the findings seem to provide Map 4 presents the findings discussed above some evidence that closer cooperation in an illustrative way. Third, interaction along an East-West frontier between neighbouring countries and open such as the Greek northern borderline tends to Summarizing the evidence of Maps 1-4, we borders can also help to remedy some of the generate beneficial results for both sides of the could argue that there are a number of regional problems on either side of the borders, a finding which is in line with the interesting points to keep in mind. First, borders. This is a case where the right type of evidence from the border zones of Central with international policies may also have positive Western Europe (Names-Nagy 2000, Petrakos effects in directions and fields not initially 2000, Petrakos 2001). Good economic 1 intended or expected. We note that a significant Greek minority is present relations at the national level, or the presence in the Albanian border regions. Because of that, the Greek Ministry of Finance has been subsidizing Greek of reliable cross-border transportation infra- investment activities located on the Albanian side of the structure and the nearby presence of large borders. This may be one of the factors explaining the urban areas tend to improve the relative improvement in the relative standing of the border standing and importance of border zones. The zone. fact that the Greek – FYROM borders have 2 Regional data for Bulgaria is provided on a preliminary basis by the National Institute of Statistics and does improved their standing may be a combined not have an official status. Moreover, the period 1997- effect of dramatically improved international 99 was too short to make any inferences about the relations and relatively good transportation evolution of the border zones. As a result, we decided infrastructure linking Thessalonica with Skopje. 3 Under the condition that minorities have not become not to report the 1997 data for the border zones. a reason for armed conflict, as in the case of Kosovo.

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THE URBAN SYSTEM IN SOUTH-EASTERN As Table 5 shows, capital cities are in several metropolitan population, which is in the range EUROPE cases three, four, five or even eight times of 10-20 percent of the national population. larger than the second ranking city. The This proportion cannot be characterized as high The evolution and structure of the urban systems country with the highest ratio and the highest by international standards. As a result, the high in South-eastern Europe is virtually unknown in degree of urban asymmetry on this basis is ratios of first-to-second ranking cities of Table the international literature. With the exception of FRY, followed by Romania and FYROM. Note 5 are not related to a very large or dominant some research on Greece (Petrakos et al 1999), that in some countries such as Albania, FYROM metropolis, but to the lack of cities in the range the information about the national urban systems or FRY, the second largest city is, in fact, a of 500 thousand people. Indeed, as Table 7 in the other countries has been restricted to small city of less than one or two hundred shows, with the exception of Athens, which has national documents. In addition to that, the thousand people. a population of over 3 million and Bucharest, urban structure of the region as a whole has which has a population of a little over 2 never been examined before. Reports on the Table 5. Urban primacy index in South- million, all other capital cities are relatively European system of urban places (Cheshire 2 3 1995) have ignored South-eastern Europe due eastern Europe small by European standards . to lack of relevant data. Therefore, a number of Countries Population ratio of the top to As a result, none of the countries in the region interesting questions concerning the structure of the second in the hierarchy city (with the exception of Greece) has developed a the urban hierarchy at the national and macro- 1981 1991 1998 large metropolitan area and none (again with geographical levels have not received any sort of the exception of Greece) has developed a large 1 2 answer yet. In this part of the paper we will Albania 2,66 2,90 in size second ranking city4. Why is there such examine some of these issues on the basis of Bosnia 2,59 2,90 a lack of medium sized or large cities in available data for the urban system of the Balkan Bulgaria 3,01 3,01 3,28 Transition countries in South-eastern Europe? countries. An additional motive for undertaking a In our view, there are three reasons. The first is multi-national urban system analysis is the Croatia 3,84 3,73 related to the close and inward looking understanding that a macro-geographical view FRY 7,77 8,94 8,633 character of the pre-1989 economic system, proves often to be the most effective approach to FYROM 5,23 5,33 5,76 which did not allow the development of dealing with the many aspects of backwardness significant economic relations on the basis of Greece 4,28 4,10 in the economic space of South-eastern Europe existing or created comparative advantages. (Petrakos 2001b). Romania 6,12 5,84 5,79 This lack of specialization in international 1 1979 data markets did not allow for the realization of It is now a common place in the literature that 2 1989 data agglomeration economies beyond the level the new economic environment tends to favour 3 1997 data required by domestic demand, and as a result, further spatial concentration of activities in did not allow for the development of significant metropolitan areas. Despite earlier expectations urban concentrations. The second reason is of a more balanced system of urban places at Table 6 presents information about the national related to the fact that planning as a system the international and European level (Parr 1985), population share of the metropolitan region for had, in general, a greater preference for a the late 1980s and the 1990s have proved to be countries and periods with available statistics. balanced distribution of activities compared to a decade of increasing urban concentration and Note that the data refers to regional statistics markets. Practically, this was achieved through strengthening of the relative position of the and includes not just the city but also the wider the distribution of investment in the 5-year metropolitan centres at the world and the area around it. The evolution of this index of plans and the control of population flows European levels (Cohrane and Vining 1988, CEC metropolitan concentration reveals a number of through public employment and housing. 1992, CEC 1993, Rosenblat and Pumain 1993, interesting facts. First, there is a general Although labour markets are less regulated Cheshire 1995, EC 1999). tendency of the index to increase over time, although this tendency is more obvious in now in most transition countries, it is the We base the analysis on Figure 2, Tables 5-8 and smaller countries. To some extent, this structure of land and housing markets in Map 5. In Figure 2 we present, in a logarithmic tendency is in line with the relative increases in form, the national rank-size distributions of all the GDP per capita (Table 3), although the relative countries in South-eastern Europe for the latest growth of GDP is greater than the relative growth of population1. Second, of all the year with available information. The logarithmic 2 This does not mean that the size of Athens and its form makes the figure more visible and countries in the region, only Greece (and to dominant relation to the rest of the urban centers is a comparison easier. First, it is clear that all some extent FYROM) is characterized by a desirable outcome, or one justified by economic forces. countries exhibit, to some degree, a core– relatively high degree of metropolitan 3 Table 7 shows also something else. All countries in periphery pattern. After the first city, the rank-size concentration. All other countries have a the region have some sort of flaw in continuity in their curve drops significantly and abruptly until it urban system, as all of them lack cities in at least one size group. meets the second city, which is usually much 4 It seems that Greece has developed a different urban smaller in size. Therefore, a first observation is 1 Why do rapid increases in GDP per capita in pattern than the other countries in the Region, as it is that in most national systems of urban areas there metropolitan areas not lead to faster relative characterized by a large metropolis (over 3 million), a is an obvious lack of medium sized cities. population growth? One explanation is related to the relatively large second ranking city (around a million) Although the removal of the first city reveals a scarcity of available urban housing and the skyrocketing and below that many small (less than 2 hundred prices of metropolitan land. Another explanation is thousand) cities. On the other hand, all other countries much more normal distribution, this however, related to the greater opportunities provided in capital are characterized by a less dominant metropolis but usually includes small and very small cities. cities for legal emigration (contacts, visas, etc.). also a less visible second ranking city.

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Figure 2 National rank-size distributions of the urban centres in South-eastern Europe in logarithmic form, latest data in the 1990s.

16,00

15,00

14,00

13,00 Size

12,00

11,00

10,00

9,00 68 71 74 76 79 81 84 86 88 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 11 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 24 26 10 79 20 48 71 89 04 18 30 40 50 58 66 74 81 87 93 99 04 09 14 19 23 28 32 36 39 43 47 50 53 56 60 62 65 ank 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, r Rank

Albania, 1989 Bulgaria, 1998 FYROM, 1994 FRY, 1997 Romania, 1998 Croatia,1991 Bosnia,1991 Greece, 1991

metropolitan areas that generate shortages and Table 6. - Metropolitan concentration in South-eastern Europe high prices, discouraging internal migration. The third reason is related to the fact that with Capital region Country Year Share of national the collapse of Yugoslavia there are now many population more countries in the Region than before. Former Yugoslavia, which had an economy that Tirana Albania 1990 11.5 was relatively open to the West, had several 1998 15.1 medium sized cities (Skopje, , Zagreb, Sarajevo Bosnia 1981 7.8 Lubljana) that became the capitals of the new independent states in the 1990s. 1991 9.5 Sofia Bulgaria 1980 12.9 Returning to Figure 2, we observe that the rank-size distributions have a hierarchical 1991 14.0 structure, not only within countries, but also 1997 14.6 between countries. In general a country with a 1999 14.8 larger national population is expected to have a rank-size distribution that is over and to the Croatia Zagreb 1991 18.1 right of the distribution of a country with Skopje FYROM 1991 27.7 smaller national population. In that respect, the 1995 27.1 rank-size curve of Romania is above the curve of FRY, which is above the curve of Bulgaria, Attica Greece 1990 34.7 which is above the curve of FYROM. This in 2000 *38.0 turn means that for a given rank in the Bucharest Romania 1980 9.4 hierarchy, i.e. the 5th place, we should expect 1991 10.3 larger countries to also have larger cities. Which means that the 5th city in size in 1994 10.3 th Romania is expected to be larger than the 5 1998 10.2 city in size in FRY, which is expected to be Belgrade N. Yugoslavia 1981 15.8 larger than the 5th city in size in Bulgaria, etc. This rule is useful as it allows us to have a 1991 15.4 better understanding of the relation between 1997 16.3 the size of the city and the size of the national Source: Own estimates from SEED regional database market in an urban system. Larger markets do * Estimate on the basis of the Atticon Metron study. not generate only more cities. They also gene- rate larger cities as the level of specialization is higher, the variety of products and activities is larger and the propensity for activities to benefit from agglomeration economies (and therefore cluster) greater. The Greek cities, Table 7. - Size distribution of cities over 50 thousand people however, do not follow this rule. Although the national population of Greece is greater than Number of cities in size group (in millions) those of FRY and Bulgaria, the Greek cities st nd 1 > 0,5 > 0,2 > 0,1 > (except the 1 and the 2 ) have sizes that are Country > 3 3 > 2 2 > 1 0,5 0,2 0,1 0,05 smaller than the cities of FRY or Bulgaria with the same rank. This is the outcome of the Albania 1 5 concentration of more than 60% of the urban Bulgaria 1 2 6 14 population of Greece in Athens and Thessalonica, which unavoidably generates a Bosnia 1 1 3 restriction in the size of the other cities. In Croatia 1 3 4 addition, it is an indication that beyond some levels of concentration, the evaluation of costs FRY 1 7 19 and benefits also has to take into consideration the implications of the atrophy of the peripheral FYROM 1 4 cities. Greece 1 1 4 7 Finally, in Map 5 we present the distribution of Romania 1 11 12 23 cities of over 100 thousand people in a background of population density at the regional Total 1 1 2 2 16 33 69 level. As expected, larger cities and metropolitan Source: Own estimates from SEED database.

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areas are located in regions with high or very As Table 8 shows, the situation is similar even unfavourable geographical, economic political high population density, while regions with low for smaller cites, such as the cities with and international conditions. As a result, density lack relatively large cities. This close population of over 50 thousand. Comparing the policies aiming to deal with the problems of coupling of urban and regional figures indicates national share of population with the national underdevelopment first have to address its that issues related to the size and structure of share of cities of over 50 thousand people, we causes at the domestic and international levels. cities and factors favouring or inhibiting the observe that the Southern part of the Region The border regions in South-eastern Europe realization of agglomeration economies often lie (Greece, Albania, FYROM) has a proportion of have experienced some interesting transfor- behind regional variations in performance. cities that is either equal to or smaller than the mations in the 1990s. Some regions, proportion of population. On the other hand, especially along the East-West frontier have Another interesting observation is that, in most the Northern and Eastern part (Romania, improved their relative standing, benefiting cases, border regions lack cities with population Bulgaria, FRY) has a share that is from higher levels of interaction, while some over 100 thousand. For example, in the Greek proportionately higher. Greece is the country others have lost further ground in relative border regions with Albania, Bulgaria and with the most serious lack of cities with terms. Good international relations and inten- FYROM there are no cities of this size or larger. populations of over 50 thousand. sive cross-border interaction in trade and inve- This is also the case with the border regions of stment, as well as EU funded policies of cross- Albania with Greece, FYROM and FRY, the CONCLUSIONS border cooperation (Kotios 2001) may prove to borders of FYROM with Greece, Albania and Bul- be equally effective ways to deal with rising garia, the borders of Bulgaria with Greece and The analysis of the previous sections has spatial disparities in the Region. While the FYROM, etc. The only significant exception to revealed a number of important features of the macroscopic view is important in order to this rule seems to be the Romanian border spatial structure of South-eastern Europe which realise the extent of the problem and its regions, which in several cases are densely can be summarised as follows: (a) Increasing causes, a development policy for border populated and have cities with populations equal regional disparities, (b) increasingly superior regions needs to take a microscopic approach to or higher than 100 thousand people. performance of the metropolitan regions, (c) and deal with the specific problems and diffi- serious discontinuities at the borders which Finally, it is worth noting that as we move from culties faced at the local level. In that respect, have, in most cases, generated over-time bor- the South to the North on the Balkan scale, on surveys and studies about these problems der regions with below average performance the one hand we find regions with higher must be understood as important background and (d) an urban system with serious population density, and on the other hand, the information that is necessary for the design and deficiencies in medium sized cities. possibility of finding cities with a population of implementation of policies of development for more than 100 thousand increases. Indeed, These findings have a number of policy border regions. Greece appears to be a country with a implications. First of all, high levels of regional disproportionately small number of cities of disparities imply that development initiatives in We conclude this analysis with a feeling that over 100 thousand people (6), as most of the the region (national plans, Stability Pact, SAP, our findings are only the first steps towards a urban population is concentrated in Athens and etc) are required to have a strong regional better understanding of the spatial regularities Thessalonica. Bulgaria and FRY, despite having dimension. Therefore, regional policies have to and changes of a unique – in many ways – smaller national populations, are in a relatively be an increasingly important part of develop- European Region. Further research is required better position, having, respectively, 7 and 8 ment and transition policies. to unveil the social, political, economic and cities with population of over 100 thousand. international parameters that are conditioning Second, it is important to realise that the status Romania on the other hand, is the country that its spatial structures and prospects. For of border regions, which have been lagging concentrates the largest number of cities with example, a future researcher may want to ask behind, has been imposed on them by populations of over 100 thousand people. why the most open, prosperous and ‘westernised’ country in the pre-1989 period (the territory of former Yugoslavia) comprises Table 8. - National shares of cities over 50 thousand people of (nowadays) States that are, in most cases, Population Cities over 50 thousands politically unstable and have the least Country prospects to join the EU. Or, he might want to In thousands National share Number National share ask why – in contrast to the situation in the EU Albania 3.945 5,92 6 4,51 – the most developed part of the Region is in Bulgaria 8.190 12,30 23 17,29 the South, why the East and the West have exactly the opposite meaning than at the Bosnia 3.482 5,23 5 3,75 European level and why the largest and most Croatia 4.784 7,18 8 6,01 dynamic Regional metropolis is not in the FRY 10.592 15,91 27 20,30 North, but in the South. Seeking answers to FYROM 2.063 3,09 5 3,75 these questions may prove to be a useful task not only for the students of spatial Greece 11.000 16,52 12 9,02 characteristics of the Region, but also to those Romania 22.499 33,80 47 35,33 concerned with its – again unique in Europe – Total 66.553 100,00 133 100,00 diverging performance during the first decade of transition from plan to market. Source: Own estimates from SEED database.

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LEGEND

Boundaries LEGEND NU TSIII population density Boundaries 1 - 35 NUTSIII 35 - 50 population change 50 - 75 -0.17 - -0.01 -0.01 - -0.005 75 - 100 -0.005 - -0.0 03 100 - 200 -0.003 - 0 200 - 300 0 - 0.02 300 - 1000 0.02 - 0.04 >1000 0.04 - 0.06

Map 1. Regional Population Density at the Map 2 Regional Population change at the NUTS III level in the late 1990s. NUTS III level in the 1990s.

LEGEND

Boundaries NUTSIII GD P/c ap 1 - 25 25 - 50 Map 3. Regional GDP per capita (National 50 - 70 70 - 80 80 - 90 90 - 100 Average = 100) in the late 1990s. 100 - 110 110 - 120 120 - 140 >140

spatium 11

Legend Boundaries Yugoslavia 37.7 41.6 90.9 94 98.1 98.3 157.3 174 Bulgaria 74.7 78.1 80.2 86.6 95 170.8 Fyrom 55.7 60.6 64.7 77.6 108.1 166.2 Greece 73.2 97.3 108.2 108.6 Map 4. GDP per capita in Border Zones 129.9 Albania 78.2 81 (National Average = 100), National 102.3 111.3 138.7 Romania Classification. 85.7 91.2 96.6 190.7

Map 5. Cities with Population over 100.000 inhabitants and population density.

12 spatium

References Territorial Organisation of the State, in Albania, Bulgaria and Greece: Implications for Petrakos G., Maier G. and Gorzelak G. (Eds.) Cross-Border Co-operation and Development, BALAZ V. (1996) ‘The wild East’? Capital Integration and Transition in Europe: The European Urban and Regional Studies, 4(3), pp markets in the V4 countries, European Urban Economic Geography of Interaction, London: 193-208. and Regional Studies, 3(3), 251-266. Routledge, pp. 131-149. PETRAKOS G., E. KARAVELI and P. MARDAKIS BARRO R.J. and SALA-I-MARTIN X., (1991). HAUSSERMANN, H.(1993) Regional (1999) "Recent Developments in the Greek “Convergence Across States and Regions, Perspectives of East-Germany after the System of Urban Centers", Environment and Brookings Papers on Economic Activity I, 107- Unification of the Two Germanies, TOPOS, Planning: B, 26, 2-13. 182. URDP, Special Edition, Athens. PETRAKOS G. (2000a) (ed.) The Development of CEC (1992) 'Urbanization and the Function of INGHAM M., GRIME K. and KOWALSKI J. (1996) the Balkans, Volos: University of Thessaly Cities in the European Community', Regional A geography of recent Polish unemployment, Press (in Greek). Development Studies, No. 4, : European Urban and Regional Studies, 3(4), Commission of the European Communities. PETRAKOS G. (2000b) The Spatial Impact of 353-363. East-West Integration, in Petrakos G., Maier CEC (1993). “New location factors for mobile KOTIOS A. (2001) European Policies of Cros- G. and Gorzelak G. (Eds.) Integration and investment in Europe”, Final Report, Regional Border cooperation in South-eastern Europe, Transition in Europe: The Economic Geography Development Studies, No. 6, Brussels: Paper prepared for the Phare ACE Project of Interaction, London: Routledge, pp. 38-68. Commission of the European Community. “Overcoming Isolation: Strategies of PETRAKOS G. (2001a) Patterns of regional CHESHIRE P.(1995) A new phase of urban development and policies of cross-border inequality in Transition Countries, European development in Western Europe? The evidence cooperation in Southeastern Europe”, SEED Planning Studies, 9(3), 359-383. for the 1980s, Urban Studies, 32(7), 1045- Center, University of Thessaly. 1063. PETRAKOS G. (2001b) The Balkans in the New LEVER W.F. (1993) Reurbanisation: The policy European Economic Space: Problems of COFFEY W. and BAILLY A.(1996) Economic implications, Urban Studies, 30, pp. 267-84. Adjustment and Policies of Development, restructuring: a conceptual framework, in LEVER W.F. and CHAMPION A.(1996) The urban Paper prepared for the Phare ACE Project Lever W. and Bailly A. (eds) The spatial impact development cycle and the economic system, “Overcoming Isolation: Strategies of develo- of economic changes in Europe, pp 13-37, in Lever W. and Bailly A. (eds.) The spatial pment and policies of cross-border coope- Adlershot: Avebury. impact of economic changes in Europe, pp. ration in Southeastern Europe”, SEED Center, COHRANE S. and VINING D.(1988) Recent 204-227, Adlershot: Avebury. University of Thessaly. trends in migration between core and LORENTZEN A. (1996) Regional Development and PETRAKOS G. (2001c) Fragmentation and peripheral regions in Developed and Advanced institutions in Hungary: past, present and conflict or integration and cooperation in the Developing Countries, International Regional future development, European Planning Balkans? Strategies of development for the Science Review, 11(3), 215-243. Studies, 7(4), 463-482 21st century, in Petrakos and Totev (eds.) The CONSTANTIN D.(1997) Institutions and regional LORENTZEN A. (1999) Industrial Development, Development of the Balkan Region, Aldershot: Development Strategies and Policies in the Technology Change, and Regional Disparity in Ashgate, pp.219-234.. Transition Period: The case of Romania, Paper Hungary, European Planning Studies, 4(3), PETRAKOS G. and SARATSIS Y. (2000) Regional presented at the 37th European Congress of 259-277. Inequalities in Greece, Papers in Regional The European Regional Science Association, Science, 79, 57-74. Rome 26-29 August 1997. MINASSIAN G. and TOTEV S. (1996) The Bulgarian Economy in Transition: The regional PETRAKOS G. and TOTEV S. (2000) Economic DOWNES R. (1996) Economic transformation in Aftereffect, Eastern European Economics, Structure and Change in the Balkan Region: Central and Eastern Europe: the role of 34(3), 49-92. Implications for Integration, Transition and regional development, European Planning Economic Co-operation, International Journal Studies, 4(2), 217-224. NEMES-NAGY J. (2000) The New Regional Structure in Hungary, in Petrakos G., Maier G. of Urban and Regional Research, 24, 95-113. EC (1999) Sixth Periodic Report on the Social and Gorzelak G. (Eds.) Integration and PETRAKOS G. and TOTEV S. (2001) (eds.) The and Economic Situation and Development of Transition in Europe: The Economic Geography Development of the Balkan Region, Aldershot: the Regions of the European Union, European of Interaction, London: Routledge, pp. 170- Ashgate. Commission, Luxembourg. 186. RAAGMAA G. (1996) Shifts in regional develop- FAZEKAS K. (1996) Types of Microregions, PARR, J. (1985), A n te on the size distribution ment in Estonia during the Transition, Dispersion of Unemployment and Local of cities over time, Journal of Urban European Planning Studies, 4(6), 683-703. Employment Development in Hungary, Eastern Economics, 18, 100-112. European Economics, 34(3), 3-48. RAMBOLL (1996) Regional Disparities in PETRAKOS G. (1996a) The Regional Dimension of Romania, Phare Program, Regional Policy FAZEKAS K. (2000) Regional Labour Market Transition in Eastern and Central European Report, Ramboll- Consultants Group. Differentials during Transition in Hungary, in Countries: An Assessment, Eastern European Petrakos G., Maier G. and Gorzelak G. (Eds.) ROSENBLAT C. and PUMAIN D. (1993) The Economics, 34(5), 5-38. Integration and Transition in Europe: The Location of Multinational Firms in the European Economic Geography of Interaction, London: PETRAKOS G. (1996b) The New Geography of Urban System, Urban Studies, 30(10), 1691- Routledge, pp. 150-169. the Balkans: Cross-Border Co-operation 1709. between Albania, Bulgaria and Greece, Volos: GORZELAK G. (2000) The Dilemmas of Regional University of Thessaly Press. Policy in the Transition Countries and the PETRAKOS G. (1997), The Regional Structure of

spatium 13

THE NEW PLANNING PARADIGM IN THE LATEST YUGOSLAV STATE ALLIANCE OF SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO

Branko. I. Cavri}, Ph.D.

In the waves of transition and recent changes to political system and planning regulatory mechanisms in most eastern and central European countries, the Yugoslav planning fabric is discovering new avenues and trying to develop new endeavours within the framework of economic, political and professional independence. The main idea of this paper is to challenge the history and evolution of Yugoslav planning system, legislature, administration and education; planning techniques and the planning implementation. All these and other constitutive and important elements of a viable and flexible planning system need to be considerably improved, since the arrival of a new political authorities and powers. The discussion should also enhance our knowledge about trans-national approaches and different planning ideas, concepts and practices applicable in the current Yugoslav planning environment. This could lead to a new planning paradigm based on global thinking and an interconnected world, flavoured with locally sustainable planning solutions that could bring the Yugoslav planning machinery on the board of the new century. At the same time, this approach would reflect how the Yugoslav planning community could improve its “own values” whilst looking forward to creating a modern and efficient planning mechanism.

INTRODUCTION TO DIFFICULT TASK Serbs, Croats, Slovenians, Bosnians, Monte- design and planning work. The different negrins and Macedonians often based on indigenous and imported styles can be follo- The process of transition on the territory of religious and later on economic divisions. wed ranging from those of Roman times present and former Yugoslavia is not surprising (classical planning), the Eastern Byzantine novelty. Since the ancient times this region Regulatory planning and city building at this (medieval planning) and Ottoman Empire was spot where many people and cultures met “junction of nations” have reach and multi (Islamic planning), the Italian Peninsula and and clashed. Known in literature as the Balkan layered history. This heritage can be traced Venetian Republic (renaissance and baroque Peninsula, it changed name several times, very far back to the “Code of Emperor Dusan” planning), and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy more than any other geographical area in in 1349, and to Dubrovnik’s “Liber Statutorum (neo-renaissance, baroque and neo-gothic Europe (Cvijic, 1918). From the anthropo- Civitatis Raggusii” from 1296 (Krstic, 1982). planning) leading up to the development of geographical and ethnographic viewpoint, Unfortunately, and sometime without any new architectural, urban design and planning north-western, central and south-eastern parts logical reason, the fine line that had for forms as summarized in models such as: “City of the Balkan Peninsula were traditionally po- centuries linked urban dwellers from this part Beautiful”, “Garden City”, “Beaux Art” and the pulated with South Slavs, starting all from the of the world, has now become even thinner. “Bauhaus”, modernism and post modernism, IV century A.D. This part of the large group of Positivisms of different epochs was frequently neo-rationalism, neo-empiricistism, etc. desc- Slavic nations (e.g. Russians, Polish, Czechs, affected by wars and political crises in which ribed in works of numerous domestic authors Slovaks, etc.) interacted and clashed with other the destructive power of human beings was (Radovanovic, 1933; Dobrovic, 1946; Maksi- neighbouring ethnicities (Hungarians, Bulga- changing the physical, population, ethnic and movic, 1962; Marinovic-Uzelac, 1989; Stojkov, rians, Albanians, Greeks, Romans, Italians, religious image of many south Slavic cities and 1992) Austrians, etc). At the same time, there were towns. Although more difficult by the day, in tensions and rivalry amongst tribes and people some, it is still possible to recognize the However, all these artefacts are still not that formed the group of South Slavs such as remains of exceptional architectural, urban adequately elaborated in modern planning

14 spatium

literature in general, and south-eastern Euro- (which was not always the case in practice problems, but it will also be the responsibility pean in particular. This is largely due to poor when compared with other East European of the planners themselves to raise the level of knowledge and the insufficient interest of countries especially in Tito’s era), represent awareness and activity in accordance with foreign planners in this part of the world (this at the main constraints for members of the former recognisable international standards. This least being one’s first impression). Further- Yugoslav community (with the exception of century is the century of new challenges for more, the absence of Yugoslav planners Slovenia), when joining the club of “countries everyone, and planning is then well on the way (except a few cases Budic-Nedovic, Cavric, of western democracy, globalisation and to becoming one of the leading forces in the Bogunovic, Vujosevic, Milinkovic-Pichler, etc.) sustainable development”. Clearly, just like any country devastated by dark evils. There is belief on the international publishing scene, before other new membership, this one also implies that the willingness and capacity of local and after the civil war that swept across the an adequate price. At this point in time, the planners must be strengthened by mutual country in the last decade of the 20th century, entrance ticket price is Draconian and it is very enhancement with foreign counterparts, firstly also contributed to the feeling of a non-affirma- uncertain whether there are available funds for from the neighbouring countries. In turn, it will tive “Balkan urban theatre”. Due to the lack of it to be paid, especially after objectively show that such arrangement is progressive in systematic foreign research in combination looking at the consequences and enormity of widening local capacities building, developing with local scientific counterparts, conclusions the economic and human catastrophe that moral, and stabilising communities of different, pertaining to the development and planning of struck the area in the past ten years. but co-operative contributors. settlements in Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, , Monte Negro and Macedonia, It is notable that two contrasting processes It is the contention of this analysis to support are brought mostly on “ad hoc” basis, with a might occur within the formation of a new and promote such endorsements and ideas, distinctively marked political connotation, and planning system and awareness today. The which can shoulder a myriad of diversified even sometime disqualification. forces of the previous administrative and urbanites. This approaches acknowledges the political apparatus continue to obstruct the current mosaic of ideological foundations, Describing this region as one in transition, or transitional changes as powerfully as they can. which is still in transformation process. What as a region of countries belonging to the Meanwhile, the newly formed administrative the further investigations will highlight is the former eastern block is an over-simplification. machinery continues to lack the human and set of critical recommendations for faster reco- There appears to be an overlap between financial resources essential for it to realise very of local planning apparatus. In this regard external and domestic knowledge of the chara- fast and efficient changes. The mental and the attitudes towards Yugoslav planning cteristics of past, current and perspective urban socio-psychological displays of most of the renaissance and establishment of new para- development in different political and historical participants in the changes are such that they digm will reflect expected political and societal circumstances. Meanwhile, this simplification, require different tuning in order to move from will. There would be also a symbolic element which does not provide a basis for a serious what was declared to the sphere of real and as well, which will highlight the usage of professional and academic discussion, widely pragmatic. In view of this, the statement made physical space in forthcoming negotiations and opens the doors for research opportunities into by Perisic and Bojovic (1997) that “the country bargaining among different parties in critical the theory and practice of the previous is not in a process of transition but rather in a conditions of expected power imbalances. generations of planners who worked in different state of deep crisis”, is still valid. social, administrative and political Furthermore, present examples of major environments (Vrieser 1978, Perisic 1985, The promised international aid has failed to contemporary projects and ideas will be Piha 1986, Bakic 1988). Watson (1998; 1999) materialise since the country is one of high risk examined and summarised around the and Maier (1994) agree that circumstances in areas for investment into new economic common constructs which appear in this paper transitional societies offer a laboratory setting programmes. The functioning of a legal and and might be used as the basis for establishing for tracking and evaluation the forms and economic system, the substitution and repla- the guidelines in supporting new planning concepts of planning over time. cement of out-dated technologies, revitalisa- legitimacy along the line of appropriate harmo- tion and redevelopment of areas devastated by nisation and co-ordination which is essential There is a fact that urban history and planning war, the degradation of ecological values, the among numerous actors and key players in systems in the countries of former Yugoslavia endangerment of spectacular natural beauties, sophisticated planning game, as well as in the did not come to be or end at the time of the uncontrolled exploitation of natural resour- process of required public monitoring. These “socialist and communist regimes”. Yugoslavia ces, the establishment of smooth commu- developments can help to establish partici- is among many countries that have over the nication and other networks, the gaining patory behaviour and moral in place making, past several decades undergone significant membership in international organizations, and facilitating a new grounding in the once changes in their planning and urban develop- the establishment of an atmosphere of trust “strange and no man’s land”. ment practices (Nedovic-Budic, 2001). How- and dialogue within the framework of the ever, this fact is not strong enough in itself to international community (primarily neighbours) In view of this, requests for political pluralism, defy the general approach taken when resear- are also some of the burning issues that have democratisation, deregulation, privatisation and ching urban topics, based primarily on values to be dealt with and resolved at the beginning the development of market institutions and built by Anglo-Saxon planning scholars. of the 21st century. mechanisms, which have been presented as the objectives of this conference, require Its transient nature, a current unbalanced The ability to develop new avenues in the partnerships within which home agendas could political and economical scales, as well as the planning branch will depend on the entire be integrated into the dominant foreign trends. 50-year long period behind the “iron curtain” societal resolution of these dilemmas and

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THE NEW SYSTEM IS PROBABLY BORN concepts, practices and methods. The The suggestion is to perhaps select the international town planning movement of “imposed” model in the initial phase in order The events that took place in October 2000 Charles Mulford Robinson as stated by to minimize the rigidity of the existing political marked the end of the ten year period of social Suttclife (1981, p.229) might be still an and economical disparities. Once the current and economic agony and injustice in which so utopian goal for the majority of existing situation changes, in some 10-15 years many human and material values were governmental, parastatal and private planning according to the most optimistic predictions, vanished. The country has now entered a new agencies. Despite the common problem of the diversification of the system should aim at phase of very uncertain development. The major social inequalities, the current Yugoslav international diffusion, assuming that most of widely perceived phenomenon of planning system operates under a mix of the current limitations will be a thing of the “liberalisation and democratisation” has planning ideas – the old ones inherited from past. The framework presented in Figure 1 is an knocked on the country’s door and has led the communist and/or pre-communist past, attempt to visually capture the relevant many commentators to raise the question as to and the new ones developed and applied in the processes and factors, their relationships, and “what now?” Those who carried out the present. The planners are trying to adopt, their contributions to the evolution of planning peaceful revolutionary changes are now being modify, and re-invent practices and systems. It also includes the outcomes that are asked to make things happen. However, approaches from their own past and from other missing from other frameworks: resultant legal judging by how things stand now, they seem to countries, both near and afar, thereby moulding and institutional framework, characteristics of be struggling with the delicate task of leading and creating a new planning system (Budic and the planning process, and specifics of urban the remainder of the former country. Due to the Cavric, 2001, Sykora, 1999.). The inherited environment and quality of life as promoted by limited managing, technical and administrative segments of five legal families of European particular aspects of established adopted, cadres, the neglected physical and social planning, i.e. the British, Scandinavian, evolved, transformed, matured planning infrastructure, and the insufficient control of Napoleonic, Germanic and East European system. (Budic, Cavric, 2001, p.33). financial flows, there is a big gap between systems (Newman and Thornley, 1996; Healey desired, declared and achieved developments. This decision, although very difficult and and R. Williams, 1993; M. J. Thomas, 1998.) painful (some might even call “imposition” as This fictional vision that everything would go are still very influential in this Region. non-patriotic), identifies the 5-year review as well once the old regime was replaced, has However, some other models are slowly but an opportunity for the further implementation of had a boomerang effect. Not even the surely infiltrating the Yugoslav planning scene good and sustainable practices. It would be an numerous “head blows” suffered since, have following the socio-economic and political important milestone and would call for new and managed to awaken most of the participants in collapse, evident after the NATO campaign. creative contributions for supporting the prog- the extended crisis. The basic problems such According to Ward (2000), these latest exports ress achieved in transitions towards sustai- as sense of extreme national importance, described as “borrowing” and “imposition”, nability and effective urban and environmental stubbornness, the belief that some are beyond might be transitional opportunities for management. Focusing initially on two major reproach, feelings of false pride and the countries such as new Yugoslavia. models (imposed and borrowed), the initiative tendency to look down on the values of others With transitional approaches gaining momen- is motivated by the conviction that knowledge- nations still prevail among the masses. In an tum in Europe (Pallagst, 2001) and worldwide, driven strategies and new generations of attempt to maintain the basic conditions for it is of outmost importance to enhance our planners should take their revisited role in survival, the devastated intelligentia still in the knowledge about the characteristics of advocating the interests of the public and all country is often caught up in verbal diffusion of planning systems (Budic, Cavric, other stakeholders, in both, the local and accusations and non-productive clashes of 2001, p.3). Hohn (2001, p.2) for example, international arena. opinion. There is also a tendency to avoid offers the post World War II history of planning usage of the models already tested in other Finally, this section is only a small step toward in German democratic Republic (GDR) as an east European countries as they are considered a greater understanding of the diffusion and example of the fact that despite a simplified to come from the centres of the new world evolution of planning. Future research is outside view, it was “not by any means a order and their allies. On a daily basis people needed to: monolithic block characterised by the face the dilemma whether to align themselves continuity of one view of urban development • Test, compare, and evaluate the frameworks with the European family and the leading coun- and one constellation of actors.” Bearing in against the empirical findings. tries of the world, or live a miserable existence mind the current situation in the country and • Develop indicators of matching/fitting or in the miniature remainder of what is now the ability of the Yugoslav planning fraternity discontinuity between the planning impor- known as New Yugoslavia, lead by the newly and society as a whole, it would be wise to ts/exports or innovations and the local formed elite. There is no doubt that someone react quickly and efficiently without wasting context; and has to pay the price of defeat for the benefit of time on empty discussions about designing Examine the transformation/adaptation/adjust- future generations. However, the sacrifice and and modelling entirely new and fashionable ment/re-invention of ideas, concepts, practices, price seem to be too high and nobody is still system. Needless to say, a number of options and methods implemented to meet diverse local not showing a courage and readiness for it. should be considered paying special attention circumstances. (Budic, Cavric, 2001, p. 33). The current political environment also affects to the last two. This translation of original the existing planning system or its model. models through local contexts, interpretations, Caught in the vortex of uncontrolled changes, cultures, and institutions makes planning the planning system itself is aiming at a rebirth diffusion highly dynamic and highly variable and reincarnation, looking for new ideas, rather than uniform process (Ward, ibid).

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Figure 1. Conceptual Planning Framework System Maturity

External Influences

Political Economic Cultural Planning models Planning education “Big ideas”

Internal Influences

History Culture/Attitudes Natural environment Government institutions Transitions/Inertia/Discontinuity Democratization Centralization of decision powers Social stratification Economic development Planning education & professional Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 ...... Cycle in Time associations

Outcomes/Measures: Equitable allocation of resources Responsiveness of planning institutions and approaches Efficient/Effective spatial organization to local circumstances (e.g., access, mixed use, social aggregation) Public participation in planning processes Quality of built environment Efficient/Effective administration of urban development (e.g., aesthetics, orientation, Systematic guidance and monitoring of urban systems identity, scale) and environments Environmental Quality

planning documents for all territorial units and not at the local level of planning and LEGISLATION OR LEGITIMACY AND WHAT ranging from the level of the republic to the decision-making is unique in the world. Their ELSE? level of urban blocks (Krstic 1982, Marinovic- participation in the control of illegal building The hyper-production of laws and legal acts Uzelac 1989). Unfortunately, even though they development work, destruction, sale and trans- that are often largely disregarded or not abided were issued within the regular system of formation of agricultural land into building represents a rarity and a real limitation to the spatial/territorial management unites these acts sites, and their attempts to protect the development of Yugoslav society and the had no executive powers in terms of coordi- endangered environment have become very planning system at all levels (state, republic, nating different interests, influences and activi- unpopular. The powerful local elite and mem- region, county, city/town). As for the types of ties in an urban or rural area. The need to re- bers of the former and current ruling gover- plans that should deal with different spatial gard the preparation and implementation of nment are interested only in having absolute levels in a coordinated manner, there is a lot of plans as two interrelated components of an control. They do not want to see physical confusion both in terms of terminology and integrated professional and legal process of planners pointing out to them the conse- meaning. In actual practice the rules and development rather than as two separate acti- quences of unsustainable development and the regulations deal with land issues, natural re- vities has not been emphasized in the Yugoslav need for social justice and equity. Priority has sources, urban and regional planning, environ- political and socio-economic practice. been given to the approach that promotes mental protection and development issues in a political/private interests only, which are often Urban and regional planners who are directly number of different ways. There is a lot of synonymous with those surrounding corrupted involved in the preparation of plans have hardly discord and a tendency towards looking at land leaders and criminal groups. (Cavric, 2000). ever had the opportunity to influence the way and its components in a sectoral and some- they are implemented, and consequently also The needs of the majority and of future what specialized and limited form from the could not influence the implementation of generations have been marginalized and the point of view of protecting the partial interests laws. The majority of planning professionals attempts of certain planners to point out the of agriculture, water resources, mining, energy, are still marginalized in the social decision adverse effects of unplanned development transport and other big land users. making system regarding spatial and urban sometimes remind us of Don Quixote’s According to Bojovic (1989), everyone is still development. This is largely due to the poor struggle with windmills. Unfortunately in their trying to solve their own problems concerning position of the planning lobby within the daily battle to survive, some professional space, largely disregarding others or paying political and economic decision-making planners have found themselves inside the only as much attention as is essential. Because hierarchy, and the general lack of awareness of “Trojan horse” serving in the interests of the of the difference in the economic status of the importance of physical planning in modern current policy, going against the basic rules private and sectorally organized interest, and society. Only too often when illegal spatial and principles of the planning fraternity. the territorial and temporal difference in the development should have been professionally Having briefly reviewed the evolution and impact they have on the land cover and use, sanctioned, planners were prevented from current legal framework of physical planning in those in charge of the spatial organization and taking part in professional and public scrutiny. the new Yugoslavia, it will be necessary to utilisation are constantly in temporal and More often they were used as the extended arm draw up some recommendations pertaining to spatial collision (Bojovic, ibid, p.3). of the authorities in situation where was the need for changes and to consider the necessary to protect the private and political implications of this for the future of planners in The current social problems and those of the interests of powerful individuals in numerous changing political and socio-economic circu- planning profession within frequently change- land speculations and corruption affairs. able legal conditions are well documented by mstances. The most important step is to make Perisic and Bojovic (1997, p. 9-10) who say The current Planning and Organisation of sure that all the available legal instruments are that “we can help society only to the extent Territory and Settlements Act (1996) verifies in conformance with international laws in society, i.e. its political factor on its behalf, the involvement of planners only in the common areas, and in the planning field in understands the problems and wishes to solve preparation and implementation of regional, particular. Gradually, the legal system bound them”. They further claim that we are very far district and action-area plans. The category of by such requirements would have to be away from a political consensus on the goals urban development and comprehensive master extended, starting from the state to the local and strategies concerning the development of plans (which was in existence for almost 50 level of operation. Firstly, it would need to national territories and towns and cities, years), has practically been replaced by so- consider the implementation of general and because everyone believes their interest is the called urban design projects, which are the immediately after specific individual sectors, most important and most legitimate. Conse- exclusive responsibility of architects and civil areas and projects, establishing the legal need quently, the ruling elite does not consider the engineers. Bojovic and Perisic (1997) argue and the legitimacy for integrated and inter- physical planning and urban manifestations of that in practice, today’s urban planning is disciplinary supervised spatial development. almost totally missing as are the corresponding public interest as societal favourites. The other stream of future activities around the urban analyses and reports. Technical docu- legal framework, would generally need to be A whole series of Urban and Regional Planning mentation (most often infrastructure general staffed by professionals capable of implemen- Acts were issued in the last 60 years, after the plans and design projects) is considered an ting the legal rules and controlling their imple- first and second world wars, as well as the adequate substitute for urban plans, and it mentation through the process of permanent latest Yugoslav civil war. These acts consi- enables the granting of building and planning monitoring and review using modern tools and dered planning matters in practice very permits by state and local authorities. thoroughly from the conceptual and technical techniques. A background in both the planning perspectives, and established a hierarchy of The use of planners only at the strategic level and legal profession might help find a solution

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as to how to bridge the wild river and establish the process of democratisation regardless of the Department of Urban and Regional Plan- a balancing environment for different stake- how difficult administrative barriers can be. ning, at the Faculty of Geography, University of holders involved in spatially oriented matters. Belgrade. These young professionals, in In this respect the planning administration also conjunction with other academics and in an The activities included in this “legal rejuve- need to return back to the public and citizenry. interdisplinary atmosphere and manner, are nation and renaissance” need to be more So we need to re-think and re-assess its role expected to raise the flag of our profession and practical and realistic, than narrative which is a and objectives in the changing circumstances have a positive impact on the restructuring of typical behaviour practiced even by highest of the new societal practice. Physical planning all our communities along the line of social, ranking official in today’s Yugoslav gover- is a multidisciplinary field, directly involving environmental and economical sustainability. nment. This in turn will have an implication for different individuals and institutions. In this Some of them will be hard working victims, the physical planning legislature and all those regard the institutions may be at the local level, and other managing beneficiaries, or hard line responsible in the Ministry of Planning and in the regional/province/district level, or at the survivors, in this new reality of the Balkan other Ministries dealing with spatial and inter- republics and central government, as well as in melting pot. The development of our own related environmental issues. Eventually there private organisation and parastatal bodies. In “professional image” as administrators, techni- would also be a demand and need for simplifi- the past there was a big gap between planning cal bureaucrats, facilitators, urban governors cation of legal procedures to allow and invite administration at the republic and local level. and managers, environmental revolutionaries more foreign financial, technological and other Meanwhile, the same time planning admini- will be necessary for effective self-sustainable interests and aids, which could help ensure a stration at the level of federal state government destiny in this global world. better prospect and bring about a new climate of was rather symbolic. international recognition. In the context of this discussion it can be said In the next five years, planning organisation that two progressions and ideas should These activities require the expertise of domes- structures should be constantly reviewed in highlight challenges and pose conclusions for tic and international experts from many disci- order for them to be as efficient as possible the future planning administrative setting. plines rounding physical planning profession. within the framework of changes in planning Firstly, capitalism as an envisaged production All these experts would have particular roles to system in general, as has been discussed frame for the new Yugoslavia requires admini- play carrying out numerous consultancies in above. Decisions on physical planning issues strators able to understand controlled and the development of the new legal core and of should be brought as close as possible to the taxable rules of profit making and private individual slices of the revitalised legislature. people and the affected communities, and the initiatives. However, for this first long jump into There would be a need for series of workshops organisational and administrative set up must capitalism all existing criminal records and at the international, national, regional and local be streamlined. Yet such activities appear heritages of the “business oligarchy” from the levels to facilitate the dissemination of legal merely to mediate against what seems to be an previous regime ant its inheritors should be review findings and contribute to awareness underlying force to “grow into” a more demo- dealt accordingly. Capital will definitely influe- raising capacity building in all administrative cratic and pluralistic society based on revised nce creation of new kinds of relationships both and technical groups expected to improve new values and the continuous struggle for daily internally and externally, and consequently the general and planning legal rules. meaning and relevance. By analysing the new types of administrators expected to take recently changed relationships between Serbia COMING OUT FROM THE ADMINISTRATIVE over would have a sound knowledge of and Montenegro – encompassing some com- CAVE capitalistic processes and products. mon and individual functions and responsi- It is a frequent observation that administration bilities, this paper spells out the need for In addition, the need for ecologically and profile of society is one of the important nesting a similar approach and an atmosphere socially aware, as well as technically skilled elements for efficient organisation of public of productive dialog in the foreseeable future administrative players is another important services. The central issue pertaining to the within the planning administrative apparatus. prerequisite for successful transition. The shift current administration machinery in Yugoslavia from a typical “complicated and semi-skilled The next five years would definitely be seen as refers to its major service and proper administrator prototype” that has been the a crossroads with numerous expected changes maintenance. Before the political changes took delicatessen of Yugoslav communist cuisine in the politics, economy, social composition place, administration wizards tailored things to for years, should aim towards professionals and institutional framework. Most cities and meet their own needs and served the capable of understanding the “practice of other forms of territorial and administrative community in a very poor manner. For most place”. In such situation, the horizon line of organisation would need to establish efficient users it was real Odyssey to get things done their engagement and productivity wouldn’t be planning services and units whose primarily without having to go through the usual hassles measured by paper work only. That is, the role would be to serve the people and allow which required extra funds, extra time and the administrative horizon might then become a financially and environmentally sound and ability to deal with psychologically stressful value constructed out from a number of sustainable development projects. So “new situations most often caused by arrogant, implemented physical plans, policies, strate- inequalities” among cities and places would unpleasant and sometimes corrupt gies, development and investment projects, start to shrink and the territorial distribution and administrative officers at all levels The magic which do not impose negative social, diffusion of positive effects would reach question “do you have somebody who can do economic and environmental impacts. In such majority of people. this for me at minimal cost” was very common situation the critical role a modern admini- for a long time during previous regimes. Hope- There is by now a considerable number of strator plays would become visible and fully this situation will change soon because of newly schooled planning professionals from appreciated by the public and numerous

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stakeholders at different territorial and organi- these difficulties. The planner’s ability to facili- the national and international level. According zational levels. tate cooperation and conduct consultation is to Suttcliffe (1981, p. 173) there are four crucial. (Manda, 1997). classes of planners: the fully cosmopolitan EDUCATING NEW PLANNING LEADERS planner (Ward, 2001); the intermediary; the It is very important that other people – inclu- home-based planner with a willingness to look Derived from architecture and city design, ding politicians, administrators, and the abroad; and the xenophobe. physical planning gradually extended its focus general public – are also involved, and the of interest to areas outside city limits, thereby main role of the professional planner is to act Before the establishment of the first Yugoslav including rural areas, wider regional territories, as a co-ordinator, collecting and analysing planning school in 1977, physical planners river valleys, wildlife and protected zones, and information and proposals for action provided entering a professional practice have been sometimes even the cross-border territories of by the others, rather than actually making all recruited from different backgrounds (archite- two or more countries. It began as a discipline the decision himself (see Fig. 2). Moreover, it cture, economy, engineering, geography, that focused on the design and beautification of should also be recognized that planning can, in sociology, etc.) Today the situation is quite cities, but its scope of work now includes fact, take place without any professional different as physical planners now get a formal finding solutions to numerous economic, planners, although their presence can enhance undergraduate and post-graduate education in social and environmental issues. In most the planning process in many ways (Conyers & the Department of Urban and Regional developed countries nowadays, the planning Hills, 1990, p. 14). Planning at the . In the agenda is focuses significantly on manage- last 25 years a considerable number of The development of a professional planner ment, monitoring and decision making related professional planners have been awarded BSc largely depends on his/her university education to the functioning of complex spatial and envi- degrees, postgraduate diplomas, masters and affiliations to planning institutes and ronmental systems. Meanwhile, in developing degrees and PhD degrees. Most of them found associations. Nowadays there is a developed countries urban planning still largely focuses employment in Serbia and Montenegro, or in network of planning schools with accredited on problems that were typical in developed former Yugoslav republics that are now new undergraduate, postgraduate and specialist countries at the beginning of and in the 20th independent states, namely in Bosnia and studies and programmes all over the world. In century. This primarily refers to urban and po- Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Also, while addition to this, there are planning organiza- pulation growth control, sustainable natural some have continued their careers overseas. tions such as the Royal Town Planning resource utilisation, environmental protection, Institute, the American Planning Association, The first 1977/78 syllabus was based on the services and employment provision, and the Royal Australian Institute of Town Planners, territorial integrity of what was at the time the poverty reduction (Cavric, 2000). the Canadian Institute of Planners, the South territory of Yugoslavia. It dealt mostly with the Bearing in mind the nature and content of African Institute of Urban and Regional local planning agenda, and its greatest planning as a subject, the logical question that Planners and many others, whose basic aim is advantage was its multidisciplinary approach. arises is who are planners and what kind of to protect, support and promote the interests The first lecturers in the newly founded school education should they have. This question can and position of the planning profession both at were eminent experts in architecture and urban be answered in two ways. The first and simpler answer is that anyone who is involved in planning can be regarded as a planner. However, Figure 2. - Interrelationships of politicians, planners, administrators, and the public (Conyers & Hills, 1990, p. 246) this does not mean that all of them are professionally trained to do the work. The second answer would make it necessary to analyse the term “professional physical plan- ner”. It refers to an individual with a professional degree in urban and regional planning, involved in planning for the government, parastatal and private agencies or engaged in research work or pursuing an academic career.

Politicians, planners and the general public are not homogenous group. They do not have the same attitudes and interests. This adds the problems in decision making. Planners are often expected to play several roles. They are members of the civil service carrying out instructions given by politicians and working closely with administrators. Planners are them- selves administrators advising and assisting politicians or developers and investors if they are working in private agencies. It is important that the planners realize that they will represent different interests in society and be aware of

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design, geography, economy, sociology, engi- and initiatives, since they are seen as a possible reality and 3-D modelling, what if? analysis, neering and the environmental science. The way of joining the global family of planning spatial expert and decision systems, etc. might fundamental issues and questions that were schools and the only way out of the current open wider avenues for young and highly raised in this first educational programme isolation. In order to join the global family of motivated “planning yuppies”. Bringing up a referred to spontaneous urbanisation, environ- planners, it is essential to first be part of the cadre of planners versed in applying various mental impacts, regional development, and the European branch of the family (e.g. Association geo-spatial technologies and tools is the most disparities between central settlements. Unfortu- of European Schools of Planning – AESOP). effective way to secure their use in planning and nately, the issues of European integration, public decision making process (Budic, 2000). participation, gender, etc. were neglected then APPLICATION OF MODERN PLANNING Using GIS might be an excellent starting point just as in the most recent 1995/96 syllabus. TECHNIQUES – WITH GIS IN MIND! due to its attractive, comprehensive and cross- The numerous political, economic and territor- Most of the earlier generations of formally disciplinary nature which can invite planning- ial changes that have taken place within the educated planners found jobs in architectural, related decision-making through a complex, former and the latest Yugoslav union, logically urban planning and engineering companies, in often politically charged process. Ultimately, demand changes in the educational planning governmental and parastatal agencies and in GIS applied in the field of urban and regional concepts and objectives. Formal planning is a research institutes and academia. All these planning can advance the following general relatively young profession and conditionally institutions lacked planning expertise and and specific planning goals: said “science”, not only in Yugoslavia but in needed to take a different approach to the • better quality of urban environments; (live- the developed world as well. Its future develop- world that surrounds us. The new professionals able, safe, and aesthetically pleasing) ment, and especially the development of the were aware of the opportunity they were given • environmentally and socially sustainable educational foundation are not going to be and worked hard to justify their positions. They communities; problem free, without any obstacles or challen- introduced a completely new approach to the • effective spatial organisation of urban ges. This issue must be dealt with on time and solution of complex urban and regional activities (work, residence, commerce, and at the right place, giving valid arguments, both development and management problems. What in terms of theory and the methodology more, they exchanged information and recreation); implemented in actual planning practice experience with other professions that were • “smart growth” of urban areas; (Deric, Milic and Babacic 1997). part of interdisciplinary teams, thus enriching • efficient communication between various urban functions; Planning Academia and its programmes, as an their methodologies. Public and professional independent part of society, might influence and debates, and information about experience • revitalization of deteriorated areas; give directions for new planning awareness. In abroad contributed to the social acceptance of • variety of housing options; the profession. view of this, our research is aimed at reco- • employment opportunities and economic mmending improvements in the planning of Although this new and vanguard profession has development; and educational programmes. These improvements proved itself, it is still very difficult for planners • democratisation of the planning and policy might lead new generations of Yugoslav to influence and help realise any faster chan- making process (Budic, ibid). planners to influence changes and direct society ges in the present crisis. Nevertheless, the pro- towards globalisation. Furthermore, the new fession should try to help itself independently The all above goals are in the same time educational programme could help Yugoslav and prepare for the future that will inevitably “burning issues” of Yugoslav society and planners to make fruitful collaborations and come about. In this respect, the improvement contain a vitally important message about GIS as compete internationally, and this could open the of planning methods and techniques, interna- a problem solving technology. The efficient use doors of the international employment arena. tional cooperation and the development of elite of GIS might ensure the best possible results in professionals must become a priority. It is situation when competition for resources Considering the current constraints limiting (natural, human, financial) is intense. In such better performance and a stronger societal especially important to educate a planning elite, as it is obvious that the “whole socialist circumstances, GIS is the most desirable way to contribution, the following areas might be provide decision-makers with appropriate targeted as good starting points for any project failed worldwide because of the syste- matic destruction of functional elites, while the advice. A rational planning advocacy shouldered expected improvements and the revitalisation with GIS objectiveness can provide a firm of the existing agenda of the Belgrade School planning functional elite will be respected and favoured in the future. ” (D. Perisic, ibid.) foundation for the planning profession and its of Planning: activity in the country burdened with so many • International recognition; In view of this, there is a clear suggestion for all constraints. GIS should be viewed as a possible • Changes in the academic program; young and prospective planning professionals framework for tackling problems through a • International cooperation and accreditation of to make sense of themselves through logical sequence of activities and in a the program; continuous education and rigorous technical comprehensive manner, but not operating in • The establishment of a National Institute of training along the line of modern planning isolation from other techniques and methods. Town and Regional Planners’ methods and techniques. Today, there are many • Scientific research work and publications; and technological opportunities for basic back- Unfortunately, it is very difficult to acquire • Improved public, community and university ground improvements, For example, it is official GIS hardware and software these days. service debate notable that spatial data processing by means Due to sanctions and financial limitations, The suggestions clearly show that emphasis of GIS (Geographic Information System), pirating and the illegal use of different GIS would be placed on international co-operation remote sensing and image processing, virtual packages (ArcView, ERDAS Imagine, GeoMe-

spatium 21

dia, MapInfo) is very common practice even in terms of capacity and resources there are necessary annual and/or 3-5 year reviews. government planning offices. The latest arran- numerous obstacles in the form of powerful gement with Microsoft and other IT companies political figures and their allies who are unwi- The main advantage of this approach will might resolve this problem. Similarly to Bill lling to accept and follow planning guidance. become evident in reality very soon if all Gates’ efforts to express good will and even- The general tendency to improvise and the parties concerned apply the language of under- tually again open the door of Yugoslav market absolute control by those who do so is a ‘much standing, mutual appreciations and respect. If to Microsoft’s range of products, there is no better alternative’, especially at the local com- this is not the case the destiny of plans and reason not to establish adequate co-operation munity level where we still have feudal and planning can be unpredictable. We see a high with GIS vendors who operated within Serbia tribal authorities superseding state and repu- potential of cooperation if democratisation and Montenegro before the civil war (e.g. blic influence. In such situation professional process continues and if community sensiti- GISDATA Belgrade). An excellent example is planners could be even “sacrificed” as a holly sation and awareness are raised and coupled the Environmental System Research Institute animals in the mystical processes of local with international encouragements and invest- (ESRI), Redlands, California, a GIS leader political rituals and slaughtering. ment synergies. We look forward for greater known for helping former communist and collaboration with the all networks of leaders countries in transition all over the world. There However, it should be noted that the design, and recognised professionals; and we remain is no doubt that ESRI technical and managing construction, utilisation and maintenance of at disposal to explore critical paths and experts would be willing to consider the revival physical infrastructure and buildings or the positive partnerships that could result in of the Yugoslav GIS market if interested parties provision of any other technical, environmental satisfying citizen’s interests and needs. invited them to do so. and social services related to the physical plan are the responsibilities not only of the func- Conyers and Hills (1996) argue that whatever In conclusion, it is clear that the way forward to tional, technical and administrative personnel efforts made to improve plan implementation better GIS diffusion and implementation is not (architects, engineers, surveyors, economists, by any of the means suggested here, it will going to be easy. It is very important to high- builders, real estate managers, developers, never be possible to remove all obstacles to light the possibility of potential problem situa- investors, etc.), but also of physical planners. the implementation process because some of tions that might arise. Namely, local IT forces The coordination of participation and commu- factors are beyond the control of either the pla- might try to preserve their position by offering nication after reporting and plan approval is nner or others involved in the preparation and domestic GIS/CAD clones as a substitution for vital for successful planning and plan implementation of plans. Thus, to give just a the world-wide recognised and standardised implementation, including all vertical and hori- few examples, plan implementation is frequen- GIS solutions. Hopefully, such efforts will zontal axes between different parties included. tly hampered by unexpected weather or other remain isolated and without any support from natural disasters, international economic pro- those in a position to make decisions about the The role of the planner is thus concerned with blems resulting, for example, in shortages of current and future GIS needs in the country. mobilising, organizing and managing the foreign exchange required to purchase essen- resources needed to undertake the actions tial equipment, sudden political changes and IMPLEMENTATION IS PART OF embodied in plans, by stimulating dialogues of personality problems among the various indivi- PLANNING AFTERMATH cooperation and interdisciplinary relationships, duals involved. Nevertheless, such problems applying mixture of “bottom up” and “top- should not prevent the planner from seeking to The question of proper implementation of down” approaches, until the entire political and improve - even if not to perfect - the imple- planning proposals and policies is one of the economical system is stable enough to receive mentation process (Conyers, and Hills, ibid). fundamental agendas in professional planning more local community inputs. It is practically practice and theory today. The failure to imple- necessary to involve planners from the stage of SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ment the proposal and policies given in any drawing layouts and writing reports, until the single standalone planning document or “blue completion of the infrastructure and superstru- From a developing and transitional country’s print” is widely to be one of the major weak- cture on the ground, and even further during its perspective and in the face of complexities nesses of physical planning in former and pre- maintenance and utilisation process. In this described in this paper, it is important to trace sent day Yugoslavia, as well. There a number of regard politicians and government authorities the way forward and to identify entry points and reasons why plans sometimes get no further are expected to allow planners to be more milestones for the whole governmental and than the paper phase, often collecting dust on a involved in the following tasks: planning machinery. The following short para- graphs relating to the previous sections aim to shelf in an administrator’s office. Some of the • Implementation management systems; problems can be avoided or remedied by plan- give a summary of challenges, issues and • Development of specific plan implementa- ners; but others are beyond their influence and dilemmas highlighted by author. Effort to link control. There is still a common belief that the tion techniques and tools; all of them in strong chain of recommended role of a planner ends with the approval of the • Guiding architectural, urban and engineering steps might influence a critical mass needed plan. The absence of planners in the plan design; for decision – making in which planning implementation phase was a common practice • Supporting legally framed tendering and fraternity can find itself in better position than it in Yugoslavia in the past and there do not seem contracting procedures; was before and it is still far a way from the to have been any major changes. • Organising monitoring and control based on position of fellow colleagues abroad. integrated GIS technologies and regular data Planning System In addition, there is a big discrepancy between collection and processing; and the number of plans and resources available for • Pursuing thorough plan evaluation and their implementation. Even for realistic plans in One of the biggest upcoming issues is how the

22 spatium

physical planning system will fit into the entire necessary to review the links with other leaders and managers to prepare for challen- political and socio-economic system that is spatially oriented legal documents in order to ges brought about by technological innovations currently undergoing a major face-lift. The avoid points of non-conformance, overlaps and used in practice on a daily basis. However, the strategy of establishing different partnerships non-consistency. institutional and organisational design of the and collaborative ties under the umbrella of the school needs to be more diversified and new system should be one of the major goals. Planning Administration flexible than is the case now. Being the first The implementation of internationally recog- The efficiency of a political and planning and still the only indigenous physical planning nised planning models would be a positive system largely depends on the efficiency and school in former and present day Yugoslavia is step forward for efficient physical planning flexibility of its administration. In Yugoslavia, an advantage which has not been utilised system building. This paper encourage a more this is definitely not the case. The administra- enough to influence the opening of wider holistic approach to this issue suggesting tive system has suffered devastating blows avenues towards co-operating with numerous acceptance of “imposed models” in the initial through the years and especially so in the last domestic and foreign partners. A revision and stage of the development of the new planning ten years of misery. Administrative institutions modernization of the current programmes, and system. At the same time this will help are expected to be the building blocks of the the establishment of research and technical maintain community awareness in terms of Yugoslav transition to sustainable pathways to ties with other academies, the activation of theoretical and practical planning approaches development. Consequently, a serious effort publishing, consultancy, conference, advisory, previously rotted around different international should be made to start with new capacity and distance-learning as well as short sum- and domestic planning models. It will also be a building and revisions at all levels of the mer/winter courses, and different part-time very useful exercise in gap fillings until a stable administrative machinery. An entry point for training activities would be an essential adjust- system structure is in place. Thus, the major solutions must be sought within capitalist ment strategy for this fabric of planning challenges now are how to bring together models with strong social components which knowledge. When the University of Belgrade experienced and young planners back into a are still necessary here to help bridge the and various ministries negotiate new agree- particular planning system forum and use their transitional canyon. ments, the above propositions should draw the expertise and knowledge to create permanent attention of all those responsible for the school system structures and establish various It would be beneficial to implement the criteria and its future. protocols for system activity. for the “user/citizen centred” approach imme- diately, primarily so to satisfy the ordinary Planning Techniques Planning Legislature people and public, working together with In piloting the efficient application of various It is also important to demonstrate how new leaders. Once such a solution has been promising planning techniques, tools and tech- willingness in the every day changing political applied, the issues that arise from daily nologies that exist today, it is important to first and economical scene can save resources at administrative practices and procedures and offer them to young and prospective the local, regional, and national levels. Yugo- the implementation of different strategies and professionals from our planning society. The slavia cannot be recognised fully unless stan- policies, can be handled with a brighter need and demand for – GIS and similar dardised and internationally recognised legal prospectus. For example, any administrative spatially oriented technologies require serious choices start to dominate public domain. It outcomes and decisions relating to physical consideration, because GIS is about to appears that there has been insufficient planning matters should contain provisions to establish a new paradigm in the planning encouragement so far for developing the new bring in and involve technically skilled profession. It is important that we understand legal platforms in order to avoid mistakes planners and interested communities together. this fact as soon as possible, although we have caused by legislative confusion and miss Other individual and usually “corrupt practi- already had almost 15 to do so. Successful matching amongst numerous law acts dealing ces” must be punishable accordingly. It is experiments in this context should be for- with land, planning, environmental and deve- important to emphasize the need for physical gotten. We do not need only experiments and lopment issues. It is also visible that in the planning offices (units), at all levels of the new demo presentations. What we do need is a real forest of legal documents one faces difficulties government (state, republic, provincial, regio- operating GIS world which will include data, finding a single tree of justice. One of the nal, county and settlement levels). HW, SW and most importantly an adequate crucial question is how to simplify and at the Planning Academia human and organisational GIS framework. GIS same time come up with more comprehensive as a promising planning technique will only planning law, which could satisfy not only The current planning school should be used as continue to progress with improved human and planners, but other professional lobbies dea a platform for extended professional and public management understanding and support. ling with spatial resources including planning, dialogue and the synthesis of policy-making utilisation and management of complex and academic realms. By co-ordinating and In turn GIS will help avoid the duplication of underground, ground, and above-ground land gluing the activities of different stakeholders efforts and will enable more effective surface spheres. Through legally bound deci- and securing the scientific approval of new information processing, communication and sion-making planners must advice politicians, initiatives, the school could have an extended streamline decision-making by the personnel managers, developers and investors to look at role. Namely, both students and practising in charge. GIS should function as a virtual the totality of spatial dimensions and at the planners could work together in problem organization, helping decision-making and effects of illegal actions, which are usually solving situations. It is important for a school information flows based on spatially and multi- damaging to spatial contents. When new to develop the ability to anticipate events, disciplinary embodied data sets. Recognising planning laws are being prepared, it would be which in turn could help communities, political this as a National GIS Strategy should be the purpose and goal that will facilitate faster

spatium 23

development and political changes based on cal and other pressures. They have to find a need to recognise them, like it or not. These spatially accurate information. way to by-pass problems through mutual dia- facts clearly spell out that if realistic growth logues with politicians, administrators and the rates were applied, the GNP from 1990 could Planning Implementation public. They cannot leave the future of cities be achieved only in 2011. While the per capita It is the mission of the planning profession to and wider territories to the legions of GNP in countries that are members of the support the implementation of planning propo- community action, self-help and resistance OECD increased from US$ 11,000 in 1980 to sals, policies and strategies. There is no doubt groups, to anarchy and the threat of civil war. US$ 14,000 in 1994, Yugoslavia had, applying that planners must be recognised as key Nor, lastly, can they withdraw in favour of the the same methodology a per capita GNP of players once physical plans have been prepa- total chaos which existed when privilege and US$ 2,600 in 1980, and only US$ 1,400 in red for different communities and spatial le- wealth were the only determinants shaping 1994. This represented a reduction of the GNP vels. This involvement should focus on the cities, as these forces operated after the co- by 71% and 64% respectively, compared to numerous activities elaborated in this paper. llapse and disintegration of former Yugoslavia. Greece and Portugal (Radulovic, Bulatovic, The practice of avoiding planners and their Planners themselves are the creation of a new Radicevic, Keckarevic, and Krunic-Lazic, influence once development projects were order of society which had its modest begin- 1996). Although Yugoslavia was considered as ready to be implemented was a major weak- ning a hundred and eighty years ago. The que- one of the most serious candidates for Euro- ness and one of the biggest obstacles to prog- stion is not whether they should turn their pean Union membership before the civil war, it ress in sustainable development. backs on this process, but how they may best, is still at the very beginning of transforming the and most speedily, guide it towards an admit- economy, compared to other countries in Our platform of favouring the integration of pla- tedly very distant goal of equality, peace and transition that have been restructuring the nners in the implementation stage will help well being (Eversley, ibid, p.222). economy for the last ten and more years. others to better understand the complex issues In other words, the potential and honesty of our In a similar manner, the Government’s Habitat and potential impacts of the development plan- physical planners and other professional cad- Report from 1995 (Brkovic-Bajic, 1996), used ning and design proposals given in technical do- res should erupt at all levels, burning and des- rough estimates of the unemployment rate of cumentation. In this regard, the implementation troying fortifications of the administrative ruin 23,1% and an annual GNP of 1,200 US$ per portfolio will have a more realistic prospect for of the latest “lord of the rings” who tailored our inhabitant. According to unconfirmed statistical success. The attainment of this objective will destines in the last decade of the 20th century. values of the Human Development Index (HDI), ensure an infrastructure which will be able to With this vision in mind, planners will play an unofficial reporters rank Yugoslavia as belon- provide environmentally sound and sustainable important role in moving towards sustainable ging to the group of countries with a medium turn-key solutions that will satisfy professional development for all, not only for privileged and low HDI. The data from the Central and public rigour. As we look to the foreseeable members of society. The lost middle class of European Annual Business Report (1997), future, this action could change the entire profes- th techno-bureaucrats, which is always the engine places Yugoslavia in the 16 place , within the sional planning arena. The actors who played of societal successes and/or failures, should group of 27 countries in transition, with a GNP small roles might become stars in premiere be re-born with the aim of meeting society’s of US$ 1,510 per inhabitant (Janic, 1997). development and environmental movies. needs in an environmentally, economically and Compared to the former Yugoslav republics, politically sound way. This is not something the FRY was ranked as third, following Slovenia CONCLUSION impossible. It is reality and has been achieved (US$ 9,352) and Croatia (US$ 3,492), and Despite sometime very critical language, the in numerous countries worldwide. They have better ranked than the Former Yugoslav main intention of this article was to give a become the front-runners in the global race. Republics of Macedonia (US$ 700) and Bosnia positive flavour to the current societal changes Examples of former communist countries with and Herzegovina (US$ 524). a high human development index (HDI 0.800 in the latest Yugoslav union of Serbia and As far as the system of planning is concerned, and above in 1999), like Slovenia (0.874), the Montenegro, from the physical planner’s point of there is no more social planning which used to Czech Republic (0,844) Slovakia (0,831), view. All the suggestions and recommendations be the dominant form of planning. If we consi- Estonia (0,812), Lithuania and Croatia (0,803), given in this analysis are not exclusive. They der urban and regional planning, it is expected can serve as a leading guidance for the only represent the personal point of view of a that the legal shortcomings and deficiencies intensification of our redevelopment efforts planner with (considerably long practical, that neglected its importance when compared (UNDP, 2001). research, management, administrative and GIS with sectoral planning (e.g. agriculture, infra- experience in the country and abroad. Similar to The current obsession that changes will come structure systems, water affairs planning) will other professional contributions in debates on overnight cannot be realistically justified. High be removed. It is also believed that physical the country’s destiny and prospect, the aim of realism will have high costs and any miracle plan implementation and the establishment of a the views expressed in the paper was to activate expected by naïve followers of the former more diversified planning administration will hidden and oppressed intellectual potential regime and those trying to disrupt the current experience their renaissance. within the visionary profession of physical one after years of decline, is not possible. planners. In this regard, the attempt was to Patience and hard work are the answers to The assumption is that the shift from solely sensitise and galvanise the energy of pro- those living in leisure and spreading defeatism. economic and physical planning relations, and fessional planners working in different agencies. The facts given in the State Report on the introduction of environmental impact Environment (1996) one year before the NATO assessments, feasibility studies, as well as To paraphrase the words of David Eversley bombardment speak for themselves and we GIS, social cost and benefits analysis, will (1973), planners cannot abdicate under politi- initiate qualitative changes of the existing

24 spatium

planning system. With further urbanisation and 12. Radulovic J., Bulatovic S., Radicevic P., graphy, University of Belgrade, pp. 1-9. settlement growth, it is natural to expect that Keckarevic P., and Krunic-Lazic(eds.), 24. Piha B., 1986. Basics of Spatial Planning planning will trigger an improvement in the 1996. The State of Yugoslav Environment (Serbian edition). Belgrade: Faculty of living standards and quality of human life. 1994, Ministry of Development, Science Mathematical Sciences, University of Unfortunately, realistically speaking, the and Environment of the Republic of Belgrade and Yugoslav Institute for Labour economic and social recession that affected Yugoslavia, Department of Environment, Productivity. Yugoslavia in the last decade will definitely Birografika, Belgrade. 25. Radovanovic M., 1933. Introduction to require a long- term process of painful hilling 13. Krstic B., 1982. Man and Environment – and recovery. Urbanism (Serbian edition). Belgrade: An Approach to Physical Planning and Geca Kon. LITERATURE Development (Bosnian edition). Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 26. Stojkov B., 1992. The Plan and Destiny of 1. Bakic R., 1988. Physical Planning City (Serbian edition), Belgrade, Gradje- 14. Maier K., 1994. Planning and education in vinska Knjiga. (Montenegrin edition). Niksic, Univer- planning in the Czech Republic. Journal of sitetska Rijec. Planning Education and Research 13, p. 27. Sutcliffe A., 1981. Towards the Planned 2. Brkovic-Bajic M. at. all., (eds.), 1996. YU 263-269. City. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, National Report, Yugoslav National 15. Maksimovic B., Urbanism in Serbia 28. Sykora L., 1999. Transition states of East HABITAT II Committee, Belgrade. (Serbian edition). Belgrade: Gradjevinska Central Europe. In P. Balchin, L. Sykora & 3. Cavric B., 2000. Perspectives on Yugoslav Knjiga, 1962. G. Bull Regional Policy and Planning in Europe (pp. 161-192). London: Routledge. Planning Education in the New Century 16. Manda D. at al, 1997. Physical Planning after the Collapse of Former Yugoslavia. handbook of Botswana, DTRP-Swedeplan, 29. Thomas M. J., 1998. Thinking about Paper presented at AESOP Congress, Government of Botswana, Ministry of planning in the transitional countries of Brno, Czech Republic. Local Government, Lands, and Housing, Central and Eastern Europe. International 4. Conyers D. and Hills P., 1990. An Gaborone, Botswana. Planning Studies 3, p. 321-333. Introduction to Development Planning in 17. Marinovic-Uzelac A., 1989. Land Use 30. UNDP., 2001. Human Development Re- the Third World, John Wiley & Sons, New Theory in Urbanism (Croatian edition), port, Oxford University Press, New York. York. Zagreb, Tehnicka Knjiga. 31. Vriser I., 1978. Regional Planning 5. Cvijic J., 1919. La Péninsule Balkanique, 18. Nedovic-Budic Z., and Cavric B., 2001. (Slovenian edition). Ljubljana: Mladinska Geographie Humanie. Rev.Universitarie 6. Evolution of Planning Systems: Review of Knjiga. 6. Deric B., Milic Dj., and Babacic D., 1997. Concepts and Empirical Insights from 32. Watson V., 1998. Planning under political A Twentieth Anniversary of the Depart- Transitional Societies, The First World transition: Leasons from Cape Town’s ment of Physical Planning – A Handbook”, Planning Schools Congress, Shanghai, pp. metropolitan planning forum. International Faculty of Geography, Belgrade. 1-40. Planning Studies 3, p. 335-350. 7. Dobrovic N., 1946. The Contours of 19. Nedovic-Budic Z., 2001. Adjustment of 33. Watson V., 1999. Changing Cape Town, Future Belgrade (Serbian edition). Planning Practice to the New Eastern and Urban Dynamics, Policy and Planning Tehnicke Novine 6. Central European Context. Journal of the During the Political Transition in South American Planning Association 67, 38-52. 8. Eversley D., 1973. The Planner in Society, Africa. International Planning Studies 4, London. Faber 20. Newman P., and Thornley A., 1996. Urban 414-416. planning in Europe, London, Routledge. 9. Healey P. and Williams R., 1993. European 34. Ward S.V., 1999. The international urban planning systems: Diversity and 21. Pallagst K., Local and Regional Planning diffusion of planning: A review and a convergence. Urban Studies 30, p. 701- Instruments in Central and Eastern Europe Canadian case study. International 720. - A Transnational Approach, in Proceedings Planning Studies 4, p. 53-77. of the 1st World Planning Schools 10. Hohn A., 2001. Urban Planning within 35. Ward S. V., 2000. Re-examining the Socialist Centralism: The Legacy of the Congress, Shanghai, July 12-15, 2001. International Diffusion of Planning, in R. German Democratic Republic (GDR), in 22. Perisic D., 1985. About Physical Planning Freestone (ed) Urban Planning in a Proceedings of the 1st World Planning (Serbian edition). Belgrade: Serbian Changing World. London: E&FN Spon, p. Schools Congress, Shanghai, July Institute of Architecture and Town 40-60. Planning. 36. Ward S.V., 2001. The Emergence of the 11. Janic M., 1997. Sustainable Development st of Human Settlements in Transitional 23. Perisic D., and Bojovic B., 1997. Planning, Global Planner, in Proceedings of the 1 Countries (Serbian edition). Belgrade: construction and spatial development, in World Planning Schools Congress, Yugoslav Institute of Town Planning and Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Sym- Shanghai, China. Housing and Agency for Urban Land and posium. Belgrade: Department of Urban Construction of the City of Belgrade. and Regional Planning, Faculty of Geo-

spatium 25

SLOVENIAN SPATIAL PLANNING SYSTEM – KEY CHANGES OF PAST DECADE

Valentina Lavren~i~, Janja Kreitmayer

Spatial planning has a long tradition in Slovenia. It was always a part of the integrated planning process, first institutionalized in 1968. The planning system was quite unique, combining economic, social, and spatial aspects in one, a so called long-term and medium-term social plan. At the national level its spatial part consisted of the national spatial plan, the defining concept for settlement management and growth, public service delivery, use of space and landscape transformation, protection of the environment, and guidelines for conflict management. Today, this form of planning is substituted by the national strategies and programs of each sector.

he new legal system set in Slovenia upon Significant efforts to improve spatial planning Slovenia3. T gaining independence in 1991 also legislation with an emphasis on land policy required a different attitude toward space, as and preparation of the new spatial development The Assessment of Spatial Development in well as the design of a responsible and concept of Slovenia are being made. These Slovenia (Assessment of Spatial Develop- effective spatial planning system. The new efforts are setting up an overall strategy for ment) is a temporary document for the period spatial planning system had to adapt the spatial development and implementing the before the adoption of the new Spatial Planning administrative solutions and approaches to a principles of European guidelines for Act, and will later be substituted by the Report parliamentary democracy, market economy, sustainable spatial development. The Spatial on Spatial Development. It was needed to serve private property, the establishment of the local Planning Act1 has just been drafted and is as a basis for all other spatial development or government, and incorporation in the European currently in process to be adopted by the spatial management documents and the integration process. Reforming the standards parliament. It is determining the responsi- starting point for: and organizational aspects of spatial planning bilities and procedures in spatial planning, and • the formulation of the basic spatial is establishing new rules, especially in relation among others, also defining the types and con- development objectives and guidelines, to the system of spatial planning documents tents of spatial documents. The new act • the enforcement of an effective spatial and their contents, the recognition and introduces novelties with an emphasis on the management system, and, introduction of market instruments in the area flexibility of planning, the strengthening of of spatial planning, new roles in spatial public participation, and simplifying procedu- • the preparation of uniform methodology with planning for local communities, and respecting res. The decisions about spatial development criteria and indicators for the continuous private property as one of the basic constitu- and guidelines for spatial planning, however, monitoring of spatial development, which tional categories. The new normative arrange- will be determined according to the latest will be the basis for preparing periodic ment is set to enable greater flexibility of proposal of the Act2, in three spatial docu- Spatial Development and Management spatial documents and greater public partici- ments: Spatial Management Policy, Spatial Reports. pation in adopting decisions about the use of Development Concept, and the Report on space, establishing the foundations of a spatial Spatial Development. planning information system, and newly regu- lating the activities of spatial planning. In December 2001 the Slovene government adopted two documents: the Assessment of The new spatial planning system in Slovenia is spatial Development in Slovenia and the still in the process of being developed. Spatial Management Policy of the Republic of Slovenia is redesigning the whole system of planning, which includes economic develop- 3 The Government of the Republic of Slovenia adopted ment, budgetary and spatial planning, and 1 Bulletin of the National Assembly of Republic of the Spatial Management Policy of the Republic of adjusting it to the accession procedure to the Slovenia, December 31, 2001, NO. 102. Slovenia at its 55th regular session on December 20TH 2 European Union. Working paper for the second proceeding in the 2001, Bulletin of the National Assembly of Republic of National Assembly – proposal: March 29, 2001 Slovenia, January 2002, no. 8.

26 spatium

National Spatial Planning in Regard to European Spatial Development May 2002

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION: ROLE-DIVISION AND RESPONSIBILITIES

STATE LEVEL LOCAL LEVEL body responsibility body responsibility Y T I

R COMMITTEE FOR COMMISSION FOR ~ local spatial plan O SPACE AND H INFRASTRUCTURE ~ laws and other provisions ~ local spatial development

T LOCAL COMMUNITY COUNCIL AND ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT ~ resolutions, strategies documents (MUNICIPAL COUNCIL) ~ national program ~ building permits - cooperation VE AU I ~ spatial development concept ~ other legal documents from NATIONAL ASSEMBLY NATIONAL COUNCIL ~ protection of areas local juridstiction local SLAT I infrastructure, etc.) LEG AL Y N T O I

I ~ assessment of the R T O C

I SUPREME COURT constitutionality and legality of the H T SD

I spatial planning documents AU R U J

GOVERNMENT OF ~ control of the legality of local THE RS spatial documents MAYOR ~ implementation provisions, ITY

R guidelines

O ~ detail plan for structures of TH national importance MINISTRY OF THE ~ permits for interventions in ADMINISTRATIVE

IVE AU ENVIRONMENT AND NATIONAL OFFICE areas of national importance ~ implementation

T OFICES

U SPATIAL PLANNING FOR SPATIAL ~ supervision of the local spatial PLANNING plans

EXEC ~ dealing with cmplaints regarding structures of national importance and provisions from territorial offices S

TERRITORIAL ~ building permits NCHE OFFICES A LOCAL R B

Source: Ministry for the Environment and Spatial Planning

Scheme of national spatial development documents landscapes when restructuring rural areas, • to promote the economically viable use ASSESMENT OF SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT of space, • to ensure conservation and the active management of the environment, as well as natural and cultural values, and SPATIAL MANAGEMENT POLICY • to improve the institutional system for guidelines for spatial management SPATIAL PLANNING ACT spatial management. guidelines for spatial development An issue of particular emphasis in the Spatial Management Policy is the request for integrated treatment of settlement, infrastructure, and landscape. Emphasis is SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT placed on those guidelines which refer to the polycentric development of cities and other vision ƒ settlements. ƒ priorities and startegic goals The Policy is setting also the system of imple- ƒ strategies and guidelines for implementation mentation measures and policy proposals to be ƒ instruments taken into consideration in further spatial development documents and other policies. These are in the areas of: REPORT ON SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT • Legislative and institutional systems (High-quality legislation and its consistent enforcement) • Financial and economic measures The Assessment of Spatial Development in The Spatial Management Policy is a framework (Providing adequate financial resources and Slovenia highlights the principal characteristics for: other economic measures) of Slovenian space and its most urgent • co-ordination of sectoral spatial development • Development of the profession and problems pertaining to spatial development policies, information system and the current spatial planning system. It • reform of spatial management system, (Education of technical personnel and an briefly presents and deals with all of the main and at the same time it is also the basis for improved information system) activities affecting spatial management. preparing the Spatial Development Concept • Spatial management promotion of Slovenia. (Providing access to information) On the basis of the Assessment of Spatial Development we designed the Spatial Mana- The Policy points out the trends in Slovenian • Public participation gement Policy of the Republic of Slovenia spatial development, which have a fundamental (Public involvement throughout the planning (Policy). The Policy is the first spatial influence on spatial planning and development, process) document that represents the attainment of the and need to be tackled as soon as possible. It long expected consensus on the fundamental further states the basic principles and In order to ensure active controlling and spatial management objectives, as well as, on objectives to be taken into consideration in the targeting of spatial development, it is necessa- the methods and instruments for their achie- management of Slovenian space and draws up ry to develop an effective system of measures, vement at the national, regional, and local guidelines how to attain them. interconnected at inter-ministerial and all other levels. At the same time it also offers a levels to ensure the spatial policy’s adoption framework for a co-ordinated and interconnec- Spatial management objectives, as stated and implementation. Particular attention is ted implementation of all activities and actors in the Policy: therefore devoted to financial and economic in the spatial planning process at all levels of • to enforce our comparative advantages measures aimed at promoting the positive, and decision-making. Together with the Slovenian in European integration processes, and the hindering of negative processes in the Economic Development Strategy and the to protect our national identity, space, education, and information system, the Slovenian Regional Development Strategy, it is • to promote a balanced development of promotion of spatial management activities, as the basic policy document for guiding national all regions, well as the participation of all those that are development. It has been formulated for a • to reintroduce and define polycentric affected by or interested in spatial mana- number of years with the co-operation of many urban network development, and pro- gement. However, a prerequisite for controlling experts in this field and on the basis of mote it by effective transport and other ever new challenges and tasks in spatial professional discussions and inter-ministerial infrastructure, enabling good transport development is the reform of the spatial co-ordination among all the bodies that links and access to knowledge, management system, which will be enabled by influence spatial management. • to promote the modernisation of agricul- new spatial planning legislation. ture and the preservation of cultural

28 spatium

National Spatial Planning in Regard to European Spatial Development May 2002 Spatial documents at the national level with regard to other startegic documents SPATIAL PLANNING ACT - proposal/04.04.2002

spatial management documents

national spatial developement documents

DVELOPMENT STRATEGY FOR SLOVENIA

SPATIAL MANAGEMENT POLICY OF SLOVENIA (guidelines for spatial management)

LEGAL OTH SPATIAL PLANNING ACT (spatial management provisions) REGULATIONS PROVI

Regional Development Economic Development SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT OF SLOVENIA (SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY - other national strategies Strategy Strategy guidelines for spatial development)

Guidelines and recomendations for planning settlement development, national program …. national program …. infrastructure and landscape development

regional spatial regional spatial development development concepts concepts

detail plans of national importance other spatial interventions of national importance

The approach in designing the spatial development concept draft proposal/ 04.04.2002 – work in progress

VISION

POLICENTRIC URBAN NATURAL AND CULTURAL CITIES - FOCUS OF SPATIAL RURAL AREAS - PRIORITIES NETWORK - BALANCED HERITAGE - WEALTH OF DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT SLOVENIA

11. Preservation of the vitality 14. To ensure natural and 1.Well connected network of 6. Spatial integration of urban of rural areas in the context of cutural heritage for future cities and other settlements region new European conditions generations

12. Preservation and 2. Support for compatitive 7. Cities - attractive living and strenghtening of identity of rural 15. Rational use of natural advantages of regions, working environment areas resources integration in European space

13. Tourism as development STRATEGIC GOALS 3. Access - transportation 8. Accelerated development potential of rural areas network, condition for efficiently and alocation of urban services connected Slovenian space

9. Renovation of degradated 4.Partnership between urban areas and preservation of city and rural areas centers ans cultural focal points 5. Strenghtening of economically depressed and 10. Active urban management other problem areas

STRATEGIES

INSTRUMENTS

NEW APPROACH TO SPATIAL PLANNING IN criteria to guide the spatial development, rather − rational use of land, and SLOVENIA than pre-set solutions that might be unable to − preservation of the identity of spatial manage the continuously changing interests. Slovenia is implementing new approaches to structures. spatial planning also at the national level Through the preparation of the spatial develop- The concept is based on long term vision through the preparation of Spatial Develop- ment concept Slovenia has also undertaken the which sets the priorities for spatial 1 ment Concept of Slovenia. Along with the implementation of the recommendations from development. Each priority has strategic goals, National Environmental Protection Program and European spatial development documents,1 strategies, and guidelines how to achieve these the Economic Development Strategy this is one which are enforced in the preparation of all goals and instruments for the implementation. of the main strategic documents oriented laws and national programs in the area of In order to improve the identified conditions in toward sustainable development. The empha- sustainable development. Slovenian spatial development, we find it ses are primarily on subsidiarity, flexibility and Within the context of the spatial development necessary to always ensure interdependent integration in the wider European space as the strategy, we stress the priorities of: achieving a economic, social, and spatial planning, as well general parameters for guiding spatial develop- balanced urban structure and urban network; as provide for effective monitoring, and ensure ment. Planning is seen as a continuous pro- the effective management of urban growth; the the enforcement of legislation. A system of cess where it is crucial to have a good set of balancing of the housing market; and impro- criteria and indicators has to be established to ving the land and real estate policy. enable the implementation of defined objecti- ves to be monitored, supervised and 1 The Spatial Development Concept sets three basic European Spatial Development Perspectives, Guiding controlled, and provide the possibility of Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of the values which are taken in regard through every decision: These are social welfare, social stability, prompt and effective action in the case of European Continent (CEMAT), and others. Slovenia is deviations from the desired directions of implementing the recomendations from those and freedom. It also sets three general goals: documents also through the participation in Interreg III. − quality of living and working environment, development, or enable adaptation to consta- programs and CEMAT activities. ntly changing conditions.

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CITY URBAN DESIGN IN A FREE MARKET ECONOMY - THE CASE OF LJUBLJANA, SLOVENIA

Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews, Ph.D.

A recent rapid political and economic changes in many eastern European countries demand corresponding changes in the town planning system, and especially in the development control and urban management process. For instance, at a present many historic city and town cores still remain relatively intact in their original form, but have become the target for development pressure. How should this pressure be channelled to achieve enhancement of the urban qualities of those areas (especially barracks and old factory sites), without jeopardising their competitiveness for attracting business and employment. This paper discusses the outcomes of research carried out at the Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia from 1995 to 1998, on the development of appropriate methods for the appraisal and promotion of design quality in relation to economic viability in city development projects especially for an urban renewal. The elements for the assessment of urban design quality derive from the basic principles of good urban design such as identity, permeability, legibility, visual appropriateness, robustness, visual and symbolic richness, amongst others. The simplified computerised model for assessing financial viability is based on building costs and market value of the investment, and shows the profitability of the development. It can be a useful tool in both assessing design viability, and for determining extra profit or ‘planning gain’ in the planning process negotiations such ‘surplus’ can be used for satisfying local needs (e.g. additional programmes, design of public spaces). This method for appraisal and promotion of design quality in relation to economic viability has been examined through an assessment of the competition projects for the renewal of the Rog factory area in the city centre of Ljubljana. This case study has revealed the need for a clear strategy for future city development, with marketing guidance and policies for positive planning to achieve better vitality and viability for the city as a whole. Subsequently, the research examined successful initiatives for the promotion of urban design on a national and local level of the planning process, identifying the most important issues affecting city design in the market economy, such as partnership arrangements, joint ventures and city-entrepreneurs. The paper briefly discusses: • salient features of the current planning system in Slovenia and the on-going changes relating to the new approaches to town planning; • the proposed method for appraisal and promotion of design quality and economic viability of urban environment; • the results of the examination of this method applied to a case study - the renewal of an industrial site in the city centre of Ljubljana

BACKGROUND TO THE PLANNING SYSTEM mentation). These plans should be harmonised, determined in advance and pre-planned; with IN SLOVENIA before a planning permission can be obtained. prescribed land uses, design standards and (Table 1) regulations. There is no place for discretion, The current town planning system in Slovenia is but the system is easy to administer, inflexible plan-oriented with an extensive hierarchy of Whilst Long-term and Medium - term spatial but legally safe (if the developer follows the planning documents covering the long-term and plans focus on land use policies and distri- prescribed development layout, he will medium term (Dolgoro~ni prostorski plan in bution of services and activities, local plans automatically gain a planning permission). Srednjero~ni dru`beni plan) spatial plans down translate these policies into prescribed physi- Such plan oriented systems are also time to local, urban design plans (Zazidalni na~rt, cal form typologies. consuming (e.g. the adoption of minor Ureditveni na~rt, Prostorski ureditveni pogoji). The characteristics of the Slovene planning changes to the local plan can take 1-2 years!) Any potential development site must be covered and therefore increasingly unresponsive to by at least 3-4 adopted planning documents, system are therefore similar to those of other plan-oriented systems used in many European development needs related to rapid market such as Long Term Spatial Plan of the Munici- changes. pality, Master Plan for the City, Local Plan for the countries (see Table 2): it is aim oriented, with area and Planning Permission Detailed Docu- ‘like to achieve’ ideal development schemes

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Table 1. – The planning system of Slovenia

OBJECTIVES POLICY GUIDELINES PLANS CONTROL

GUIDELINES FOR LAND SECTORS DEVELOPMENT LONG-TERM PLAN FOR CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT USE, ORGANIZATIONAL PROGRAMMES THE REPUBLIC OF OF COMPULSORY ACTIVITIES AND SLOVENIA PROGRAMMES SUBJECTS PROTECTION OF NATURAL

AL LEVEL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE N

NATIO

SECTOR DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR LAND LONG TERM PLAN FOR CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT PROGRAMMES LOCAL USE, ORGANIZATIONAL THE MUNICIPALITY OF COMPULSORY AUTHORITY ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES AND PROGRAMMES SUBJECTS PROTECTION OF NATURAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

L

TY LEVE 5 YEAR DEVLOPMENT DEVELOPMENT MEDIUM-TERM PLAN AGREEMENT OF KEY ISSUES CIPALI

I AGREEMENT GUIDELINES

MUN

PROGRAMMES FOR THE PREPARATION OF LOCAL PLANS

MASTER PLANS FOR URBAN DESIGN GUIDELINES CITIES / TOWNS

VEL IMPLEMENTA-TION INVESTORS/ DEVELOPERS URBAN DESIGN/ PUBLIC ANNOUNCE-MENT ARCHITECTURAL /LOCAL PLANS WITH SPECIFICATIONS FOR COMPETITIONS AND LAND USE AND BUILDING N/AREA LE WORKSHOPS CONSTRUCTION W - SPECIAL REGULATORY CONDITIONS TY/TO

CI - BUILDING PLAN - CONSERVATION PLANS

INVESTORS/ DEVELOPERS URBAN DESIGN/ PLANNING PERMISSION PLANNING PERMISSION ARCHITECTURAL DOCUMENTA-TION VEL E COMPETITIONS AND

WORKSHOPS AL L C TE/LO I S

32 spatium

Table 2. - Planning Systems 1. Context and general compatibility (site, land-use, setting/urban tissues charac- Plan-oriented system Project-oriented system teristics and scale) Proactive Reactive 2. Arrangement and External Effects aim oriented, like to achieve ideal, in responsive to dynamics of development advance determined development scheme processes (quality of the public realm regarding layout, prescribed land use, design standards and adaptable to market needs, consider plan physical quality impact, landscaping and regulation and other documentation scenic amenity) no/limited discretion, easily to administrate administrative discretion, 3. Architecture and Detailed Design

rigged, legally safe flexible, legally unsafe, demands (the most sensitive area of urban design: previous negotiation building types, style, facade/elevational details and materials).

The method proposes sequential forms of analysis for the determination of these Slovenia, like so many other former Eastern (iii) it is important to involve the public in the elements using qualitative urban design criteria European Countries is inter - linked into the early stages of preparing statutory development such as: identity, permeability, legibility, visual international global markets. In order to both plans through use of ‘community planning’ appropriateness, robustness, visual and control and attract new development different approaches such as ‘Action Planning’, symbolic richness, amongst others. planning mechanisms are needed. ‘Planning for Real’ and ‘Gaming’ techniques. In addition to articulating effectively urban In addition, rapid political and economic A new method for the appraisal and design and architectural matters to different changes also demand corresponding changes promotion of design quality in relation actors concerned it is also important to assess in the town planning system, and especially in to economic viability in developing financial viability of particular development the development control process. Changes in existing urban environments proposals. These financial matters are very the system need to be predominantly geared to critical in newly privatised economies where increasing the flexibility of local plans, and to Given the fact that the Slovene Planning System in very much established and difficult many different stakeholders might be claiming allow more administrative discretion in the the same development rights. development control process and urban design to change radically in the immediate future the at a local level. What is also needed is more biggest scope for intervention lies in the The simplified computerised model for local involvement in the decision making spheres of urban design practice. Such a assessing financial viability was developed processes to facilitate both the civil democratic practice can provide fast and effective (see Table 4). It is based on building costs and right to participate and to enable private response to current development trends. the market value of the investment, and shows stakeholders to make decisions about their own In order to establish an Urban Design the profitability of the development. Such a development rights. This is especially impor- methodology for Slovenia and other countries model can be a useful tool in both assessing tant for development within predominantly built in transition , the research examined planning design viability, and for determining extra profit up areas and brown-field sites in order to and marketing processes in several European or ‘planning gain’ in the planning negotiation support sustainable development (e.g. 60% of cities (e.g. Barcelona, Berlin, Birmingham, process Such ‘surplus’ can be used for future development should be directed to Paris) assessing a critical comparison of their satisfying both individual and other local needs within the existing urbanised areas). development strategies in terms of the quality e.g. additional programmes, design of public spaces and other benefits. In order to develop such a flexible framework of the urban environment. Based upon these urban design and town planning practices from examples, we also carried ont critical analysis Europe and the USA which are more project of successful initiatives for the promotion of oriented, have bean reviewed. The key findings urban design quality in Britain (e.g. Quality in from this review have identified the following: Town and Country, HMSO, 1994; Vital and Viable Town Centres, HMSO, 1994) and town (i) there is a need for additional non-statutory planning practices in the USA (e.g. San planning documentation such as design briefs Francisco, Portland, Seaside and Boston). A and guides to help both architects, developers framework has been proposed which defines and local planning control officers to reach the elements for assessing urban design better design standards in development qualities and suggests a computerised proposals ; assessment model for financial viability. (ii) in negotiations with local planning officers regarding any planning proposal, account The elements for the assessment of urban should be taken of economic viability both of design quality derive from the basic principles the scheme, and in relation to satisfying of good urban design and can be grouped into relevant local needs (‘planning gain’), three main categories (see Table 3):

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Table 3. - Criteria for Assessing Urban Design Qulaities

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Table 4. - Project feasibility

CONSTRUCTION COSTS INCOME Purpose Type Gross Net Constru- Total Prices Rent Rent/annu No. of Total value Area Area ction construction Seling /sq.m /sq.m years cost/sq.m costs Total Total Sale Hotel 10,680 100% 10,680 1,950 20,826,000 3.400 36,312,000 Offices 9,386 100% 9,386 1,950 18,302,700 2,800 26,280,800 Shops/services 3,196 100% 3,196 1,950 6,232,200 2,800 8,948,800 Housing 372 100% 372 1,730 643,560 2,300 855,600 Sport/recreation 3,225 100% 3,225 1,950 6,288,750 2,800 9,030,000 Culture 4,468 100% 4,468 1,950 8,712,600 2,800 12,510,400 Catering 100% 0 1,950 0 2,800 0 Casino 100% 0 1,950 0 2,800 0 Warehousing 100% 0 1,180 0 1,500 0 Parking/garages 9,890 100% 9,890 1,180 11,670,200 1,500 14,835,000 Letting/rent Hotel 0 80% 0 0 0 435,600 15 6,534,000 Offices 0 80% 0 0 0 0 0 0 Retail 0 100% 0 0 0 0 0 0 Parking garages 0 100% 0 0 0 0 0 0 Non Park 1,500 100% 1,500 100 150,000 commercial Market 3,900 100% 3,900 150 585,000 Station 100% 0 0 0 Loggia 100% 0 0 0 Other 100% 0 0 0 Total construction 73,411,010 436,600 115,306,600 Other Land 15,730 600 10,000,000 expenditure/ Other 0 Site costs Professional fees 6,00% 4,404,661

Total 87,815,671

Efficiency of investment

Individual discount rate 8,00% Net current value 8,438,359 Internal rate of return/ profit 12,74%

The case study of Bicycle Factory Rog - the local church of St Peter’s (Šenpeter) which ancillary structures. From the cultural heritage the renewal of an industrial site in the grew into a craftsmen suburb becoming a point of view only two building are worth city centre of Ljubljana major gateway into the city. As a result the area preserving: the factory building and the ‘Vila’ has undergone many transformation processes located in the western part of the site. Due to The new urban design method for appraisal and including the introduction of the first industrial the restitution of property rights there are seve- promotion of design quality in relation to building at the turn of the century (Bicycle Rog ral rightful owners of the buildings and the site. economic viability has been tested through the Factory) and some high-rise buildings erected The application of the new method of analysis application to five competition projects for the in the post-war development period. From has proven very useful in assessing the renewal of the Rog factory area in the city Trubarjeva Street, there is a long view towards aesthetic aspects of any intervention as well as centre of Ljubljana. St Peter’s church (Šempetar) one of the main its financial viability. city landmarks. The Rog factory occupies an attractive site, The analysis of design quality was applied to between the river and the main city axis, that Equally spectacular are the views towards the each of the five proposals on three levels: the links most important public open spaces along old City Castle and the many historic buildings city context, the site context and the the Ljubljanica river. This area has always had of the area. The development site is comprised architecture using the framework developed in great significance as an important spine linking of a number of buildings. In addition to the Table 3. Subsequently, each project was medieval and 19 c morphologies. In medieval Bicycle Factory. there are a number of other assessed for its economic viability, together times it was a little village concentrated around mixed use buildings including also some with the phasing of building processes

spatium 35

(Schemes + Evaluation). The methods and (establishing a methodological framework for Hayward, R. in McGlynn, S. et al.: Making criteria for the assessment of the projects were harmonising the varied interests of the different Better Places, Urban Design Now, Butter- supplemented, by market analysis and a topic actors), in the development control process worth Architcture, Oxford 1993. workshop with the residents of this area. As a (refining the decision-making processes for the HRH The Price of Wales: A Vision of Britain, A result, additional urban design guidelines (set appraisal of planning applications) and in the personal view of architecture, Doubleday, out in a design brief) have now been proposed assessment of competition projects. Such London, 1989. for the redevelopment of the Rog factory area. methods can also assist in the mediation processes where several actors may compete for Jacobs, J: Death and Life of Great American Design guidelines are currently being applied different development rights. Cities, Penguin, 1961. to the protection of two buildings as part of the Joint Centre for Urban Design, Quality in Town cultural heritage. These guidelines also Bibliography: and Country, Analysis of Responses to the regulate layouts for building lines, the building Discussion Document, Oxford Brookes zone, building volumes/heights, pedestrian and Bently, I.: Profit and Place, Research Note 29, University, Department of Environment, car access. Joint Centre for Urban Design, Oxford HSMSO, London 1996 Brookes University, Oxford 1991. Lynch, K: The Image of the City, The MIT CONCLUSIONS Bentley, I. & al: Responsive environments, A Press, 1961. The examination of the proposed method for manual for designers, The Architectural press, London, 1985. Lynch, K.: The Theory of Good City From, The appraisal and promotion of design quality in MIT Press, 1981. relation to economic viability in the case study Collins, G.K.: Camillo Site: The Birth of Modern of Rog, Ljubljana has revealed the need for a City Planning, Rizzoli, New York, 1986. Tibbalds, F. et al.: City of Birmingham, City clear strategy for future city development, with Centre Design Strategy, Tibbalds/Colobur- Dimitrovska, Andrews, K.: Urbanisti~na ne/Karski/Williams, London, 1990. marketing guidance and policies for positive regulativa za potrebe mestnega na~rta, UI planning to achieve better vitality and viability RS, Ljubljana 1994 a. Tibbalds, F.: Making People-Friendly Towns, for the city as a whole. Subsequently, the Improving the Public Environment in Townc research examined successful initiatives for the Dimitrovska Andrews, K.: Urbanisti~no obliko- and Cities, Longman Group UK Ltd, 1992. promotion of urban design at the national and valsko ogrodje v sistemu prostorskega planiranja kot osnova za estetsko kontrolo Quality in Town and Country, Department of local levels of the planning process, identifying Environment, HMSO, London 1994. the most important issues affecting city design razvoja mesta, doktorska disertacija, under the market economy, such as partnership Ljubljana - Oxford, 1994 b. Urbed: Vital and Viable Town Centres: Meeting arrangements, joint ventures and city- Dimitrovska Andrews, K.: Oblikovanje mesta v the Challenge, Department of Environment, entrepreneurs. pogojih tr`ne ekonomije, I. faza, UI RS, HMSO, London 1994. Ljubljana, 1994 c. Youngson, A.J.: Urban Development and the The results of this research are intended to be Duany, A., Plater-Zyberk, E., Towns and Town- Royal Fine Art Commissions, Edinburgh used in the following areas: in marketing the city University Press, Edinburgh, 1990. (identification and promotion of potential making Principles, Rizzoly International development areas), in the planning process publications inc, New York, 1991

36 spatium

URBAN TASK FORCE

Ljiljana Grubovi}, MSc

The Urban Task Force Report has brought to our attention, that English towns and cities today require a new renaissance. The comprehensive planning has retarded urban living (Urban Renaissance, Sharing the Vision 01.99, 1999). Forty percent of inner-urban housing stock is subsidized 'social' housing. A review of the demographic and development trends have lead to the UK Government’s new urban policy that prioritizes the regeneration of towns and cities by building on recycled urban land and protecting the countryside. As result, Urban Task Force (UTF) was founded the with the following aims: To identify causes of urban decline in England; To recommend practical solutions how to bring people back into cities; To establish a new vision for urban regeneration based on the principles of design excellence, social well being and environmental responsibility within a viable economic and legislative framework (Urban Task Force, 1999:1). This paper represents the analysis of the economic and political effects of the program and its viability.

INTRODUCTION residential and cultural activity, which will regeneration based on the principles of dissolve the anti-urban sentiment, which many design excellence, social well being and The Urban Task Force Report has brought to of British residents feel. environmental responsibility within a viable our attention, that English towns and cities economic and legislative framework (Urban today require a new renaissance. Planning in Today 90 percent of population live in the Task Force, 1999:1). the 1950s and 1960s placed too much urban settlements, 91 per cent of economic emphasis on the physical provision of facilities output and 89 per cent of jobs are in the urban PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS: and infrastructure and too little on community areas and the 60 per cent of total UK public Well-designed buildings, streets and growth and reinvigoration. The comprehensive expenditure are spent on cities as well. There neighborhoods are essential for successful planning has retarded urban living (Urban are also projections that between 1996 and social, economic and environmental Renaissance, Sharing the Vision 01.99, 1999). 2021 additional 3.8 million households will be regeneration. New urban development, on Already some parts of even our most needed. Eighty percent of this demand will be brown fields or green field land must be prosperous cities are experiencing serious for single person households, divorced or designed to much higher architectural problems. Derelict areas in the cities are elderly people. Car traffic is predicted to grow standards if they are to attract people back into becoming a sewer on national resources and by a third in the next 20 years. Britain is towns and cities. These new developments places of a hard social division and economic booming and there is a need to act should promote diversity and encourage a mix uneasiness. Forty percent of inner-urban immediately in order to prevent undesirable of activities, services, and tenants with different housing stock is subsidized 'social' housing. effects of the economic and demographic incomes within neighborhood. Land must be Around 1.3 million residential and commercial boom on the cities. used efficiently, local traditions respected and buildings are currently empty (Urban Task Under these circumstances the Department of negative environmental impacts kept to a Force, 1999: 4). People are moving out from Environment, Transport and Regions, headed minimum. the cities in the suburbs and in the rural areas. by Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, asked Progression of this trend is putting an for a program which would help to solve In order to achieve these aims, the UTF unbearable strain on the countryside, forthcoming problems. As result, Urban Task suggests that the government should prepare a environment and on the quality of the life. Force (UTF) was founded the with the following national urban design framework, defining the core principles of urban design and setting out A review of the demographic and development aims: non-perspective guidelines showing how good trends have lead to the UK Government’s new • To identify causes of urban decline in design can support local plans and rege- urban policy that prioritizes the regeneration of England; neration strategies. Additionally, UTF proposes towns and cities by building on recycled urban • To recommend practical solutions how to that regeneration projects should be the land and protecting the countryside. Urban bring people back into cities; subject of design competition. Local Task Force therefore proposes a new vision for • To establish a new vision for urban Architecture Centers need to be created in the the cities based upon a mix of economic,

spatium 37

cities, to encourage stronger public that infringe regulations related to planning for public bodies and utilities with significant involvement in design issues throughout conditions, noise pollution, littering and other urban landholdings to release redundant land sponsoring community projects, exhibitions forms of anti-social behavior (UTF, 1999: 8). and buildings for regeneration. Very important and seminars (UTF, 1999: 6). step in promoting of development on the Since the majority of the brownfield sites are brownfield land is removing the obligation for Since the program is made to promote Urban inner-urban ex-industrial districts with large authorities to prove a specific and sustainability, UTF advises following of the amounts of derelict, vacant and under-used economically viable scheme when making principles of the Compact urban land and buildings and estates they suffer from Compulsory Purchase Orders (UTF, 1999: 13). development 1, where the main accent is on concentrated social deprivation. There is a improving of public transport and reducing car need for the creation of designated Urban In order to achieve all proposed goals it is very traffic. The increasing environmental and health Priority Areas that will enable local authorities important to define the ways of financing the damage, as well as the increasing congestion and their partners in regeneration, including renaissance. UTF believes that public money in caused by growth in car traffic have to be local people, to apply for special packages of urban regeneration should be used to attract stopped. This can only take place by adopting powers and incentives to assist neighborhood money from the private sector. The policies that discriminate in favor of walking, renewal. UTF recommends the strengthening of establishment of national public-private cycling and public transport. Thus the UTF the New Commitment to Regeneration between investment funds can do this. Introduction of a proposes introduction of Home Zones where central and local government and finally the package of tax measures is also necessary for pedestrians have priority over cars which will enabling of Urban regeneration companies to providing incentives for developers, investors, move at the speed limited at 20 mph. This can co-ordinate or deliver area regeneration small landlords, owner-occupiers and tenants be achieved by using tested street design and projects (UTF, 1999: 9). For the implementa- to contribute to the regeneration of urban sites traffic-calming measures. tion of the suggested measures, there is a need and building that would not otherwise be for participation of skilled people. There is an developed (UTF, 1999: 17). Furthermore, they suggest the placement of urgent need for expertise in urban design, Local Transport Plans on a statutory footing, planning and property development. HOW APPLICABLE IS THE UTF? with targets for reducing car journeys, and increasing year on year the proportion of trips According to the UTF, planning system should First of all, it needs to be mentioned that this made on foot, bicycle and public transport. The be also modified and the land use planning program does not identify the reasons and Government should commit a minimum of 65 system should be introduced. Local causes of the decline in the urban areas. Poor percent of transport public expenditure to development plans should be simplified with quality environments, bad schools, low-grade walking, cycling and public transport over the an emphasis on strategy to create a more housing, job losses are accounted as the push next ten years. Moreover, they suggest exten- flexible basis for planning. Planning policies factors from the cities, but actually they are the sion of a well-regulated franchise system for for neighborhood regeneration need to be more consequence. From the other side, rural areas bus services to all English towns and cities if flexible and to accelerate the release of land, have strong pull factors, such as cheap services have not improved substantially within which is no longer needed for employment housing, better environment and better five years. A final suggestion is to set a purposes, for housing development. schools. It is very difficult to solve the problem maximum standard of one car parking space Development plans must become less detailed if the cause is not precisely defined. Since it per dwelling for all new urban residential and more strategic in their outlook. They has been proven that people follow the jobs, development (UTF, 1999: 7). should be integrated with local transport, and that the process of city decline has started housing and economic strategies. Those when decentralization of the employment The poor environmental management and simpler plans, supported with master plans and started in the 1970s, UTF failed to connect the insecurity are the key reasons why so many design guidance will enable faster decision process of the urban regeneration with the people moved away from cities. In order to making. Replacement of the negotiation of indispensable creation of the new jobs. reverse this trend there should be assignment 'planning gain' for smaller urban development Creation of the new jobs has to be in same of a strategic role to local authorities in schemes with a standardized system of impact time with provision of schools for example, if ensuring management of the whole urban fees is also recommended (UTF, 1999: 12). the mistakes made in Docklands want to be environment. Stronger legislation would give overcome. them powers to ensure that, irrespective of Another recommendation of the UTF is ownership, land, buildings and public space concerned with managing of the land supply. Another issue, which is not tackled by UTF, is were properly maintained. Another measure New development should be based on the social segregation. Actually, according to the should be the placement of Town Improvement recycled, previously developed land since this UTF, social segregation will be solved with the Zones where the cost of extra management and represents the most sustainable option. This mixed use of land. That is the only solution maintenance is shared between public and might be achieved if local authorities start proposed by the UTF. Programs concerned private sector. Another measure should by the working together across borough boundaries in with social exclusion have not been reconciled strengthening of the local powers to support producing urban capacity studies to with urban task program, and this program their local authorities in the managing of the determinate how much additional development might even make the process of gentrification urban environment, combined with the each area can absorb. easier. Mismatch between young and old sanctions against individuals or organizations people has also been made because it is too Local authorities can remove allocations of expensive for older to live in such new greenfield land for housing from development redeveloped areas. The Church of England plans and they can introduce a statutory duty 1 See Haughton, G. and Hunter, C. (1994) criticized UTF from this point of view.

38 spatium

“Upgrading an area has social consequences in these new BS? as established residents find themselves squeezed out with property prices accelerating, Another, very sensitive question is concerned and local amenities and services adapt with development in greenbelt, since John themselves to higher income groups, as the Prescott allowed an extension of new towns in current home price boom in London is proving. protected areas. Prescott said that the key to Those responsible for taking its recommen- preventing excessive building on greenfield dations further, and for conceiving the Urban sites is the development of a new ‘linear city’ White Paper must look beyond the well along the Thames from Greenwich east to designed facades of the riverside to the people. Dunford and the Medway. He is also keen to They make up the diverse communities in their expand Ashford, in Kent, into a big new town to shadow and the marginalized estates beyond serve the Channel tunnel alongside the further them, if they are to develop a vision for an expansion of Milton Keynes. In the longer urban renaissance that offers the possibility of term, building might be allowed along the M11 inclusion, participation, identity and soul in our corridor, around Stansted in Essex. In spite of source: www.miileniumdome.com towns and cities” concluded the bishops the fact that the majority of the new (Abrams, 2000). development is promised to be on greenfield There is also the debate about the percentage sites, there are already signs of dissatisfaction Urban regeneration requires continuous public green to brownfield land needed. The capacity of the local residents, especially in Ashford, consultation and review. They should result in of urban areas to accommodate more who believe that their countryside will be a local agenda, which is special to the residential units depends upon the densities to ruined forever (Black and Ungoed-Thomas, particulars of each place. Each town and city build and what types of housing will be 2000). How sustainable is really the Urban will have different characteristics and particular produced. As it was mentioned earlier, Renaissance? challenges. Anyway, local agendas should projections for new development are based 60 have an aspiration to create inclusive per cent on brownfield sites. According to Another problem is concerned with the power communities with included the young, the Peter Hall it is not possible, because statistics relations between authorities. Local councils single, the elderly and all ethnic groups in shows that only 47 percent of brownfield and within their existing powers have the authority process of plan creation. Local architectural 11 percent of greenfield land is available for and capacity to deliver urban renaissance. centers do not seem as the solution to this development in south east England, which is However, some serious obstacles exist. First problem. obstacle can be seen in balance of power between central and local authorities. UTF UTF promotes sustainable urban development, argues that existing local plans make but the question is what is the most sustainable development too slow. Though they want to way? Is it the Compact City approach or encourage longer-term strategic plan making, development on the brownfield sites? local frameworks must be regularly reviewed. Development on the brownfield land raises So often there is a lot of activity in the planning many questions and not only about sustainable department, and a short-term political strategy nature. Are the brownfield sites in the council to produce a five or ten year ‘local plan’. Then areas, what amount of brownfield sites is it is all frozen until the next one. By the time available and what is the cost? UTF prioritizes development programs have reached statutory the regeneration of towns and cities by building ratification, they are often out of date. on recycled urban land and protecting of the According to the UTF creators, this infers a new source: www.nerv.org.uk/photos countryside. But much of this brownfield land plan making system. These design guidelines is owned by the recently privatized utilities. In would offer consistent urban policies and London alone Railtrack, British Gas and equal to 58 but not 60 percent. “Prescott will provide the framework into which each authority Deutsche Bank are huge landowners and they be lucky if he gets 50 per cent on brownfield can place their own long-term plan. However at own the land that is at the moment classified in sites”(Hall, 2000). If one of the creators of the the moment the relationship between an up to their books as derelict and because of that it is UTF is skeptical about its implementation and date PPG and out of date Local Plans is not often undervalued. If it were to be re-valued as success, how should public feel? clear. Therefore, PPG's must be given priority development land it would increase the book over local plans and there should be change of Additional fact which is contradictory to value of the companies and thus the profits of emphasis from land use to spatial masterplan. ‘successful return to the cities’ is that 73 per these companies. It will also increase the costs The question is does this change lead to top- cent of people in rural areas are satisfied with of redevelopment of such areas to local autho- down system of planning? rities. The government should ensure that these their life there (Breheny, 2000). How they re-defined brownfield sites are correctly valued could be attracted to move to the cities? Would Next problem might appear between local and taxed. In this way there would be more people come to live in the city centers if they authorities and local people. What will happen incentive for the landholders to bring them into know that they can not have garage or parking if they (local people) wish urban renaissance productive use. space on the streets and they want to keep the but not in their backyards, or famous NIMBY car they own? Who would actually want to live syndrome? Problem between planners and

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Planners have to accept that they are responsible for the creation of new visions and goals, but goals that will be fulfilled instead of remaining ‘dead letter’ like for example Serbia’s 1995 Spatial Plan. Planning should stop being a device for central alocation of economic resources in the hands of the ruling regime as it has been for decades, and new theories, approaches and methodologies should be introduced.

With the new development framework, Belgrade does have a chance to become the source: http://www.fosterandpartners.com most competitive city in the region. This chance is especially enhanced by the fact that Belgrade will be the host city for the European architects also could emerge, since the role of to live in run-down areas unless there is good Championship in basketball in 2004. Besides planners is not precisely defined, but very education, access to a range of cultural and the sport games, many other games, ranging confusing. Architects have the leading role in leisure facilities, shopping, good transport links, from the attraction of FDI, to city the urban regeneration. Does this program and economic development. However, physical advertisement, and the attraction of global represent a return to physical planning? regeneration, which is offered by UTF is not tourism, will have to be played by local enough. It must be supported by social and The next question is about costs and financing authorities and planners. economic regeneration. Beside of the good of the program. It is not defined how are those solutions, like mixed land use and creation of programs going to be financed. Public money Bibliography the pedestrian zones, UTF might create more has to be put in some brownfield sites in order problems, if it does not include social and 1. Abrams, F., ‘New urban regeneration to attract private investments. But according to economic dimension - like social exclusion and could repeat mistakes of the 1960s’, The Wendy Shillam, public funds are hindered by gentrification in British cities. Independent, 22/2/2000 restrictive attitudes. Both the Housing 2. Black, E. and Ungoed-Thomas, J. Corporation and regeneration funders in Parallel with Urban Renaissance, Rural ‘Prescott opens the way to 900,000 regional government offices put too much Renaissance should also be stimulated homes’, The Sunday Times, 5/3/2000 attention on simple numerical achievement, Improvements in public transport and improved 3. Burdett, R: Urban Task Force, Planning while paying only little attention on quality, access to the towns will be as useful for rural Seminar Lecture, LSE flexibility or sustainability. ‘Innovation is not dwellers, as it will be for their urban dwellers. encouraged in fact it is discouraged’ (Shillam, By tackling the urban issues the Government 4. Hall, P : Urban Renaissance, Public 1999). can also strengthen rural areas. Lecture, 1/3/2000., London, LSE 5. Haughton, G. and Hunter, C.(1994) Thus that is a situation where neither private, The question is what could be applicable from “Sustainable Cities”, London, Athenaeum nor social innovators can borrow development this concept of renaissance to Serbia, since Press, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear finance and the market moves very slowly. This Serbia is far away from the UK’s level of 6. Shillam, W., (1999) www.urbaneye.com is the major obstacle to either private or public economic development and from buil ding 7. Urban Task Force, Urban Renaissance- sector to respond adequately to opportunities. projects of the Millennium Dome scale. Since funding for different schemes is difficult Sharing the Vision, Summary of to get, the government must provide incentives However, due to the lack of an urban Responses to and support to broaden development finance development strategy in Serbia, some of the 8. The Urban Task Force Prospectus, 1999. opportunities. The lack of easy finance stifles concepts from UTF can and should be used in 9. Urban Task Force, Towards an Urban innovative development as much as it can stifle further developing a national urban strategy Renaissance, Executive Summary, 1999. any new business (Shillam, 1999). framework. It is very important that instead of the top down approach, which has underlied CONCLUSION Yugoslav planning over the last fifty years, a new bottom up approach , base on real New urban frameworks are the necessity. Cities economic and social situation, is adopted. are declining and people will not invest or return

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INFORMATION

II THEMES, ISSUES AND TOPICS OF THE • Implementation of the SPRS at regional and CONFERENCE local levels via spatial, urban and other CONFERENCE development plans, programmes and General Issues of Planning and projects. Implementation • Research support to the implementation of ”PLANNING AND • Impact of the key political and the SPRS. IMPLEMENTATION” socioeconomic factors of the transition period • Information support to the implementation of on the changes in the system and practice of the SPRS: spatio-environmental information planning (political pluralisa- systems, data bases and systems of indicators. tion/democratisation, deregulation, privati- • Implementation of the SPRS and a search sation, development of market institutions and for foreign strategic partners. mechanisms, etc.). • To rework/modify the existing SPRS - or to • New legitimacy of planing, its renewal and work out a new spatial development planning implications for the implementation of document? development planning decisions. I GENERAL • Programmes and projects of transitional • Relation between spatial/urban planning, Organisation, Support and Sponsorship reforms and the implementation of the SPRS - socioeconomic planning and environmental European institutional dimension. The Conference is organised by the Institute of policy: harmonisation of different approaches Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of and the problem of integration and synthesis. Implementation of Planning Decisions Serbia, Belgrade, Yugoslavia. It will take form of • Recent European trends in sustainable of Specific Sector/Area Development a round table, paralleled by plenary and sessions development planning, spatial planning and Strategies, Programmes and Projects on specific issues. environmental policy. • The issues of harmonisation and The Conference will take place within national • Adjustments in the development planning coordination in the preparation of programmes of members of the International and environmental policy legislation in accord development planning, programming and Society of City and Regional Planners with the European standards and practices. investment decisions. (ISoCaRP). • The impact of institutional adjustments on • Specific aspects of the propositions on the It is sponsored by the Ministry of Science, the theory and practice in spatial planning and utilisation of natural resources in the planning Technology and Development and the Ministry utilisation of natural resources. documents (viz., agricultural and forest land, of Urban Planning and Building (Serbia), as well • Legal and other aspects of concessions on water resources, mineral resources, etc.). as by a number of republican public organi- the exploitation of natural resources. • The role of large investment projects in sations and other agencies. planning and implementation. Implementation of the Spatial Plan of • Sustainable development planning and The Conference will be held in Serbian. Simulta- the Republic of Serbia (SPRS) environmental policy and control. neous translation in English will also be • Spatial planning aspects of the rational use provided for the interested participants. • Evaluation of the past implementation of the of energy. SPRS: analysis of the past development, Participants Annex: More Recent Approaches and diagnosis of the present situation and asse- Practices in Development Planning Experts and other professionals from research ssment of future development options. institutes, university faculties, urban planning • Key existing problems versus long term • Pan-European and European-regional agencies/bureaus and public authorities, from propositions of the SPRS: relation between projects in the field of sustainable spatial Yugoslavia and other countries, are expected to long term strategies and mid and short terms development planning and policy (ESDP, take part at the Conference. policies. CADSES, ESTIA/OSPE, etc.). • Spatial planning for specific regional areas Place and Time • Legal, institutional and organisational in Serbia (Kolubara District, Metropolitan area aspects of the implementation of the SPRS. The Conference will be held in Belgrade on of Belgrade, Danube-Sava belt, etc.). • The SPRS vis-a-vis other development 20/21 June 2002. • Spatial planning for spatial sectoral areas documents at the federal (Yugoslavia) and (mining, tourism, water supply and manage- Publications of the Conference republican (Serbia) level. ment, natural and cultural heritage parks, • A mid term programme for the implementa- etc.). The keynote speeches and a systematic tion of the SPRS: approach, evaluation • Spatial planning in the corridors of tech- monograph on the main theme will be published nical infrastructure (Corridor X, high-speed and distributed in advance. criteria, goals/objectives, implementation policy and implementation support. rail routes, energy infrastructure, telecommu- nications links and networks, etc.).

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