THE MAGAZINE FOR STUDENTS OF FILM AND MEDIA STUDIES

APRIL 2018 ISSUE 64

GLOW PAN’S LABYRINTH SUNRISE CONTINUITY EDITING THE LAST JEDI DO THE RIGHT THING I, DANIEL BLAKE JUDITH BUTLER SIXTEEN YEARS OF MEDIAMAG: A REFLECTION

MM64 artwork cover.indd 1 23/03/2018 16:41 Contents

04 Making the Most of 26 Critical Hit! MediaMag Caroline Bayley explains how a perfect MediaMagazine is published storm of technological developments by the English and Media 06 Sixteen years of led to the enormous success of online Centre, a non-profit making MediaMagazine: a history role-playing game, Critical Role. organisation. The Centre of the media in 64 issues publishes a wide range of Jenny Grahame looks 30 It’s personal: the presentation classroom materials and back over her 16 years as of masculinity in John Wick runs courses for teachers. Editor of MediaMagazine. Fay Jessop considers an emerging If you’re studying English franchise featuring a stereotypical at A Level, look out for 10 Doing the Right Thing hard-man tempered by grief in a emagazine, also published Nick Lacey looks at the more complex representation of by the Centre. enduring success of Lee’s masculinity than you might expect. indie movie focusing on the lives African Americans 34 G.L.O.W in 80s Brooklyn. Is GLOW the ultimate feminist text, or just another male gaze media 14 Studying Sunrise product designed to objectify women? Caroline Birks introduces Claire Kennedy investigates. this new Eduqas set text, a lesser-known masterpiece from F. W. Murnau.

18 I, Daniel Blake: A Case Study in Disruptive Marketing Michelle Thomason explains how the politically proactive marketing of this powerful The English and Media Centre film has amplified its activist 18 Compton Terrace message for audiences. London N1 2UN Telephone: 020 7359 8080 22 Pan’s Labyrinth 26 Fax: 020 7354 0133 Elaine Scarratt discusses the Email for subscription enquiries: historical, social and political [email protected] context of Guillermo del Toro’s 2006 masterpiece in the light of Eduqas’s Editor: Global Film component. Jenny Grahame and Claire Pollard Copy-editing: Andrew McCallum 22 Design: Sam Sullivan Newington Design This magazine is not photocopiable. Why not subscribe to our web package Print: which includes a downloadable and printable PDF of the current issue and S&G Group access to all past issues of the magazine? Cover: Alison Brie in GLOW © Netflix Tel 020 7359 8080 for details.

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40 Cartoon by Goom: 54 #OscarsSoStraight? 62 Making the Strange Judith Butler In reaction to the ongoing Familiar: How homage controversies surrounding and intertextuality are 42 Making the Gender #OscarsSoWhite and used in Stranger Things to Jump to Hyperspace: #MeToo, it’s clear the appeal to a mass audience Millennial Gender Roles Academy needs to focus on Undergraduate Erin Charnley in The Last Jedi diversity. Moonlight’s victory explores a brilliant OCR Fay Jessop explores the over La La Land last year set text and suggests that subversive representations suggests that controversy nostalgia and popular 54 of gender in the latest seems to work, and ethnic cultural references lie at Star Wars adventure. minorities are now achieving the heart of its success. wider recognition for their 46 Star Wars and contributions to film. But 66 MEST3 Section A advice the 180° rule can the same be said for Section A of the legacy AQA How does the ‘grammar’ of the LGBT community? MEST3 features an unseen a film determine the way its Amy Pollard investigates. text and often fills students story is told? Giles Gough with dread. Put your mind takes the familiar convention 58 Continuity: The Hidden at ease, and let Gary Rose of the 180° rule, and explains Art of Invisible Editing help you cope with the how it can be used to Cinematography, narrative fear of the unknown. 62 create new meanings. and performance are meaningless without the 50 Beasts of the Southern often ‘invisible’ process of Wild and Magic Realism editing, argues Jonathan Niki Smith demonstrates Nunns. To see what he how Hurricane Katrina, a means, try applying his marginalised community, analysis to the opening mythical beasts and the sequence of any Hollywood perspective of a six-year-old classic – in this case, are woven together through The Maltese Falcon. techniques of magic realism in this poignant set text.

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I, Daniel 40 Blake 1. Analysis: Judith Butler Find a selection of the different film posters used and gender in both the UK and international marketing of Judith Butler suggests that gender is fluid and I, Daniel Blake. What techniques are used in the a continuum between the opposite poles of posters to appeal to the different audiences? the masculine and the feminine. But how far Share the posters out around the class, and do the set texts that you are studying offer in pairs, create a 60-second presentation of a us the full range of gender representation? single poster identifying its niche audience, and Try a continuum line analysis. Draw a the ways visual codes, venue information and horizontal line with masculinity at one end and copy details have been used to draw attention femininity at the other. Then pick one example to both the film and the issues behind it. from each of the following groups of texts, 2. Applying some theory. and for each chosen example, map the central Have another read of this case study, and then characters/representations along this line. in pairs or groups, take on one of the following • GLOW, The Last Jedi, John Wick – all research tasks to present back to the class: featured in this issue of MediaMag a) How can David Hesmondhalgh’s theory • A music video you have studied – e.g. of ‘Cultural Industries’ be applied to this Million Reasons, Formation, Billie Jean case study? Hint: You could look at how • Any newspaper or magazine text you have film companies aim to cater for different studied – what range of representations are audiences and to minimise risk in the ways offered in the contents of the articles? they market and distribute their films, In an ideal world, where we have plural as well as how the films are funded. representations of gender, there should be b) How can Clay Shirky’s ‘End of Audience’ theory characters at various stages along the line. How be applied to this case study? Hint: You could far is this true of your three chosen texts? For look at the role of social media by audiences. each one, write around 150 words about your c) How can Henry Jenkin’s ‘Fandom’ theory be findings to answer the following question: applied to this case study? Hint: You could Are the producers of the text creating diverse look at how audiences became ‘produsers’ in representation, or are they simply presenting both marketing content and social media. masculinity and femininity as binary opposites?

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Beasts of the Southern Wild: Magic Realism Magic realism is a genre of storytelling that crosses many media forms, from literature to art, and allows us to explore the real world in non- realistic or fantastic ways. For homework, do some 46 research into different definitions of magic realism. What are the conventions or trademarks of this Continuity: Making and genre? Do they differ in different media forms? Do they share common themes or representations? Breaking the 180-degree rule Can the genre really be defined in this way? We’re so used to the conventions of continuity Brainstorm a list of the magic realist texts editing that we only notice their impact you have come across in your own reading when they are broken. So see what happens or viewing, and share them with the class. when you break the rules deliberately. The link below will give you some ideas. Here’s a familiar scenario which you can Using Pan’s Labyrinth, Beasts of the experiment with using storyboards, a stills Southern Wild, and examples from any camera, or video, depending on what’s available. other films you have seen, write a response to one of the three questions below. Character A opens a door, crosses a room and sits down in a chair opposite • Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the Colombian character B. They have a brief argument. novelist often hailed as the father of magic Character B flounces out of the room. realism, has said: ‘A novelist can do anything he wants so long as he makes people In your group, in no longer than 15 believe in it.’ Is this true of film too? minutes, create a storyboard, still or moving • It has been argued that the magical elements in image sequence for this scenario which magic realist texts ‘reflect the human experience demonstrates match on action, shot/ by illustrating emotions that can be hard to reverse shot and the 180-degree rule. describe with words.’ How far do you agree? Now recreate your sequence consciously • Could it be argued that Stranger Things and disrupting the conventions by crossing the The Last of the Jedi have elements of magical 180-degree line, framing your shots differently, realism? Give reasons for your answer. or changing the camera’s point of view. Compare your two sequences. What impact is www.tasteofcinema.com/2015/20- created by the rule-breaking? What does it add great-magical-realism-movies-that-are- to the meaning, genre or mood of the sequence? worth-your-time/#ixzz59jQILyF3

5 6 o farewell then MediaMag. It’s been a long journey – 16 years and 64 issues to be precise – and it’s been a real Sprivilege to be able to edit you. OK, enough of my sentimental personification of the mag I’ve enjoyed every minute of working on, from the funky low-key first issue we piloted back in 2002 to the professional focused A history of Jenny Grahame journal you’re now reading. Looking back over the past 16 years, it feels as if the looks back over her the media in world has changed beyond recognition; 16 years as Editor and a click through the contents 64 issues of MediaMagazine pages of back issues – a breeze if you subscribe to the MM website – reads

7 like a potted history of the evolution of Winterbottom’s 24 Hour Party People, consumer to prosumer, changing ideas the media since the Millennium. Here and followed it up with a montage about the role of the internet, and more. are a few retrospective observations of shots from A Level Media students’ Changing media have also impacted on some of the changes we’ve seen. coursework music videos and short films. on the content of popular media Subsequent issues featured stills from formats in our pages. Technological The Changing Look Ken Loach’s Sweet 16, Buffy the Vampire and ideological themes recur through Slayer, Far From Heaven (a movie revisited the focuses of our (frequent) coverage Over the years the ‘look’ of the in MM63), Bob Dylan in Pennebakers’ of Bond movies, new waves of cinema, magazine has changed many times, Don’t Look Back and Gwyneth Paltrow superhero franchises, long form TV thanks to the fabulous visual skills of as Sylvia Plath – and that’s only the drama, music video styles and next- our talented designer Sam Sullivan. We first two years’-worth! Since then, generation games. But MediaMag has began with a stylish two-tone format, and we’ve featured the best of 16 years of also always encouraged wider reading then discovered our readers expected television drama – from Shameless and and thinking about ‘everyday’ media, full-colour illustrations, and plenty of Skins to Scandi noir and Skam – and rather than just either ‘quality texts’ or them. Back in the days before copyright contemporary cinema: City of God, This blockbusters. The rapid rise of online, was as fiercely protected as it is now, we is England, Cloverfield, Let the Right One YouTube and social media has made played with photo-shopped montages, In, District 9, and many more. We’ve accessible previously privileged inside image manipulation, shot-by-shot investigated post-modernism, French data on the economics and industries sequences and graphic motifs behind new wave, Russian constructivist cinema, behind reality TV, celebrity culture, new the text; over time we’ve learned to pare Gothic horror, global cinema, virtual documentary formats, CGI, MMORPG, back our visual references selectively to reality, short film, and advertising; and VR and the rise of YouTube. And it’s focus on the most important images. In we’ve represented some of the ongoing made it fun – where else, other than the early years we used highlighting and critical debates around representation MediaMag, would you be able research contrasting coloured fonts to emphasise – of the 2011 London riots, of Obama’s for homework the thinking behind Come key words and important concepts – until US election victory, of music culture, of Dine with Me, heavy metal, Borat, Barbie we realised our ‘helpful’ annotations politics and protest, and the changing or Beyoncé, not to mention Pokémon Go? actually distracted from the meanings focuses of these issues for Media Studies. of the articles. Our original five-column format has gradually reduced to two or Changing Specs three columns with more white space, The Changing Media An ongoing challenge for MediaMag pull quotes and room to breathe. For Landscape has been the seismic changes in the twelve issues, we covered particular Front covers are the windows to a A Level Film and Media specifications, themes – a great idea in principle, but magazine’s identity, and for MediaMag particularly over the last year. Across more meaningful to the contributors that too has been hugely shaped by all the exam boards, you’re studying than the readers. All these developments changing technologies. Back in 2002 set texts for the first time, across nine reflect changes both in the increasingly we were still at the start of a digital separate media forms – who even knew competitive media industries and in journey. Early issues introduced readers there were so many? You’re facing a major contemporary taste and design. to then-new concepts like convergence, reduction in coursework (i.e. practical platforms, online gaming and synergy, work – the reason so many of you are Changing Content with debates about Media 2.0, the so passionate about your subject); and you’re now required to apply and Our front covers tell the story of our ‘personalisation’ of media, blogging, evaluate the contributions of named changing content. We started with a MySpace and the curious phenomenon thinkers or theorists to your set texts, euphorically grainy still from Michael of Twitter – would this ever take off? Our early coverage of newspapers shifted which means thinking about your subject over time to reflect their economic ever more rigorously and critically. So decline; forensic deconstructions of how can MediaMagazine help you? coverage of major news events such The new specs will help MediaMag to as 9/11 or Madeleine McCann, and support you through your exams more interviews with editors and journalists easily with targeted articles focused about political influence and ideology specifically on your set texts, rather than gave way to the struggles of the press trying to second-guess what you’re to survive hacking, the Leveson Enquiry, studying or favouring. They’ll encourage the migration of news online, and failures us to think about our ‘wider reading’ in press regulation. Our contents pages off-spec articles more carefully, and to alone track the emergence of many of reframe some of our more practical the critical debates and issues which pieces to help you get the most out occupy us in 2018 – fake news, questions of your sadly reduced coursework of gender identity, the pitfalls of online in both Film and Media Studies. comment, the move from viewer to The new specs will also stretch your

8 please stand up). It’s always fantastic to receive articles from teachers – they usually write well, are in touch with the zeitgeist, and know the texts that are relevant to students. And when my inbox pings unexpectedly with news of a new Netflix box set or a genre-busting game or short, it’s the best feeling ever. But, as a former teacher, the writers I’m proudest of are you students. MediaMag has always tried to provide a platform for young people’s work and voices, whether critical reviews or analytic articles, artwork or video, and my favourite issues are always those which include them. understanding of the thinkers and Level projects to individual students’ It may sound clichéd, but there’s no theorists who underpin your courses. experiences of production processes, greater thrill than hearing from readers MediaMag has covered theory from our internships, placements, and first jobs who’ve found new passions, or want to very first issue, in which Julian McDougall across a range of media industries. share experiences of texts they’ve loved, wrote about ‘10 Good Reasons to Study And while academic Film and Media productions they’re proud of, or directors Media Theory’. Over time we’ve featured A Levels may be shifting towards who’ve inspired them. Over the years, pieces on Barthes, Baudrillard, Stuart Hall, theory and analysis, a whole new crop many of our student writers have gone Adorno, Curran and Seaton, surrealism, of more hands-on, practically-focused on from A Level or Diplomas to study auteurism, realism, globalisation, courses are coming through – modular media at uni, work in film, become games Marxism, hegemony, post-modernism diploma-type courses, like BTEC and producers, journalists, or animators. I and more; and our wonderful cartoonist the Cambridge Technicals which like to think (though I may be kidding Goom has illustrated the ideas of David integrate analysis with creative practice myself) that their portfolios looked a Gauntlett, Henry Jenkins, bel hooks to prepare you for real jobs in the real little more impressive for including their and David Hesmondhalgh, to name media industries. MediaMagazine will MediaMag articles. I hope so anyway. but a few. It’s quite challenging to find – I hope – continue to raise the profile ways of condensing whole lifetimes of these possibilities in the future. So What’s Next For of (often) very difficult academic MediaMagazine? ideas into accessible language, and What Am I Proud Of? I am delighted to hand over to your we haven’t always got it right, but I’m I have been particularly proud wonderful new editor Claire Pollard, who very proud of how hard we’ve tried! of several aspects of this job. One will take the next 64 issues into the future Changing Creative is the MediaMagazine Production and beyond. Meanwhile, I’d just like to Competition, which has generated say final thankyous to the people without Opportunities amazing progression in technical skills, whom we’d never have made it this far: to Media and Film Studies should of professionalism and sheer creativity. Lucy Webster, for her tireless behind-the- course be as much about making and Sharing your achievements more widely scenes research, copyright clearances and creating as analysis and understanding, at BFI Southbank has been one of the editing; to Sam Sullivan for his ingenuity and from the start MediaMag has greatest rewards of editing MediaMag. and graphic brilliance; to our writers and explored the changing opportunities Another is the MediaMagazine Student readers, who are the heart and soul of the for young people in the media Conference, which, like the mag itself, magazine; and finally to Michael Simons, industries with regular practical guides has reflected current media debates who made it all happen in the first place. to production, initially for successful A and perspectives, and featured a So, MediaMagazine: hasta la Level coursework, but increasingly with timely and inspiring range of speakers, vista baby. I’ll be back... a vocational focus. In 2002 we were wary from journalists Paul Lewis and Jon of encouraging readers even to dream Snow, to Owen Jones, Tony Garnett, of employment in film or television. Samira Ahmed and Adam Buxton. Sixteen years on, with the availability For any editor, nothing matters more and affordability of new software, than good writing, and I’m hugely proud social media and developing skills, of the many wonderful writers we’ve opportunities for students to actually published over my years at MediaMag, work in the creative industries have especially those who have been there exploded. We’ve been able to move on from the start. (Roy Stafford, Nick from ‘tasters’ of university media courses Lacey, Steph Hendry, Symon Quy, Mark and ‘How To’ tips for manageable A Ramey, Jonathan Nunns, Neil Paddison,

9 Nick Lacey looks at the enduring success of Lee’s indie movie focusing on the lives of African Americans, and why its messages are still relevant today.

pike Lee occupies two positions in clear that there was a market for genuinely Hollywood: an African American auteur independent, thought-provoking films. This was and an independent filmmaker who emphasised when Steven Soderbergh’s Sex, works for the major studios. Hollywood’s Lies and Videotape won the Palm d’Or at the Sobjective is to make money, not art, and so Cannes Film Festival in 1989, incidentally beating auteurs – directors who make personal films – Do the Right Thing, the focus of this article. often find it hard to work in an industry where She’s Gotta Have It was produced by Lee himself the producer is king (they are usually male). through his company, 40 Acres and a Mule and Making films is doubly hard for Lee because of his released by independent distributor, Island ethnicity, but despite institutional racism he has Pictures. Lee was (and still is) keen to work with managed to sustain a career for over 30 years. the major studios because they have the money Lee’s debut feature She’s Gotta Have It (1986), to be able to market films aggressively; however which he has recently remade as a Netflix series, he resists the compromises he is sometimes cost only $100,000 to make and was shot in asked to make. Columbia Pictures, who produced 12 days. It took over $6m at the box office and the highly successful School Daze (Lee’s second showed Hollywood that there was a market film) refused to fund Lee’s third movie, Do the for films that centred on African-American Right Thing (1989), because he wouldn’t change characters. Towards the end of the 1980s it was the violent and literally incendiary ending. A Dutch or canted angle shot of Spike Lee as Mookie in Do The Right Thing (1989) Photo 12 / Alamy Stock Photo Stock 12 / Alamy Photo

10 The original movie poster

Do the Right Thing is, initially, more interested in character than action and so, skilfully, the street and its inhabitants are introduced in a way that both engages the audience and avoids confusion. Moviestore collection Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy collection Ltd Moviestore

Lee as Auteur inhabitants are introduced in a way that both engages the audience and avoids confusion. The four key aspects of Spike Lee’s authorship that are important in Do the Right Thing are: Black Stereotypes and Police • The portrayal of African American lives • His use of melodrama with Brechtian Brutality devices (e.g. talking to the camera) Lee challenges the negative dominant image • His visual style which, although conventional, of African Americans by paradoxically focusing does have some characteristic shots: for on the stereotypical characteristics of violence, example the double dolly shot and single take, aggression and ignorance, perhaps best seen in slow push-in and the canted or Dutch angles the portrayal of Radio Raheem. However, Raheem • The use of music – As you would is filmed with extreme low angles and Dutch expect in melodrama, the music is (canted) angles that draw attention to the fact significant but particularly so with that what we are seeing is a representation or ‘Fight the Power’ by Public Enemy. construction and not a fully fleshed-out character. Do the Right Thing is about racial tension in We are meant to recognise we are being America and shamefully thirty years after its presented with a negative stereotype rather release, is as relevant as ever. The indie sensibility than a real person. Nevertheless this doesn’t of the film is evident in the first 30 minutes diminish the outrage we feel at Raheem’s demise. that are primarily concerned with introducing Raheem is essentially murdered by the NYPD characters; there are an unusually large number (New York Police Department) for resisting to get to know. Most Hollywood films spend arrest during a brawl originally caused by his their first few minutes setting up the ‘inciting refusal to switch off ‘Fight the Power’ in Sal’s incident’ that will drive the narrative to its pizzeria. It is Raheem’s death, from a chokehold, conclusion. Do the Right Thing is, initially, more that leads to the looting and destruction of interested in character than action and so, the pizzeria incited by Mookie (played by Spike skilfully (Lee was nominated for a Best Original Lee) throwing a ‘trash can’ through the window Screenplay Academy Award), the street and its (shown twice in an example of montage that

11 should be non-violent; the latter expresses the belief that violence in self-defence is justified. Breaking the ‘Spell’ In addition to the twice-shown moment when the ‘trash can’ smashes through the window, the ‘racial slur montage’ is another example of Lee’s use of Brechtian techniques that break the ‘fourth wall’ of the film. Hollywood filmmakers seek to make film language invisible; Lee, however, is deliberately drawing attention to the fact the audience are watching a film; a technique designed to get audiences thinking rather than passively viewing the entertainment. The direct address of the ‘racial slurs’ places the audience in the position of the victims of the racism, and the fact that the narrative does not motivate the montage also breaks the ‘spell’ of the film. Another distinctive technique that Lee uses is the ‘single take, slow push-in’ shot that signifies that the dialogue is particularly significant. In Do the Right Thing this is used when Sal and Pino discuss their future and in this scene we discover the conflict between father and son. Pino is a racist, (‘I’m sick of niggers…I don’t like being around them’) but Sal appears not to be (‘They grew up on my food… I’m very proud of that’). Sal is a sympathetic figure here; however when Raheem and Buggin’ Out confront him, he threatens their ‘nigger ass’ and thus shows himself to also be racist. He also refers to ‘Fight the Power’ as ‘jungle music’.

Collection Christophel / Alamy Stock Photo Stock Collection / Alamy Christophel Fight the Powers that Be owes more to Sergei Eisenstein than Hollywood). Lee commissioned Public Enemy, a politically Lee’s inspiration for the film came from the conscious hip-hop group, to write a song for death of Michael Griffith who was knocked the film. Fortunately, as it is heard several over by a car whilst fleeing a gang of white times in the film, they produced one of the teenagers. His car had broken down in the ‘wrong’ great protest songs. Its refrain is ‘We’ve got neighbourhood and he and two friends asked to fight the powers that be’ and it’s painful to for help in a pizzeria but were racially abused relate that racism, in America and also in the and later chased. Three years after the film was movie industry, is as virulent today as it was released ‘civil unrest’ also broke out in Los Angeles 30 years ago. Lee was struck how white film after the acquittal of police officers who had been critics seemed more concerned about the filmed beating up a black taxi driver, Rodney destruction of the pizzeria than the death of a King. And, despite its use being banned by the black man. As to what the ‘right thing’ is, Lee NYPD, in 2014 Eric Garner died after being held leaves the audience to make up its own mind. in chokehold. This endemic institutional violence Universal Pictures who contributed to the small and racism against black citizens – which Lee $6.5m budget for Do The Right Thing predicted portrayed almost 30 years ago – led to the Black this response from reviewers and, although they Lives Matter protest movement founded in 2013. accepted the burning of the pizzeria, they did try The riot at Do the Right Thing’s climax, with and impose a moral ending, asking Lee to show fire hoses trained on the protestors, is meant to Mookie reject Sal’s money in the film’s final scene. remind audiences of the violence against 1960s Once again, Lee refused to compromise and this civil rights activists as do the two quotes, from shows that even though Lee often works for the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, that major studios, his control over his films marks him serve as a postscript. The former states protests out as an independent filmmaker and an auteur.

12 The ‘racial slur Raheem is filmed with montage’ is extreme low angles and another example Dutch (canted) angles that of Lee’s use draw attention to the fact of Brechtian that what we are seeing techniques that is a representation or break the ‘fourth construction and not a fully wall’ of the film fleshed-out character.

Hollywood’s institutional racism means it’s Black Panther (2018). The movie industry, like particularly difficult to make films as an African society in general, still has a long way to go. American and about African Americans, but Lee has played a considerable part in attempting Nick Lacey is a freelance Film and Media Studies to challenge this. Most of Lee’s films focus on teacher, textbook author and regular contributor to black Americans and he also ensures, through MediaMag. His study guides on Do the Right Thing his production company, that he employs and Vertigo are available on Kindle. African Americans (not to the exclusion of other ethnicities) to make his films and so give them a chance to ‘make it’ in the industry. Resources Hollywood still struggles to make films about ‘black’ experiences and films like Do The Right Thing 20 years on: Hidden Figures (2016), which experienced www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6kVN1coXDw commercial and critical success, tend not to Video Essay: www.indiewire.com/2012/04/video- be enough to encourage studios to make essay-spike-lees-free-floating-dolly-shots-collected- more films with black protagonists: it has stitched-together-and-deconstructed-233258 taken twenty years of comic book movies to see the first black super hero protagonist in

Spike Lee on the set of Do The Right Thing (1989) Collection Christophel / Alamy Stock Photo Stock Collection / Alamy Christophel

13 from in theCity Margaret Livingston, The Woman 14 Sunrise (1927)

Everett Collection Inc / Alamy Stock Photo One reason why Sunrise is considered such an important film is because of the incorporation of techniques from German expressionism in an American-produced film from Hollywood.

or those that have studied the horror Caroline Birks genre, the name F. W. Murnau may be introduces this new familiar. He was the German Eduqas set text, Expressionist director who created the a lesser-known first image of Dracula on screen in his masterpiece from film Nosferatu (1922). The terrifying F. W. Murnau, the image of Count Orlok as a huge shadow at the top of the stairs was man who brought influential for years to come, and you the enormously continues to shape our expectation of influential Nosferatu. what the vampire on screen should look like even today. But Murnau was much more than a one hit wonder. In his brief

career (he died in a car crash aged 42) he directed 21 films, although many of them are now lost. Murnau was such a well-respected director that after directing films such as The Last Laugh (1924) and Faust (1926) he was asked by William Fox to direct a film in Hollywood blending the commercialism of the American industry and creativity of German expression. The result was the 1927 film Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans – the title perhaps reflecting Murnau’s interest in art and music. The Narrative The story is a simple one: The Man from the Country is tempted by The Woman from the City who wants him to murder his Wife and run away with her. After failing to drown his wife, he repents and rediscovers his love for her. They have a wonderful day together in the city but

15 World War 1. It has direct links to postwar trauma, with unusual sharp angles and chiaroscuro lighting symbolic It has direct links to of the psychological turmoil felt inside. Themes in German postwar trauma, with expressionism include crime, immorality and conflict, particularly conflict between traditional and modern unusual sharp angles society. Sunrise, however, is not purely an expressionistic and chiaroscuro film in the same way it is not purely Hollywood. In fact, the film has been described as one full of dualities, lighting symbolic of in this case the duality between expressionism and realism. the psychological Some critics claim that the film suffers from the interference of Hollywood producers, and there is a notable difference turmoil felt inside. between the two halves of the film. However, other critics claim there was no such interference, and that the different ‘moods’ of the film are a deliberate attempt to show the internal conflict within the man who begins as ‘a man in torment’ but ends up as a simple peasant who loves his wife. For a film early in cinematic The Madonna-Whore Dichotomy The contrasts and dualities in the film do not stop there. history, Perhaps the most obvious of these are the binary opposites Sunrise is full of The Wife and The Woman from the City. The contrast between the two women is probably most prominent of impressive in their introductions. The Woman from the City is seen movement and smoking, tidying her dark hair in the mirror and removing her dressing gown to reveal her underwear, suggesting her special effects. sexuality and possible promiscuity. She then appears in a very distorted frame, interrupting the people she is staying with as they eat their simple meal and demanding that her shoes be cleaned. Her heeled shoes, which are out of on their return journey a fierce storm develops and their place in the country and her shiny, snake-like dress show boat is capsized. After a frantic search, in which the man is that she is an outsider, who is obsessed with appearance convinced that his wife is dead, she is discovered alive and and likely to be up to no good. The wife, however, is seen there is a happy ending, although not for the Woman from preparing a meal for her husband. Her blonde hair and the City who exits on the back of a cart. We are never told simple, country clothes suggest her child-like naivety and the exact location of the city; like the Man, his Wife and as she realises that her husband has gone to meet the the Woman from the City, it is never named. This suggests woman, the camera lingers in a long take showing her that the story is universal; it could be set anywhere and be facial expression as she cries bitterly. The Wife is purely about people everywhere. This was a film for international good, we often see her as tender and compassionate audiences and it holds a warning, like the later noir films, and her performance is captivating. It is unsurprising, that if you get involved with a dangerous woman and then, that Janet Gaynor won an Oscar for Best Actress. stray too far from home you will regret it. It also holds a more positive message too, that no matter who you are, Movement and Stillness or where you’re from, the mistakes you make don’t define you – there is always a fresh sunrise the following day. Even more compelling though is the performance of The Man played by George O’Brien. Murnau made him Expressionism Vs Realism wear weights in his shoes at the beginning of the film to emphasise the laborious way he walks. Weighed down The film was not a financial success at the time, with guilt, he walks heavily with shoulders hunched, often possibly because Murnau was offered an unrestricted unable to make eye contact with those around him. As he budget to make the film. But it did win a special Oscar for approaches his Wife with murderous thoughts, the lighting Unique and Artistic Production at the first ever Academy makes him seem even more sinister and frightening until Awards. It is also currently number five on the BFIs list he turns away, unable to go through with the plan. Later of greatest films of all time, and is widely recognised for in the film, however, he is a changed man and the long its influence and importance within film history. One takes on him during the church sequence show how he reason why Sunrise is considered such an important is truly sorry for what he has done. A medium close up film is because of the incorporation of techniques from reveals his reaction to the words of the Vicar with tears German expressionism in an American-produced film running down his face. The scene is truly moving, with from Hollywood. German expressionism was a movement Murnau relying on the performance of his actors rather that appeared at the start of the 20th Century and spread than excessive title cards, which he was known to dislike. from poetry and art into architecture and cinema, post The dualities in the film are not just limited to narrative

16 George O’ Brien and Janet Gaynor as husband and wife in Sunrise Everett Collection Inc / Alamy Stock Photo Stock Collection Inc / Alamy Everett and character though; on a more technical level we have movement vs. stillness. For a film early in cinematic history, Sunrise is full of impressive movement and special effects. The scene where The Man wanders the marsh on his way to meet The Woman is well known for the camera feeling like it is ‘flying’ along beside him. Other effects include the use of The different ‘moods’ multiple exposure, which is notable from the very beginning of the film when in the vacation montage hundreds of of the film are a people leave the city by train and boat and head for the deliberate attempt clean air of the country. The number of carriages leaving the station along with the musical score (Sunrise was to show the internal filmed using the Movietone system meaning that it did conflict within the have a synchronous soundtrack, although no dialogue) and the number of images in each frame from different man who begins as angles means when we finally arrive ‘on vacation’ we are ‘a man in torment’ grateful for the calm and tranquil arrival in the country. Here again we see another duality – the city vs. the country. but ends up as a Sunrise is such a rich text and there are so many detailed simple peasant who sequences. Murnau brings an artistic and poetic quality to the screen which captures the audience and justifies his loves his wife. reputation as a great director. His meticulous approach to film making ensures that Sunrise is a masterpiece that continues to captivate audiences today.

Caroline Birks is Head of Media and Film at Hills Road Sixth Form College.

17 Dave Johns as the eponymous Daniel Blake

‘disruptive A Case Study marketing’ is in Disruptive a relatively new term in Marketing the industry to describe how accepted traditional ‘above the line’ marketing methods can be subverted in surprising, unexpected or shocking ways. Image courtesy of Entertainment One UK

he powerful image used in the marketing I, Daniel Blake is a set text in of the film I, Daniel Blake, which shows the Component 1 Section B (Audiences eponymous protagonist defiantly raising and Industries) of Eduqas’ A his fist against the backdrop of a graffitied jobT centre wall, represents not only the punchy, Level Media Studies specification. rousing social realist message of the film but also Michelle Thomason explains how the return to commercial success for the director the politically proactive marketing Ken Loach. Compared to Loach’s last film, Jimmy’s of this powerful and consciousness- Hall (2014) which saw relatively disappointing raising film has amplified its activist box office returns, I, Daniel Blake, took £404,000 message and impact on audiences. in its opening week across 94 cinemas, and was the eleventh most commercially successful independent film in 2016. To date, it has taken over £8.8 million worldwide. Opening to wide

18 critical acclaim, the film won Loach his second of marketing, the film’s UK premiere was not, as Palme D’Or in Cannes and, in 2017, a BAFTA for might be expected, held in London, but at the Best British Film and a César for Best Foreign Tyneside Cinema, a small independent cinema in Film. Actors Dave Johns and Hayley Squires have the city of Newcastle, where the film is set. ‘Take also won awards for their roles in the film. a film home, and people take cultural ownership, Known as much for his political voice and it’s theirs,’ said Rebecca O’Brien, the producer of social campaigning as he is for his contribution the film. The film was then rolled out as part of to social realist cinema, Loach views his films eOne’s platform release strategy and the number more as a form of ‘agitation’ than as education of cinemas showing the film increased from 94 or entertainment, and said of the film ‘All we to 273 over its ‘lifetime’ of UK film screenings. can hope for, first of all, is that people go to At the later London premiere, attended by see the film and believe it and are left with a Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn, members of the sense of outrage.’ Unlike his seminal film Cathy public, whose loved ones had died after they Come Home (1966), which follows the story of had been denied benefits, asked to demonstrate a young couple’s descent into homelessness, outside the screening. In an interview for The and which caused real social change through Hollywood Reporter in December 2016, O’ Brien public awareness and parliamentary debate, said, ‘It was very sad. But they asked us if they Loach didn’t initially anticipate that I, Daniel could do it, and we were delighted that they did’. Blake would provoke the same strength of Dave Johns and Hayley Squires, the lead actors in reaction. He predicted audiences would the film, also held up protest placards consider the plights of Daniel and Katie as on the red carpet. In Prime Minister’s victims of the benefits system as ‘normal’. Questions later that week, Corbyn Nevertheless, Loach’s call to action is clear called for Theresa May to see the film. from the film’s political commentary and, One thing that the eOne marketing just as I, Daniel Blake is meant to ‘disrupt’ campaign could not have anticipated its audience, so were the marketing and was that the film’s political message distribution strategies used by eOne, the film’s was also starting to take on a life if UK distribution and marketing company. its own with audiences. At an anti- Whilst marketing films in unconventional austerity demonstration in France, a ways is not a new phenomenon, ‘disruptive protestor was seen carrying a flag with marketing’ is a relatively new term in the industry the title words and image from the to describe how accepted traditional ‘above film translated to ‘Moi, Daniel Blake’, the line’ marketing methods can be subverted and the charity movement ‘A Bag for in surprising, unexpected or shocking ways Katie’ was inspired by the shocking and this is precisely what eOne set out to do. food bank scene in the film. The The first aim of the marketing strategy Scottish politician, Mhairi Black, even that eOne employed was to target niche used quotations from the film as part geodemographic audiences such as public sector of her campaign to change elements workers, NGOs, charities and councillors using a of how the benefits system sanctions grassroots campaign. Unlike more conventional work. Whilst her bill was blocked by methods, this type of campaign starts from the the Tories, it does highlight the far- ground up with the aim that targeted audiences reaching influence of the film – and the would promote the film through word of mouth opposing political views surrounding it. and in turn generate further creative content Adding to the political storm building for marketing purposes through vox pops, up around the film, Loach appeared on testimonials, information exit polls and talks. the BBC’s Question Time to condemn To implement this, eOne advertised jobs for the injustice in the benefits system, in regional marketing officers in specific locations the week following the film’s release. such as Newcastle, Liverpool, Manchester, The Tory Business Secretary, Greg Glasgow and Nottingham, amongst others. The Clark, dismissed the film as ‘fictional’, job description of the regional marketing officers inciting boos from the audience. was to organise and promote free screenings Right wing journalists also waded in and talks about the film in appropriate locations to criticise the film, (Camilla Long, in such as community halls in the weeks leading her review for The Times, called the up to the film’s official release date. This type of film a ‘povvo safari’ whilst Toby Young, organic marketing aimed to build up a wider for The Daily Mail, said it ‘romanticised benefits feeling of political engagement around the film. Britain’) further exposing the controversial Continuing with this geodemographic style nature of the film’s political message.

19 newspapers were retweeted by Loach himself and the hashtag #wearealldanielblake trended on Twitter. Loach also announced on Twitter that 17th November 2016 was to be ‘I, Daniel Blake Day’ and encouraged people to become part of Loach views his films more the ‘movement’. Harnessing the power of social as a form of ‘agitation’ media, trailers and interviews with people who attended the initial free screenings were posted than as education or on You Tube and shared on Facebook. The BBC entertainment, and said website (another funding source) helped promote the film with production images and information. of the film, ‘All we can Having gained international recognition at hope for, first of all, is that the Palme D’Or film festival in Cannes, the film garnered a range of foreign audiences in 23 people go to see the film countries around the world. Despite the film and believe it and are left being set in the UK, the film saw its biggest popularity in France, with the film having been with a sense of outrage.’ partly funded, alongside UK based Sixteen Films, the BFI and the BBC, by the two French production companies Wild Bunch and Why On a national level, the political nature of Not Productions. The film opened in France in the film was further demonstrated through a 251 theatres, 157 more than in the UK, with this guerrilla ‘below the line’ marketing strategy, figure rising to 660 by the sixth week of release. a tactic often associated with activism. Media A range of different film poster designs and company NomadiX were employed to project marketing material were produced to target marketing images and key quotations on the varying audiences both nationally and high profile buildings such as The Houses internationally. Whilst the image of Daniel Blake of Parliament, the London Eye and near the raising his fist against the job centre wall became BFI (one of the sources of the film’s funding) the most ubiquitously used marketing image, Southbank. They also ran a similar ‘clean graffiti’ another image – a more tender image of Daniel, campaign where stencils were pressure washed Katie and her two children walking down an by water onto dirty pavements all over the UK. alleyway – was used to appeal to audiences who The audience appeal of I, Daniel Blake is an understand the intertextual reference to the interesting one. Loach’s long history as a social similar image used in the BBC’s DVD marketing realist filmmaker immediately sites the natural of Loach’s first work ‘Cathy Come Home’. audience of the film to be of the cineliterate Just as Loach predicted, real social change middle class demographic. However, rather than in terms of social policy has not occurred choose the broadsheets that cover arts and yet, but, as he hoped, the film has created culture more extensively, or the specialist film the ‘sense of outrage’ and increased public magazines, eOne chose the left wing tabloid consciousness of the very real issues raised owners, Trinity Mirror Group, to partner with within the film – driven largely by the focused, for their press marketing, precisely because creative and ‘disruptive’ strategies used in they deliver a very different demographic. the marketing and distribution of the film. Trinity Mirror Group, aware that their traditionally working class target audience may not be naturally inclined to watch social realist Michelle Thomason teaches media at William Morris films, but keen to align their brand with the Sixth Form in West London and is currently studying for a doctorate in education at Bournemouth film’s message, stated ‘We also know that our University’s Centre for Excellence in Media Practice. audience are socially and culturally conscious and want to change things for the better’. The marketing campaign that followed included 10,000 free tickets to preview screenings, a fictional feature editorial piece written in the words of Daniel Blake, a variety of print and online advertising and the usual ‘I’ of the Mirror masthead replaced by the ‘I’ of the graffiti on the job centre wall and used in marketing material. Articles published by the Trinity Mirror Group

20 The film has created the ‘sense of outrage’ and increased public consciousness of the very real issues raised within the film – driven largely by the focused, creative and ‘disruptive’ strategies used in the marketing and distribution of the film. Image courtesy of Entertainment One UK

Below the line marketing. Clean grafitti and light projections on The Houses of Parliament. Image courtesy of Entertainment One UK

Glossary Key Facts Grassroots marketing: often Director: Ken Loach On a national known as guerrilla marketing, this Producer: Rebecca O’Brien starts from the ground up, with a level, the small targeted campaign which can Writer: Paul Laverty political nature be spread from group to group to Production company/ of the film reach a wider audience and increase funding: wider political participation Sixteen Films was further NGO: Non-governmental (owned by Loach) UK demonstrated organisation – a not-for-profit British Film organisation addressing a social Institute (BFI) UK through a or political issue which is not Why Not guerrilla aligned to government Productions (France) Wild Bunch (France) ‘below the Geodemographic: a form of BBC Films (UK) marketing which draws on the line’ marketing Les Films du socio-economic analysis of local Fleuve (Belgium) strategy, a tactic or neighbourhood communities Distributors: often associated Platform release strategy: a eOne Films (UK) type of limited release in which a with activism. Le Pacte (France) film opens in a smaller number of cinemas than usual, in the hope of Release date: spreading its popularity through 13 May 2016 word of mouth. This saves money (Palme D’Or Film on advertising, and can ultimately Festival, Cannes) France lead to a far wider release. 21 October 2016 (Official UK release date)

21 For del Toro, fiction and reality, like all dualities, are interrelated, not binary opposites.

The Pale Man, Pans

ZUMA Press, Inc. / Alamy Stock Photo Stock Inc. / Alamy Press, ZUMA Labyrinth (2006)

Abbreviations: Pan (Pan’s Labyrinth), Cultural Contexts Elaine Scarratt Devil (The Devil’s Backbone) Spain and Mexico’s close relationship discusses the was established in the 16thCentury historical, social and t may seem strange to study Pan’s when Spain conquered the South political context of Labyrinth, a Spanish/Mexican film American country and imposed its Guillermo del Toro’s by a Mexican, under ‘European culture, language and Catholic religion. 2006 masterpiece Film’. Its cultural and institutional Del Toro, a lapsed Catholic, laces his in the light of Icontexts as a product give clues to films with spirituality and Catholic Eduqas’ Global the nature of its cross cultural mix, imagery to which he ascribes his own Film component. as do the narrative’s historical and meanings. Ofelia eating the forbidden political contexts of the bloody Spanish fruit (of knowledge) is a positive Civil War and fascist government action. Making mistakes stems from that still haunt Spain today. her freedom of spirit and is inherent Some knowledge of that era is in learning, in her case to become essential and will help you find different an independent adult. Fairy tales, ways to interpret this multi-layered like religious myths, are constructed film’s highly symbolic elements; some around moral themes, which in Pan are ideas in the opening sequence are disobedience, choice and memory. suggested in this article’s final section. 25,000 refugees from the Spanish Historical facts will also add to the Civil War, including many artists, fled compelling effectiveness of Pan’s dual to Mexico prompting another cultural narrative and del Toro’s characteristic impact and del Toro’s interest in the trait of juxtaposing violence in a fantasy period. He befriended his filmmaker world with brutal reality to augment, hero, Surrealist Luis Buñuel, who used by comparison, the real world horror. horror and fantasy to convey political

22 Public domain Public Public domain Public

The Japanese Demon, Tenome

Industrial Contexts Del Toro divides his filmmaking The post-war period between Hollywood hits like Blade II (2002), Hellboy (2004)), and the Spanish when Pan is set films above. Devil and Pan were were ‘The Peace intended as part of a Civil War trilogy with the final one, 3993 to be about Years’ but actually the 1993 exhumation of mass graves a programme of Resistance fighters slaughtered in1939. However it was sidelined for Goya’s ‘Saturn of terror and Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008). Devouring his Sons’ annihilation in Del Toro made Pan in Spain because, despite big budget offers, he refused which his policy Hollywood producers’ demands for messages. Del Toro’s upbringing in less horrific gore and more light- Guadalajara, Mexico’s international of silence about heartedness in the fantasy. His cultural centre, is reflected in Pan’s the Resistance determination to retain creative control wide-ranging references. The Pale came from drastic interference on Man devouring fairies recalls Goya’s concealed Mimic (1997) by Weinstein’s Miramax ‘Saturn Devouring his Sons’, his 400,000 deaths Dimension Films. In addition to his hands and eyes Christ’s stigmata, the production roles del Toro wrote the blinded martyr St Lucy and Tenome, from continued English subtitles himself so his ideas a ghostly Japanese demon. fighting, forced wouldn’t be lost in translation. Guadalajara was also violent. Vidal Pan has an R/15 (graphic violence) callously beating the rabbit hunter hard labour and rating, and del Toro was accused of with a bottle comes from an attack mass executions. gratuitous violence at Academy Award on a friend witnessed by del Toro. He screenings. However all his films left Mexico in1997 after his father was have a ‘walk-out scene’ like the rabbit kidnapped, and lived in Spain when Del Toro feels Devil’s focus on ghosts hunter one, in which he challenges he made Devil (2001) and Pan (2006), is predominantly European, but Pan’s audiences to follow him to deeper, which with Cronos (Mexico, 1993) are storytelling is fully Mexican with its truer engagement. Vidal’s unfeeling known as his ‘Spanish language trilogy’. ‘Holy Trinity’ of fantasy, religion and methodical viciousness sets up His Spanish subject, the Civil War, was violence plus big melodrama, all narrative tension early as an increasing treated with his typical horror and suffused with the magical realism threat to the vulnerable Ofelia, so her fantasy conventions metaphorically characteristic of Latin America. death at his hands becomes even more as a vampire myth draining Spain’s ‘That’s the way I look at the disturbingly tragic and, thereby, those lifeblood in Cronos, a ghost story in world, the way I accept magic of real war victims. The ghastly violence the orphanage in Devil and a dark in a completely natural way… enhances the explosion of beauty in fairy tale in Pan. All have isolated more than anything, the the Underground Realm and del Toro’s vulnerable children who act as acceptance of how permeable typical thematic resolution of rebirth, ‘powerful filters through which the membrane is between salvation and hope through children. the audience can understand reality and fantasy, that comes We’re used to safe versions of fairy the inhumane and destructive entirely from my culture’ (2). tales mediated by the Grimm Brothers nature of the adult world’ (1). and Disney, but del Toro recaptured

23 their original purpose of frightening Franco’s ‘New Nation’ demanded children to teach them about life’s unquestioning obedience and dangers. The fantasy world is not conformity symbolised by The Pale escapist; it is a place to learn from Man’s blind featureless face and Vidal. facing adversity. By overcoming the His obsessive grooming represents terrifying tasks Ofelia learns to trust her state control that extended even to instinct when making choices, evolves personal cleanliness and smartness. The her moral values and so is armed to mechanical mise-en-scène of Vidal’s cope with her life’s real horrors. room with its hard textures, linearity Pan’s small $19 million budget, and harsh blades of light slicing through assembled from several production dark shadows conveys fascism’s brutal enforcement of its narrow ideology.

companies, roughly 78% Spanish to Gage by Skidmore Toro Guillermo del 22% Mexican, caused production Vidal’s idolisation of his father and focus on his son as his legacy Guillermo del Toro speaking at difficulties. CGI was curtailed but WonderCon 2013 del Toro’s design strengths and VFX demonstrates the regime’s macho and make-up training prevailed. patriarchy. Del Toro’s typical The opening’s Underground Realm focus on gender accentuates His Spanish subject, is a miniature model. It enabled its misogyny, which stated more realistic movement through ‘the woman’s mission is to the Civil War, was space than CGI and established serve…God’s first idea was treated with his the flowing camerawork of the ‘the man’. He thought of the fantasy world cinematography. woman afterwards.’ (3). typical horror and Doug Jones as an actor in a monster fantasy conventions costume and make-up could more The ideal woman was a powerless subtly convey the Faun’s unsettling breeder and carer, like pregnant Carmen metaphorically as a ambiguity with nuanced shifts from unnecessarily confined to a wheelchair. vampire myth draining trustworthy charm to deadly threat. This era is so vivid today because the buried stories only started appearing Spain’s lifeblood in Historical and Political around Franco’s death and are still Cronos, a ghost story Contexts emerging. Del Toro’s pre-production research uncovered accounts of in the orphanage 1930s Spain saw clashes between Resistance fighters and female activists leftist government supporters like Mercedes in Galicia, NW Spain, the in Devil and a dark (Republicans) and rightist (Nationalists) film’s setting. Looking is a key theme, fairy tale in Pan. supporting the privileged landowners, symbolised by Ofelia restoring the industrialists, military and Catholic standing stone’s eye, and stated in the Church, all represented at Vidal’s dinner. final words about Moanna/Ofelia who, Vidal’s aristocratic family name and Ofelia, sacrificing herself for like the Spanish had forgotten her her baby brother the kitchen maids’ epithet of ‘señorito’ identify him as a bullying rich ‘kid’. General Franco’s ruthless campaign to rule Spain began in Spanish Morocco, where Vidal’s father died. His intention to rid Spain of all leftists led to The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and his fascist military government until1975. Franco illustrates the dictum that history is written by the victors. His campaigns were religious ‘crusades’ to clean up Spain, and he likened himself to El Cid, Spain’s medieval warrior hero. The post-war period when Pan is set were ‘The Peace Years’ but actually a programme of terror and annihilation in which his policy of silence about the Resistance concealed 400,000 deaths from continued fighting, forced hard labour and mass executions. Entertainment Pictures / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy Entertainment Pictures

24 Ofelia eats the forbidden fruit in Pans Labyrinth Del Toro made Pan in Spain because, despite big budget offers, he refused Hollywood producers’ demands for less horrific gore and more light-heartedness in the fantasy. Moviestore collection Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy collection Ltd Moviestore

true identity and like their suppressed symbolised by Vidal’s watch. Similarly for by Mercedes, represents hope for history ‘left behind small traces…visible historical events in ‘Spain, 1944’ fixed a future with benign masculinity. only to those who know where to look.’ in intertitles are juxtaposed with the For del Toro fiction and reality, like pre-writing oral tradition of storytelling, all dualities, are interrelated, not binary The Opening Sequence which is the film’s final voice. opposites. Institutionalised creeds The editing combines an intrusive like those of fascism, patriarchy and Setting-Place: Juxtaposition of sound bridge of exaggeratedly the Catholic Church are as mythical the voice over and images implies loud ticking and a hard cut to a as fairy tales, but myths also speak the ruined buildings are of Moanna’s close-up of the cracked watch-face universal truths about humanity. time; but shadows and blackout also symbolising fascism’s distortion suggest Civil War destruction, perhaps of humanity, and foreshadowing Elaine Scarratt is a freelance media referencing Guernica, one of Franco’s Vidal’s disfigurement by Mercedes. educator, writer, examiner and former worst atrocities captured in Picasso’s Ofelia’s governing time is the Moon’s Head of Media Studies iconic painting. The skeletons appear cycles by which she has to perform ancient but could equally represent her tasks and which symbolises the ongoing mass grave exhumations. her forthcoming womanhood. Galicia’s forest shelters the Resistance References but is also, with its labyrinth and pollen Characters (1) Tanya Jones, Studying Pan’s and feathers floating like fairy dust Labyrinth (2010), Auteur in the sunlight, the magical middle The Moon has ancient feminine ground between the Underground associations and it is the trinity of (2) del Toro in Mar Diestro-Dopída, Realm and real world. The green and women as Nature’s uncontrollable Pan’s Labyrinth (2013), BFI Classics force that destroys Vidal. Their brown colour code that connects (3) Mar Diestro-Dopída, ibid Ofelia and Mercedes are camouflage symbolic names indicate their fairy for the Resistance, but also connotes tale status as archetypes: Carmen that they and the women belong to creativity, Mercedes reward (from Nature’s natural order and freedom. María de las Mercedes, the Spanish from the MM vaults Virgin Mary), Ofelia help. Carmen Setting-Time: The forest also Pan’s Labyrinth – Analysis, and Mercedes model two futures harbours Spain’s Celtic culture lost Jerome Monaghan, MM21 in the undergrowth and is indicated for Ofelia: resigned compliance or by its characteristic curved designs rebellious challenge. Ofelia is linked Subtext and historical context in 3 on the standing stone. This image with Mercedes throughout the third Spanish Films – Nick Lacey, MM26 scene from the disobedient moment of pagan times signifies del Toro’s Understanding Fantasy – an she offers the wrong hand to Vidal, reminder of who we are. He juxtaposes examiner’s perspective – Chris but ultimately she chooses her own expansive universal time since pre- Bruce, MoreMediaMag history and pagan folklore with the path of death and rebirth into her true restrictive mechanical time of fascism individual self. Carmen’s baby, cared

25 Take a roomful of geeks, a plastic Demogorgon and some dice, then webcast it via Twitch and host it on Geek and Sundry’s You Tube channel and what have you got? Caroline Bayley explains how changes in mainstream media industries can create space for successful indie content.

There’s no board, and not much to see. So, it’s hard to imagine that many people would be interested in tuning into Critical Role for between three and five hours a week. Image courtesy of Critical Role

26 The Game In March of 2015, a group of eight voice actors in Los Angeles sat down together to play a game of Dungeons and Dragons (D&D). That session was the first in a D&D campaign that was broadcast live on Geek and Sundry’s Twitch channel. The series, called Critical Role, became a weekly feature that ran until October 12th, 2017. If you aren’t familiar with D&D, it’s a tabletop role-playing game played with dice and mini figures (see episode 1 of Stranger Things). Instead of playing using a console or PC, D&D players get together, sit around a table, and tell the story of their adventure together. A player — called the Dungeon Master — guides the story. He or she also rolls dice to determine if the adventurers have been successful in battle or tests. D&D happens entirely within the collective imaginations of the players. There’s no board, and not much to see. So, it’s hard to imagine that many people would be interested in tuning into Critical Role for between three and five hours a week to watch eight people sit around a table and roll dice. However, by the time the 99th episode aired, Critical Role had amassed 68 million views. An average of 30,000 people would tune in to watch each live broadcast on Twitch. Hundreds of thousands more would catch up later on Geek Image courtesy of Critical Role and Sundry’s YouTube channel. It has spawned an official podcast, campaign books that allow fans A live cast of Critical than just live casts of video gameplay on Twitch, Role on Twitch to play D&D in the world of Critical Role, a series including live-action content like Critical Role. of graphic novels, and an enormous, devoted fan base. The rise of Critical Role is a great example of Diversity how changes in mainstream media industries can Changes in the video game industry were also create spaces for indie audiences and content. an important part of Critical Role’s success. The Developments in the gaming industry helped increasing popularity of role playing games like build a young, diverse audience. The content Skyrim helped boost interest in ‘retro’ tabletop aggregator Geek and Sundry brought this role playing games like D&D. Somewhat better audience together and made it a real community. representation of women and minority groups Finally, the format of Critical Role engaged in mainstream video games started to open up this community in new and unusual ways. geek/gamer culture to more diverse audiences. Institutional Context Together, these developments started to grow an audience niche for Critical Role. The timing and institutional context of Critical The launch of Geek and Sundry capitalised Role helps explain its surprising popularity. on this new audience niche — young, socially Improvements in internet speed made it engaged and diverse self-identified gamers and possible for streaming platforms like YouTube geeks. In 2012, Google launched the 100 million Gaming, Xbox Live and Twitch to arise. Driven dollar YouTube Original Channel Initiative. This by an audience that both consumes streamed initiative encouraged the creation of new, original content and creates it, the streaming industry ‘television style’ content on YouTube. One of the has ballooned. Twitch is now the fourth largest channels created and funded by this initiative source of peak internet traffic in the United States. was Geek and Sundry. Led by geek icon Felicia Most content on Twitch is created by its own Day, Geek and Sundry was designed to showcase audience, which means that the kind of content the very best of indie geek content. The first on Twitch is constantly growing and changing to programmes broadcast on Geek and Sundry – reflect new audiences. Now you can find more Tabletop and The Guild reflect these values. The

27 Critcal Role cosplay

Somewhat better representation of women and minority groups in mainstream video games started to open up geek/gamer culture to more diverse audiences. Together,

these developments Joy Image Pamela by started to grow an audience niche for actually see the characters conjured by the voice actors of Critical Role. These characters exist Critical Role. only in the imaginations of the players and the fans. Like many indie media outlets, Geek and Sundry encourages fan content in ways that mainstream media institutions often do not. core message of Tabletop (still running) is that For example, in August of last year, an official board games are for everyone. The Guild was art book was announced that would feature a female-led show about a diverse group of art created by the community of Critters. people who play a game like World of Warcraft Critical Role is a great example of a new kind together. Early followers of Geek and Sundry of long-form media. Like any new media, the knew that gaming and geek culture was no way that audiences engage with it is new, too. longer just for young (ish) white men. This is Critical Role is an episodic (a long story arc split the audience that became the backbone of the into smaller complete chunks), visual form of Critical Role fan base when the series launched media, so in many ways it’s a lot like a television on Geek and Sundry’s Twitch channel in 2015. series. But it’s different in a couple of key ways, Audiences and Fandom and those key differences change the way that audiences engage with it. Unlike a normal TV Critical Role launched at a time when social programme, the episodes are not edited. They media and rich online communities enabled tend to fall somewhere between three and five the show’s audience to grow virally. These social hours long each but they are not a standard, spaces also provided a place for fans to share fixed length. This means that audiences need art and content inspired by the show. You can to be flexible! They can’t sit down to watch an find large communities of ‘Critters’ (Critical Role episode of Critical Role and know it will be over fans) on Tumblr, Twitter and Reddit. A Google at a certain time. It also means that Geek and search for Critical Role cosplay yielded over two Sundry can’t schedule other live programmes hundred thousand results. Critical Role fan- at specific times around Critical Role. fiction and fan art yields close to a million hits. Another big difference is that episodes of What’s truly extraordinary about all this is that Critical Role happen in real time. Plus, the players unlike film and television franchises, you never are improvising the whole time as they tell a

28 Critical Role Heirlume Photography is a great example of a new kind of story together. Each episode is almost like long-form media. Like a conversation between eight people. This conversation often wanders off topic and any new media, the pursues ideas that don’t end up being a part way that audiences of the big story. Because the episodes aren’t edited, the show creators can’t cut out the boring engage with it is or irrelevant parts. That’s why the episodes are new, too. so long, and it means a major change in the way that audiences watch the show. Unlike a normal episode of a TV or web series, audiences might tune in and out, or even listen in the background while doing other things. In fact, the creators of Critical Role are re-releasing the watch Critical Role for a whopping fifteen days, entire series as a podcast for that very reason. sixteen hours and forty minutes to catch up. For Twitch is also different from a broadcast comparison, to catch up on Game of Thrones or television channel because it has a chat Breaking Bad, you only need to spend a little over window. People who are watching live content two days watching TV. But there’s good news for on Twitch can comment and converse with new fans! The creators of Critical Role began a each other. Sometimes viewers can even brand new campaign with brand new characters communicate with the content-creators in real in January of this year. Are you watching? time. Geek and Sundry’s Twitch channel is a social, interactive space where fans can build Caroline Bayley is a web developer, former media a community. That sense of community is a teacher and level 5 fire genasi sorcerer. key audience pleasure that has contributed to the success of the Critical Role. Like many other long-running shows, Critical Role makes it hard for new audiences to join in. There are 115, three to five hour episodes in the first campaign. The website Bingeclock. com estimates that new viewers would need to

29 The presentation of masculinity in John Wick

Fay Jessop considers an emerging franchise featuring a stereotypical hard-man tempered by grief in a more complex representation of masculinity than you might expect.

30 Keanu Reeves by Charlie Rocket by Keanu Reeves

The 50-year-old hardman, Keanu ohn Wick exploded onto cinema screens in 2014, Reeves and has since gone on to spawn a sequel – John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017), and a spinoff television series, The Continental. Keanu Reeves, an actor just as likely to be found in low-budget indie projects as blockbusting action movies, fronted the film, and was supported by a solid cast of other veteran actors, including Ian McShane, Michael JNyqvist and Willem Dafoe. The film was standard action movie fare; guns, hand-to-hand combat, en-vogue cod- Russian baddies and a slickly choreographed, no-brainer plot that sees former hitman John Wick coming out of retirement over the killing of a puppy. No, really. Keanu - There’s Life in the Old Dog Yet! John Wick was a hit with audiences, despite the dog- killing scene. Audiences have been known to react more He brings this strongly to the killing of animals onscreen than humans, juxtaposition to after all. What is perhaps most surprising is that its leading man, Keanu Reeves, appears to be entering his golden the role of John period. Pushing fifty when the first film was released, you Wick, who is a might expect him to be slowing things down. However, the John Wick franchise allows Reeves to showcase his physical killing machine prowess with a combination of martial arts and technical on the outside, gunplay for which he trained intensively for four months before filming. When you consider that the first of the Matrix but bleeding films was released nearly two decades ago, Reeves’ ability to to death on hone both his skills and his body in the John Wick franchise is impressive. While this is not unusual – Schwarzenegger, the inside. Statham, Stallone et al have all continued to kick ass on film well into their fifties and sixties, it is interesting that the audience still clamours for this kind of black and white take on masculinity. For every soul-searching, man-bun-

31 toting millennial, there appears to be a patriarchal, old- school macho-man, and Keanu Reeves has maintained his membership of the club with John Wick. Or has he? While some critics have observed that the John Wick franchise lacks an emotional centre, I would argue that, contextually, Reeves gives it exactly that, and imbues the lead character with a heart and sense of emotion that perhaps it would be missing otherwise. It is impossible to watch Reeves without appreciating his ability to be simultaneously a blank canvas and a torrent of emotion. He is the ultimate projection of the audience’s fears, hopes, happiness and sadness all at once. Contrast the heartbreak of the early scene with Wick broken down, sobbing over the puppy – a symbol the all-encompassing, redemptive Bag o Games / Flickr love of his newly deceased wife to the subsequent set pieces of ‘gun-fu’, where Wick the machine, without a flicker of remorse, shoots the bad guys in the head against the backdrop of an ice-cold, neon-lit nightclub. This is an obvious dichotomy, but one which fits nicely with the film’s ideologies that there is a time and a place for killing, and a time and a place for grief and life. Visual Metaphors This is also reflected by Wick’s house, the place he shared with his late wife, Helen, and the looming, metropolitan presence of The Continental hotel, where all good assassins go to rest and recover. Real men compartmentalise their emotions, don’t they? The visual metaphors of separation and compartmentalisation are played out in both John Wick films. Props play a key part in this, with Wick’s wife’s daisy-chain necklace, his wedding ring and the montage of framed photographs on the mantelpiece showing glimpses of the life that Wick has established away from the mob. Hidden under Contrast these with the camera’s voyeuristic pleasure in the guns and knives that Wick uses, especially in the a concrete darkly humorous Sommelier scene in John Wick: Chapter floor, they are 2, when Wick is being outfitted for combat in Rome. Similarly, after the inciting incident of the dog’s death a metaphor for in the first film, Wick goes to the basement of his house the convergence and digs up guns and gold, ready to assume his hitman persona once again. Hidden under a concrete floor, of Wick’s two they are a metaphor for the convergence of Wick’s two lives – the lives – the weapons of mass destruction hidden in the basement of a happy suburban home. In the beginning of weapons the second film, this metaphor is used again, only Wick is of mass burying his weapons, making the transition from hitman back to regular guy. Of course, ten seconds later, this is destruction disrupted when the plot of the sequel kicks in and the main hidden in the antagonist, Santino, gives Wick an impossible choice. So is it fair to say, as Alani Foxall puts it in The Tusk, that basement the character of John Wick is ‘a collision of commercial of a happy masculinity and hurt feelings’? Certainly, on one level, the ideology of the film appears to be that the only way suburban home. for a man to feel better is to carry out acts of aggression. The body count in both films is ludicrously high. Is this merely playing to a set of well-worn stereotypes or is there something deeper going on? I would argue that the answer lies with the casting of the protagonist. By casting

32 Keanu Reeves on a mission to avenge the murder of his tiny dog AF archive / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy AF archive

Reeves as the leading man in the John Wick franchise, these stereotypes and assumptions can be challenged Resources on some level. Reeves has, after all, made a career out of Grief, as Explained by John creative contradictions. He brings this juxtaposition to the Wick – Alani Foxall http:// role of John Wick, who is a killing machine on the outside, www.tusk2.com/2017/03/02/ but bleeding to death on the inside. This is summed up grief-explained-john-wick/ in another scene from the film’s first act, when Addy the John Wick Film Review: The bartender expresses her surprise at seeing Wick back at Flame that is Keanu Reeves. The Continental. She looks him straight in the eye and says, ‘I’ve never seen you like this before?’ ‘Like what?’ http://pinkisthenewfeminism. he replies. ‘Vulnerable,’ she says. Bathed in the unearthly blogspot.co.uk/2014/11/john-wick- green light of the hotel bar like a representation of some film-review-flame-that-is.html underworld naiad, she nails it. Their brief exchange sums John Wick review – a thrill ride driven up the contradictions of the John Wick franchise perfectly; by a relentless vengeance machine Wick is both full of emotion and devoid of it. Vulnerable yet also Baba Yaga, the killer of the Boogeyman. https://www.theguardian.com/ In conclusion, it would be easy to read the John Wick films film/2014/oct/23/john-wick- on one level as just another set of movies that perpetuate review-thrill-ride-relentless- the age-old stereotypes of aggressive masculinity and vengeance-machine shoot-from-the-hip arrogance. However, it could also be argued that, by casting Reeves, the filmmakers left the door open for a more complex interpretation of masculinity. While the narrative itself might lend itself to the black and white, dig a little deeper and there are definite layers of complexity, of grey, that raise John Wick a little higher than a mere revenge flick. I, personally, am very much looking forward to the third instalment in the franchise.

Fay Jessop teaches English at Backwell School in North Somerset and writes novels as Fay Keenan.

33 Is GLOW the ultimate feminist text, or just another Male Gaze media product designed to objectify women? Claire Kennedy investigates.

34 Image courtesy of Netflix Netflix seriesGLOW Brie asRuthinthe Make my day! Alison 35 There are plus-size characters that show room for full-figured women to be labelled gorgeous alongside women of slim physique, as well as gay, queer and asexual women. The message is that all women are gorgeous including, but not limited to, those that fit the defined standard. Image courtesy of Netflix

Limbering up for a etflix’s GLOW, is a fictionalised retelling able to identify the looker. The repetition of this fight: The Gorgeous of 80s phenomena The Gorgeous throughout generations of cinema and television Ladies of Wrestling Ladies of Wrestling which saw women has resulted in women accepting they are ‘to be camping it up in glitter and spandex looked at’ presenting themselves on camera – and Nto give their male counterparts a run for their in real life – in a way that is appealing to the Male money. Created by women, about women Gaze. In a programme with ‘gorgeous ladies’ in the and for women many people argue GLOW is title it is easy to see GLOW as another negative a feminist artefact that explores the issues representation of women; this, combined with women faced, and still face, in a male-dominated arguably unnecessary scenes of female nudity, industry. With an ensemble cast that shows seems to confirm that GLOW reinforces and that women come in a variety of shapes, sizes subjugates women to being the objects for the and colours, with varying degrees of perceived gratification of male pleasure. But is this fair? Are femininity, GLOW is undoubtedly progressive naked women anti-feminist because men like and must be celebrated. As with all media, to look at them? Are we victim-blaming women however, this is only one way of looking at it. for the way they are perceived by some men? An oppositional reading would be that GLOW Perhaps if we consider the context of a specific is yet another programme that encourages the scene there is another interpretation: in a gym objectification of women. With two strongly changing room, when two friends – Ruth and opposing ideas someone must have it wrong? Debbie – are getting changed after a work out, So Is GLOW feminist? Or is it simply sexist? the nudity is both contextual and matter of fact. It is showing a woman who is not ashamed of The Male Gaze her body in front of an old friend. Ironically the tendency for the TV industry to objectify women Through the institutional patriarchy that is the subject of their conversation; Ruth’s nudity dominates the production of art, literature and as she discusses both her need to, and her refusal cinema, audiences perceive culture through the to, conform to this to be successful as an actor male perspective and as such adopt a masculine highlights this as an issue within the industry in world view. Some of you might have studied the 80s whilst simultaneously pointing out that Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory which suggests it is still an issue. Yes, it can be seen to conform that the camera, and therefore the audience, to the male gaze, but without showing it how is positioned as male. Women become passive can it show it is a problem? It is also significant objects to this gaze, to be seen without being to highlight that GLOW is also a programme that

36 Image courtesy of Netflix

is targeted at women. With women directing feminist concern. Arguably this is where GLOW Ruth takes a face- women, who are discussing the issues of being is its most successful. Alongside characters like pasting from Carmen in GLOW a woman, to be seen by an audience of women, Debbie who conform to the idealised tall, slim, where are the male eyes? This does, however, tanned, blond-haired, blue-eyed American highlight a major flaw in using irony as a method dream, we also have Cherry, African American of communication in that it requires the audience with a physique considered masculine. There to be in on the joke. If they’re not then it simply are plus-size characters that show room for reinforces the very thing set out to deconstruct. full-figured women to be labelled gorgeous If you say one thing but actually mean another, alongside women of slim physique, as well as there will always be people who only hear what gay, queer and asexual women. The message is you are saying and miss the true meaning. that all women are gorgeous including, but not limited to, those that fit the defined standard. Redefining ‘Gorgeous’ It could be argued that applying the title to such a broad definition is to remove definition Defining women as ‘gorgeous’ might also be and as such divert the focus from a narrow held up as evidence that this is not a feminist feminine ideal. We stop looking for the ‘gorgeous’ text as it draws attention to a beauty standard women and start seeing the characters. that has been the core of the feminist battle since This is perhaps even more interesting the second wave and the ‘bra burners’ of the when we remember that GLOW was a real-life 1968 Miss America beauty pageant. In protest phenomenon in the context of wrestling as a against women being paraded like cattle to be ‘man’s sport’. The women of GLOW manage looked at and judged, feminist demonstrators to present themselves in a way that does not made a display of discarding symbols of pose a threat to the patriarchal myth, a shallow commodified femininity (bras, stilettos, make-up, display of beauty, whilst actually turning the false eyelashes) in the so-called ‘freedom bins’ objectification on its head by redefining gorgeous suggesting that that the defined beauty ideal as a spectrum of strong independent women is a means of narrowing women’s perception who can do what the men do and do it with of their own success and trapping them in glamour in a way that is so heightened there passive domesticity. Though femininity has since isn’t a masculine appeal and therefore gaze. been re-appropriated as an important aspect of feminism, the idea of a narrow definition of beauty is still high on the agenda and a

37 Image courtesy of Netflix

If you show men positively, you betray the cause but if you elevate women at the cost of men, it’s misandry and not equality… what’s a girl to do?

38 Image courtesy of Netflix

Identity Though Sam on one hand represents the director The blonde-haired, of the gaze and casually objectifies the women blue-eyed American In terms of offering audience identity, it is dream woman, around him he also celebrates them in his films Debbie crucial that there are representations of women where – in a nod to the films of John Waters – a in power in order to create these aspirations camp grotesque exploration of women and in young women and normalise this for all their issues gives them a voice. Can we argue audiences, especially when concerns about the that Sam is a feminist representation? He is a damaging effects of patriarchy are so much in the patriarchal leader who is well-rounded by being public discourse. In GLOW it is easy to suggest flawed but who uses his positions of influence that as a product of 2017 it fails to deliver these to give power to the oppressed, so yes we can. power roles for women and instead attributes This is arguably as powerful as putting a woman positions of influence within the power structures in that role; to have women share the power to men. Sam Sylvia is the alternative filmmaker with men invites men into the discussion rather who produces the wrestling programme for than disregarding them, thus making feminism trust fund playboy Bash in exchange for the a social issue and not just a women’s issue. funding of his next film. Both these men hold authority over the women as their bosses and So is GLOW Feminist or Sexist? it’s easy to analyse this as another example of men having control over women. However, this Perhaps it is both. In being sexist it highlights is too simplistic a conclusion. What we actually that the fight for gender equality still has a long have are two men who are ultimately inept, both way to go and that the world is ideologically of whom are dependent on the women for their stuck in the past. As a 21st century feminist respective successes. This in itself presents a lose- artefact, GLOW can be seen to display the ideals lose situation where to represent men positively of feminism operating within the confines of a within a feminist ideology is paradoxical. If you sexist and partiarchal society. The representation show men positively, you betray the cause but of women – whilst arguably problematic – is if you elevate women at the cost of men, it’s certainly progressive. Perhaps the point is misandry and not equality… what’s a girl to to incite debate and get people considering do? GLOW presents men and women as peers the function of the media they consume. with dependencies on each other so whilst men have the defined power, women have the actual Claire Kennedy is a Film Studies and Media Studies power as leads in the narrative with purposeful teacher at Xaverian College, Manchester. effects on the male characters. In addition to this the men have a clear respect for the women.

39 40 41 Laura Dern as Admiral Holdo

Millennial Gender Roles in The Last Jedi

The women in charge of the Rebellion are represented as the thinkers, the strategists and the brains of the outfit, who immediately write off attempts to ‘mansplain’ them into things

Rey, the self- possessed Jedi apprentice

42 he Last Jedi divided audiences as much as it united critics, but one thing is for certain: it blew traditional gender roles out of the sky like an X-Wing trashingT the cannons of a Star Destroyer. From the influence of the intergalactic matriarchy to the reversal of the princess-in-peril trope, it subverted expectations on many levels. Despite the film opening with a somewhat jarring ‘your mum’ joke directed at First Order cur General Hux, the construction and representation Fay Jessop explores of gender in the film is interesting, especially the subversive when compared to what has gone before. The original film franchise is kick-started representations of by a Princess literally sending out a distress gender in the latest call whereas one of the main protagonists in Star Wars adventure. the new trilogy is a young, self-posessed and female, and by the time we meet her in The Last Jedi, she is beginning to find her place in David James David the world and in the Rebellion. The first female in the main film franchise to actively wield a lightsaber, she follows a path similar to young Luke Skywalker’s, attempting to hone her skills under Skywalker’s jaded Jedi tutelage. Luke himself is a kind of cynical despatcher, at first very reluctant to engage with the new face of the Resistance, but then eventually agreeing to train Rey. However, it is soon clear that her goals and his are incompatible. In one of the most memorable scenes of the film, after a row with Luke that brings things for Rey, and the audience into powerful clarity, she posts herself in the space equivalent of a Parcelforce box to the First Order, and communicates via her Force Bond with Kylo Ren (formerly known as Ben Solo, son of Princess Leia and Han Solo). Convinced she can save Ben by bringing him back to the light side, much like Luke himself was convinced he could redeem his father in The Empire Strikes Back, she faces down the chief antagonist, Supreme Leader Snoke, enduring all kinds of physical and mental tortures until Ben joins forces with her to defeat him. This rapprochement is fleeting, however, and they part ways again still on broadly opposite sides. The notion of Ben Solo as the Princess who needs saving is an interesting one, as it is he who is effectively trapped in an actual and metaphorical tower, while Rey must surmount all the odds to set him free. Propp’s line is then subverted (see Propp’s character functions, linked at the end of this article) as Ben refuses to be rescued, and Rey refuses to unite with him in the climactic end to the second act, when, bloodied and exhausted, they have beaten Snoke. Whether the final instalment of this current trilogy will conform to more traditional lines, and see a redemption arc for Ben, much as his grandfather was eventually Jules Heath

43 infiltrate the Supremacy. Perhaps it’s intentional that both young, male heroes end up being literally stunned by females; Poe by Leia after the mutiny, and Finn by Rose when she finds him trying to desert the Rebellion ship. And of course, Ben Solo is also left unconscious after his battle with Rey at the climax of the second act. The women in charge of the Rebellion are represented as the thinkers, the strategists and the brains of the outfit, who immediately write off attempts to ‘mansplain’ them into things, for the sake of it. In contrast, the First Order is mainly made up of white men in dark clothes. The exaggeratedly sinister Snoke sits atop an unapologetically masculine command structure (give or take a couple of token female desk pedlars on the control deck). His key underlings, General Hux and Kylo Ren, one cold and calculating, the other hot-headed and driven by almost incandescent (and adolescent) rage, seem, on the surface, to embody traditionally masculine traits. Repressed, prone to displays of arrogance and power rather than consultation and collaboration, both appear to be throwbacks to at least one prior generation. Until the scene in the hut on Ahch-To, of course. Confronted with an emotional Rey, Ben Olley Jonathan Solo’s rage is peeled back (as he literally peels

Jonathan Olley Jonathan off one of his gloves to touch fingertips across their Force Bond), and a softer, gentler side is Hot-head Poe Dameron, played by Oscar Isaac revealed. This is the first time they explicitly begin to understand one another, to find common redeemed in Return of the Jedi remains to be seen, ground, and could be seen as the equivalent of but the twist on an old trope is an interesting one. tentative, adolescent steps towards a relationship. In line with this reversal of traditional gender This vulnerability is further developed stereotypes, the structure of the two opposing during one of the film’s more talked about forces is interesting. The Rebellion is led mostly scenes, when Rey encounters a half-clothed by women: at its head, Princess Leia, of course, Ben across the Force Bond. Since nudity has and her effective second-in-command Admiral been not-a-thing-we-do for the majority of Holdo. Leia is the strength and heart of the the Star Wars franchise (Hayden Christensen’s Rebellion, but is effectively sidelined for a oiled chest in one of the prequels and Carrie good chunk of the film, forcing Holdo to take Fisher’s metal bikini notwithstanding), this command of the trapped Rebel fleet. Calm, is as much of a surprise to the viewer as it is political and not intimidated in the least by Poe to the embarrassed Rey, who averts her gaze Dameron’s ‘hot-headed flyboy,’ she is a strategist and simply says ‘do you have something, a who eventually sacrifices herself to help the cowl you could put on, or something?’. remaining survivors escape – a shame, as she According to writer Rian Johnson, this moment appeared to have great dramatic potential as is fundamental to the plot (no, honestly). It a mediator between the old school ‘jump in an symbolises the continued stripping away of the X-wing and blow something up’ and the newer, ‘costume’ of Kylo Ren, to take Ren gradually back more thoughtful, more strategic Rebel Alliance. to being Ben Solo. First, he loses the mask in a That’s not to say that the millennial male isn’t fit of rage after Snoke has berated him for being represented on the Rebellion’s side, of course. Poe defeated by Rey, then his shirt, and finally, when Dameron, the pilot who spends most of the film the two actually make physical contact, one trying to outthink and outsmart Admiral Holdo, is of his gloves. This again suggests a set-up for knocked-out cold after a failed attempt to outrun some kind of redemption arc once the trilogy is the First Order’s battle cruiser leaves the fleet low complete, completing a narrative journey that on fuel and options, and Finn, joint protagonist was set in action from The Force Awakens. The of The Force Awakens is given a mission to try to juxtaposition of these rather more progressive

44 The notion of Ben Solo as the princess who needs saving is an interesting one, as it is he who is effectively trapped in an actual and metaphorical tower.

male traits against the rigidity and repression of Kellie Marie Tran the First Order’s buttoned-up masculinity must References as Rose and John Boyega as Finn in the surely be an appeal to a millennial audience, as Peter Bradshaw on The Last Jedi: The Last Jedi is the casting of Ben as Adam Driver, who made https://www.theguardian.com/ his name in Girls and seems to embody the film/2017/dec/12/star-wars-the-last- stature, muscle and grace of conventional movie jedi-review-episode-viii-rian-johnson star masculinity as well as a mouth that ‘seems Rian Johnson on Adam Driver’s almost on the point of trembling with tears,’ ‘Beefcake’ moment: http://www. according to Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian. digitalspy.com/movies/star-wars/ In conclusion, there is plenty to consider news/a846128/star-wars-the- about the presentation of gender roles in The last-jedi-kylo-ren-shirtless-adam- Last Jedi. And even if it hasn’t been to all fans’ driver-beefcake-rian-johnson/ liking (as the recent fan cut of The Last Jedi, where all of the women have been excised Female scenes cut from chauvinist from the film, taking its run time down to a fan edit of The Last Jedi: https:// meagre 45 minutes, has suggested), it has news.sky.com/story/female- certainly stimulated a wide-ranging level scenes-cut-from-chauvinist-fan- of discussion. One thing is for certain, the edit-of-the-last-jedi-11211265 conclusion of this current trilogy will be one For an outline of Vladimir Propp’s of the most hotly anticipated films of 2019, character types and functions and will doubtless provoke as much discussion see: https://en.wikipedia.org/ as its predecessor. I, for one, cannot wait. wiki/Vladimir_Propp#Functions

Fay Jessop teaches English at Backwell School in North Somerset and writes novels as Fay Keenan.

45 How does the ‘grammar’ of a film determine the way its story is told? Giles Gough takes the familiar convention of the 180° rule, and explains how it can be used to create new meanings.

46 The 180° rule

tar Wars: The Last Jedi has attracted no The 180° rule shortage of attention since its release in December 2017. Yet one area that The 180° rule (or as it is sometimes called, ‘the has been largely ignored is the film’s axis of action’ or the ‘centre line’) is something you Sgrammar; the stylistic choices that make up the will have seen all the time but are rarely conscious look of the film. This article will examine the use of. According to Bordwell and Thompson: of the 180° rule to change a certain narrative ‘The scene’s action, a person walking, trope, and the implications of that change. It’s two people conversing, a car racing important to mention that this article will contain along a road is assumed to take place mild spoilers. However, if you haven’t seen the along a discernible, predictable line’. film by this point, you are probably not the kind of person who will be bothered by them! The 180° rule means that the camera can only Let’s start with a quick introduction to the be put on one side of this line. Let’s take the concept of the 180° rule. When films moved example of a boy and a girl talking whilst facing from being simply one continuous shot to each other. If we draw an imaginary line between many shots from different angles being cut and those two people, it doesn’t really matter which pasted together, film editing was conceived side of that line we place camera so long as we and with it, a growing number of rules. In stay on that side for the whole scene. This is so conjunction with the cinematographer, film that when filming them, their positions remain is constructed by shooting footage from a consistent in relation to each other. If we imagine number of angles, which the editor then cuts the girl on the left and the boy on the right, the together in a consistent style. As Bordwell and camera angles need to reflect that, with the girl Thompson put it in Film Art: An Introduction: appearing on the left hand side of the screen and the boy appearing on the right. If we were ‘The basic purpose of the continuity to break this rule with the angle on one of them, system is to create a smooth we could end up with both of them being on flow from shot to shot’. the same side of the screen, which is spatially In simple terms, when shooting a scene, a confusing for an audience. This technique has filmmaker using the continuity editing style will been used so many times that most viewers will make sure the colour and lighting is consistent not even be aware of it; and yet the 180° rule from shot to shot, events will occur sequentially is used quite conspicuously in The Last Jedi. from action to reaction, and that the main action The idea of a ‘psychic rapport’, that is, a on screen will be framed within the centre telepathic connection between two individuals is of the shot. One slightly more complicated a staple trope of the sci-fi and fantasy genres. It is element of continuity editing is the 180° rule. used between Arwen and Aragorn in Lord of The Rings, between Jean Grey and Professor Xavier

47 We are completely sold on the concept of two people having a conversation across space because a traditional technique is being used in a novel way. Image courtesy of Disney Studios Industrial & Magic / Light Ltd Lucasfilm Industrial / & Magic Light Ltd Lucasfilm to heart-breaking effect at the end of X-men 2 first evidence of a psychic rapport between and it is also a part of the Star Wars universe. Rey and Kylo Ren, but it is not like anything we have seen before. The director, Rian Johnson, The rule and the Star Wars franchise aims to show us that the two of them can actually physically see each other. Sometimes Distinct from telepathy, where the character this is reflected in the dialogue, such as when is able to read anyone’s mind, a psychic rapport Rey asks Kylo if he can put a shirt on, but it is in Star Wars is called a Force Bond – where two predominantly shown through the angles and force-sensitive people are capable of sensing the editing. Johnson creates an invisible line each other’s presence, thoughts or emotional between the two characters, even though they pain. This is exhibited between Luke & Leia are not even on the same planet, and he then towards the end of Empire Strikes Back. Luke slavishly sticks to the 180° rule. Rey is consistently hangs in jeopardy upside down from an antenna shown as being on the right hand side of the beneath cloud city. He is in the centre of the screen looking left and Kylo Ren is always shown frame, he closes his eyes and whilst facing to as being on the left looking right. When Rey the left and whispers ‘Leia’. We then cut away begins to move away from him, moving further to the cockpit of the Millennium Falcon, where to the right, Kylo follows her. Sightlines are also Leia is sitting. She is in the centre of the frame, consistent throughout, with Rey always looking looking into the middle distance, slightly to slightly up and to the left, to account for the the right. There is no attempt by the director to fact that Kylo is taller than her. The only time suggest there’s a spatial relationship between this is reversed is when Rey has run up the entry the two. This is not the case in The Last Jedi. ramp to the Millennium Falcon, and Kylo, again Within the first hour of the film, we see the

48 Industrial Light & Magic / Lucasfilm Ltd Industrial & Magic / Lucasfilm Light Ltd Industrial & Magic / Lucasfilm Light

Kylo Ren and Rey communicating using their Force Bond in a separate location, is looking up at her. Leia, whereas Kylo and Rey’s connection shows us So why is this interesting? Well, what’s a variation on this trope. What is communicated fascinating about this stylistic choice is that by between the two characters in this film is more using the 180° rule with two characters that are clear and articulate, possibly suggesting that not actually in the same place, Johnson is drawing Kylo and Rey, two otherwise unconnected attention to its artificiality. It is a technique that individuals, have a strong connection – one most audiences would not be aware of under much stronger than the Skywalker twins. normal circumstances, and here it’s highlighted. This stylistic change is indicative of a broader We know that the filmmakers have had to work sea-change within the Star Wars franchise. harder here to recreate this effect because This change has been brought about through these two scenes will have been filmed weeks necessity. Disney bought the Star Wars franchise or months apart. We are completely sold on the from George Lucas in 2012 for an eye-watering concept of two people having a conversation 4.05 billion dollars. If there is going to be a new across space because a traditional technique is Star Wars film released every year, which one being used in a novel way. The sheer novelty of imagines is what Disney are hoping for, then we this change in style is worthy of comment as well. will have to reconsider what constitutes a Star Wars film. We have begun to see this with the Stylistic changes introduction of Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, which made the stylistic choice to abandon the A film’s stylistic choices can become as franchise’s iconic opening text-crawl as a means memorable and beloved as what we actually to deliver exposition. With Rian Johnson being see on-screen. One example is the way the films, given the green light to start developing his to some extent or other, use wipe transitions own trilogy of films set in the Star Wars galaxy as a way of moving from one scene to the next. but separate to the Skywalker saga, we can Another stylistic choice is the Star Wars way of expect to see even more narrative and stylistic representing a psychic connection; characters changes: a thought that fills fans’ hearts with typically stare intently off into the middle joy and terror in roughly equal measure. distance and softly whisper each other’s names. This is a technique we see used in both the original and the prequel trilogy. The interesting Giles Gough teaches English and Media Studies and thing here is how, like poetry, a film’s style can leads participatory filmmaking workshops at www. reflect its content. We have seen an example of daskfilms.com. how a psychic rapport works between Luke and

Rey is consistently shown as being on the right hand side of the screen looking left and Kylo Ren is always shown as being on the left looking right.

49 Entertainment Pictures / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy Entertainment Pictures

Hushpuppy and her father in Beasts of the Southern Wild (2012)

Niki Smith demonstrates how Hurricane Katrina, a marginalised community, mythical beasts and the perspective of a six-year-old are woven together through techniques of magic realism in this poignant Eduqas set text.

50 Hushpuppy comes face to snout with the magical auroch Everett Collection Inc / Alamy Stock Photo Stock Collection Inc / Alamy Everett

easts of the Southern Wild, directed by Benh Zeitlin and released in 2012, is the heart-breaking and magical tale of six-year-old Hushpuppy and her Magic realism allows father, Wink. Zeitlin’s film is a great example of filmmakers to explore howB independent films, free from the constraints of the big Hollywood studios, are able to challenge and question the real in a magical way mainstream ideologies. In this instance, the director employs and in Beasts, the magic the magic realism genre to explore the unique challenges faced by our tiny protagonist as she is forced to grow elements presented to us up before her time and become ‘King of the Bathtub’. include Hushpuppy’s ability Magic realism is best known in its literary incarnation and was made famous by Latin American literature and to hear the heartbeat of writers such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez and his novel, 100 small animals, the strip-club Years of Solitude. Indeed, there are many parallels to be drawn between this novel and Beasts of the Southern Wild scene, the rights of passage such as the examination and exploration of marginalised narrative, and of course, cultures living on the edge of mainstream society, and catastrophic environmental threat. As a genre, it is the journey of the aurochs. defined by Dutch magic realist painter, Pyke Koch, as: ‘based on the representation of what is possible but not probable.’ In other words, magic realism allows think I broke something’. Zeitlin then, weaves the journey film makers to explore the real in a magical way and of the aurochs together with Hushpuppy’s experiences of in Beasts, the magic elements presented to us include the Bathtub to mirror her personal belief that: ‘the whole Hushpuppy’s ability to hear the heartbeat of small animals, universe depends on everything fitting together just right’. the strip-club scene, the rights of passage narrative, and Another way to think about this might be with reference of course, the journey of the aurochs. In this case, Zeitlin to the Kuleshov effect (see sidebar, and MM58). Hushpuppy explores the very real dangers and threats faced by constructs her own narrative by assembling a series of Hushpuppy through the lens of the auroch narrative. It is unrelated events and placing herself at the centre of the this journey that will be the initial focus of this article. situation. Just like Hitchcock and his infamous bikini, in so The magical auroch narrative is established when doing, Hushpuppy herself seems to trigger the magical Hushpuppy conflates a series of events and bits of events that form the story of the film. For example, the information and constructs her own narrative in a way idea that her daddy could have turned into a tree or a only a small child can. After Miss Bathsheeba’s lesson of bug is indicative of her child’s perspective and naiveté. impending environmental doom, Hushpuppy discovers her Seemingly, a simple touch acted out in anger against her father is missing, and this naturally, in Hushpuppy’s mind, father is enough to turn Wink into a tree or a bug, start leads directly to the fire, her mother fantasy, the storm, the storm (based on Hurricane Katrina), as well as release and finally, the arrival of the aurochs. Truly only the logic the aurochs from their frozen slumber deep in the polar of a child could rationalise all these events with a simple: ‘I ice caps; pretty impressive work for a six-year-old.

51 Quvenzhané Wallis as Hushpuppy, the master of her own fate Entertainment Pictures / Alamy Stock Photo Stock / Alamy Entertainment Pictures

them to bow down to her as a mark of respect. In this way, she becomes the master of her own fate that, in turn, gives Zeitlin’s film is a her the inner strength and courage she needs to face life great example of how without her father in the cut-off and marginalised surrounds of the Bathtub. To further illustrate this, Wink, watching the independent films, free process through a window at the very end of his life, nods from the constraints to acknowledge his pride in this daughter upon seeing the aurochs bow, and then allows himself to die. Hushpuppy of the big Hollywood is now King of the Bathtub, and he can rest knowing she is studios, are able the master of her own destiny, wherever that may take her. Beasts is a film that tells its tale from a child’s perspective. to challenge and Because of this, the spectator is constantly aware of question mainstream Hushpuppy’s vulnerability in a way that she is not. While Hushpuppy might just be the king of her own world facing ideologies. a string of magical dangers, for a grown-up spectator, she is but a tiny king of an imaginary land of great danger. There is a huge connection between what the spectator fears might happen to Hushpuppy, and the community in which she has been raised. The Bathtub is a marginalised Zeitlin’s use of magic realism then, initiates the community set apart from mainstream America by the big questions, or the work of the film, and coincides levees that protect the land dwellers from flooding. with the real threat Hushpuppy faces: the loss of her Because the film references Hurricane Katrina, it’s worth father, a catastrophic storm, poor living conditions, a noting that the levees that protect New Orleans have an fire, alcoholism, and neglect to name but a few. environmental impact of their own. Losing the wetlands The auroch narrative functions metaphorically; the ancient means that hurricanes don’t have space to decrease in creatures come to embody and represent all the danger speed and severity once they hit land, and at the same time, and threat that our child-hero faces. During the resolution the wetland flora cannot then absorb excess water and of the film, Hushpuppy masters the aurochs and forces potentially reduce the likelihood of storm surges. Essentially,

52 Character alignment is an aspect of spectatorship that works with genre to force the spectator to challenge their own views on mainstream and marginalised communities and ideologies. Illustrations by Goom Illustrations by Kuleshov effect Beasts makes the point that the residents of the Bathtub are living in the wetlands and vulnerable to the worst that the The Kuleshov Effect is a film editing effect demonstrated weather can throw at them at the same time as being cut by Soviet filmmaker Lev Kuleshov in the 1920s. It is off from all that the mainstream can offer; chiefly education, where the viewer derives more meaning from a sequence healthcare, jobs, and protection from the weather. In the of the shots rather than a single shot in isolation. face of this, the Bathtubbers have created their own culture Hitchcock exemplified this in the 1960s with a sequence rich in traditions, folklore and community that offers a of still images taken from rushes from his films. In the first very attractive alternative to the alien culture offered by sequence we see Hitchcock’s face in close-up, squinting as the mainstream. Attractive that is, if you can stomach though looking at something. The second shot is a woman the film’s impoverished and rubbish-strewn aesthetic. playing with a child. The third image is Hitchcock again, this So how does Zeitlin make the Bathtub look time smiling. The meaning created here is that he is a sweet like a model for community living? old man taking pleasure in an innocent wholesome scene. Character alignment is an aspect of spectatorship that He then made an alternative sequence changing only works with genre to force the spectator to challenge their the second shot from a mother and child to a woman in a own views on mainstream and marginalised communities bikini. This completely changes the meaning of the third and ideologies. A great example of this occurs at the shot, the smile, as now he looks like a dirty old man. beginning of the film when Wink and Hushpuppy share It was Kuleshov’s belief that in film it isn’t the images a meal surrounded by rubbish in a less-than-sanitary themselves that are important but the ways in which they environment. At this point, the spectator is likely to feel are combined and edited together to create meaning revulsion at the living conditions Hushpuppy must endure. See also MediaMag 58 Later on, in the rescue shelter, Zeitlin revisits this idea when Hushpuppy and Wink are given non-descript, beige ‘food’ that does not seem to resemble anything close to real nourishment. This time, despite the extremely clean, bright and orderly conditions, the spectator supports Wink when he tells his daughter not to eat it. It is character alignment that achieves this great turn-around. The spectator is now so aligned with Hushpuppy, Wink and the Bathtub ideology that they instantly find the food offered by the mainstream land dwellers to be abhorrent. In conclusion, Zeitlin’s genre choice works with other aspects of spectator response in order to tell the work of the film. Through magic realism and character alignment, Resources the spectator finds their attitudes and values challenged in 1. Haber, E: The Myth of the order to realise the strengths of the Bathtub community, Non-Russian: Iskander and and the problems faced by marginalised communities in Aitmatov’s Magical Universe general. That this is all achieved via the magical journey (Lexington Books, 2003) of the ancient aurochs from melting glaciers to America’s deep South, makes strange the everyday life of the land dwellers. In the mind of a rambunctious six-year-old though, anything really is possible even if it really isn’t probable.

Niki Smith is a writer and teaches Film at Loreto College in Manchester.

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Laverne Cox by Eric Charbonneau ollywood, and especially the Academy, In reaction to the ongoing are often criticised for creating and controversies surrounding rewarding content that is trapped in the #OscarsSoWhite and glitzy, perfect world of Tinseltown. The Hmost recent example of this was La La Land – a #MeToo, it’s clear the Academy needs to focus on loveable, nostalgic, yet obliviously optimistic love letter to Hollywood’s glory days. Which is why diversity. Moonlight’s victory everybody was shocked when Moonlight snatched over La La Land last year the Best Picture award, quite literally, from under suggests that controversy La La Land’s nose at the 2017 Oscars awards seems to work, and ethnic show. Moonlight was a surprising yet worthy minorities are now achieving win, but part of its success may have come from wider recognition for their public criticism of the Academy. The win followed contributions to film. But two years of the #OscarsSoWhite campaign, can the same be said for where actors and supporters pointed out that the LGBT community? Amy ethnic minorities were sorely underrepresented Pollard investigates. amongst the nominations in 2015 and 2016. Moonlight was an incredibly progressive film, telling the story of a man who was not only black, but gay. Following its victory last year, and Jordan Peele’s win for Best Original Screenplay for Get Out, it is fair to wonder if we are finally seeing a shift in representation at the Oscars. A group that is often underrepresented in the Oscars is the LGBT community and those who identify within this community. Admittedly, LGBT figures have been visible at the Oscars for a while now. In 2015, gay icon Neil Patrick Harris was the host, the public face of the show. The year before, Ellen DeGeneres took the same role for the second time (the first being in 2007). Her second time around, she briefly dominated the internet with the most retweeted selfie on Twitter at the time. Their presence shows that

55 Transgender actress LGBT icons are welcomed by the Academy, but it Laverne Cox as Sophia isn’t all about the hosts at the Oscars. It’s about in Orange is the New Black the movies; the actors, the directors, the stories. Many openly gay people have won Oscars, though their talents are often lent to music or writing. Elton John and Howard Ashman have both won Oscars for their work on some of our favourite Disney movies. Tom Daley’s husband, Dustin Lance Black, won Best Original Screenplay for Milk in 2009, and Alan Ball won the same award in 2000 for American Beauty. The trend has continued into this year’s nominees, with black lesbian Dee Rees being nominated for penning Mudbound and gay man Benj Pasek landing a nomination for Best Original Song with

Myles Aronowitz ‘This Is Me’, after he and fellow songwriter Justin Paul picked up the same award last year for La La Land’s ‘City of Stars’. What’s notably missing here is LGBT Oscar winners and nominees for acting or directing – twice-nominated himself, Ian McKellen once famously lamented that an openly gay man has never won Best Actor. While this is a shock and disappointment to the LGBT community, it’s also a reminder that actors and directors are not the only people rewarded at the Oscars. Still, a little recognition in the foreground as well as the background would surely be welcomed by the LGBT community, if the right winner were to come along. It is also difficult to find winning films that represent LGBT interests, as, while many LGBT Public domain Public films are being released, some struggle to get Ellen DeGeneres’ the recognition they may deserve. One recent famous Oscars selfie film that many saw as a standout snub was Carol from the 2016 award show. Cate Blanchett and Rooney Mara were both nominated for their performances as the two halves of the heart- warming lesbian couple, but the film itself was sadly missing from the Best Picture list, and Todd Haynes didn’t receive a nod for his role as director. It’s happened in the past too – Brokeback Mountain lost out on Best Picture in 2006, but at least it still won a few awards on the night. What is particularly disappointing here is that Carol was a film about gay women rather than men, a group that gains even less recognition, and avoided throwing a tragic death into the narrative, a trend we often see in LGBT films. Carol celebrated gay women beautifully and elegantly, but still didn’t manage the recognition it may have deserved.

But what of the ‘T’ in LGBT? It’s a struggle, but transgender issues are slowly creeping into the foreground in public debates on gender, and with them, transgender actors and actresses are earning their own place in the industry. Popular television shows like Orange Is The New Black are clearing the way for transgender

56 Praytino / Flickr Praytino

it is still a struggle to come out, performers may not wish to declare their sexuality to prove that they are gay enough or straight enough to get a job. In any other industry, hiring a person based solely on their sexuality would be outrageous. So, would a #OscarsSoStraight even be beneficial? Yes, Moonlight’s victory last year, as well as the victory of Mahershala Ali, the first Muslim actor to win an Oscar, were both a step in the right direction. Recognition for LGBT films, actors, and characters, should be encouraged, but the Academy shouldn’t be voting for them just to get the LGBT community off their back. actors and actresses, like Laverne Cox, to take Nor should a talented person’s sexuality, queer their places as household names. Cox has even or straight, stop them from being hired for any won an Emmy. The Academy has taken much role. Hiring people only based on their sexuality, longer to catch up in this regard, as up until while being a form of positive discrimination, this year, there had only been two transgender is discrimination. What matters is talent, and nominees – Anohni for Best Original Song in when diversity is rewarded for being more 2016 and composer Angela Morley in the 1970s. than just diversity, it’ll feel far more valuable. This year’s award show shines much more of a Though if this year is any indication, perhaps spotlight on the transgender community. We we have less to worry about. The first woman have seen the first transgender director, Yance to ever be nominated for Cinematography, Ford, nominated for Best Documentary Feature Rachel Morrison, is also a lesbian. Call Me with his film Strong Island, as well as A Fantastic By Your Name received four nominations, Woman being nominated for Best Foreign including for Best Picture and Best Adapted Language Film, a film about a transgender Screenplay for gay writer James Ivory. Director woman, starring an actual transgender woman. Yance Ford and writer Dee Rees are LGBT and It isn’t usually the case that transgender films black, showing that the Academy is noticing star transgender actors – most of the time, it’s diversity of all kinds. #OscarsSoWhite appears cisgender actors and actresses who are winning to have gotten the ball rolling for diverse awards for transgender roles. Eddie Redmayne, creators, an exciting development in an industry for example, was nominated for The Danish Girl, on the mend after years of controversy. and Jared Leto won for Dallas Buyers Club. It isn’t just transgender roles that are given to cisgender performers – many gay roles are given Amy Pollard is an English Literature and Film Studies to straight performers. Natalie Portman won Best student from Oxford Brookes University. Actress in 2011, playing a bisexual woman in Black Swan, and Call Me By Your Name’s nominated actor Timothée Chalamet, while an ally, hasn’t come out as gay himself. But is this really a bad thing? Yes, it would be good to recognise LGBT actors for LGBT roles, but the actor’s talent should also be considered. In an industry where

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World History Archive / Alamy Stock Photo Cinematography, narrative and performance are meaningless without the often ‘invisible’ process of editing, argues Jonathan Nunns. To see what he means, try applying his analysis of The Maltese Falcon to the opening sequence of any Hollywood classic.

Editing, an Introduction providing choice, to provide the director and editor with the rushes, the raw materials that So what is editing? A key part of the art and are the building blocks of the editing process. craft of cinema and often, if done well, you shouldn’t even notice it. So what’s the point? Well Continuity Editing good editing makes everything work. The acting, cinematography, design, effects and direction In this instance we will focus on continuity are the more visible elements of the film making editing. The purpose of this style seems process and frequently more celebrated. However, contradictory, to make itself invisible to the it is the editor that joins the dots; without them viewer because, if it is performing well, then you have no film and no story, nothing, no more the spectator will be immersed in the narrative than the raw footage, the unedited rushes. Like universe and characterization, not the mechanics a jigsaw puzzle or a box of Lego, it’s nothing and technical processes of how the film was until someone puts the pieces together. actually made. For this, a good exemplar is the It is the edit that delivers the characterisation, opening scene of noir classic, The Maltese Falcon the emphasis and nuance. It can make the most of (Huston, 1941), focusing on the work of Richard all the work which went before. A badly-shot film Thomas as editor and John Huston as director. can be rescued in the edit and many have been, By the time this film was made, Hollywood but a badly edited film is beyond redemption had created a well-established technical and will have you leaving the cinema cross and language for its products. 1940s studio frustrated at the gibberish you have just seen. output was slick, practised and confident in Great editors such as Walter Murch and Thelma the use of editing, building on the films of Schoonmaker work in tandem with the auteurs the early pioneers of the continuity edited with whom they collaborate. This is an essential feature film, such as DW Griffiths’ controversy- creative element in the collaborative art of film. laden epic Birth of a Nation (Griffith, 1915). Directors shoot with the edit directly in mind. Now watch the opening scene from The process of adapting the screenplay into a The Maltese Falcon youtube.com/ storyboard, so essential to the pre-production watch?v=wbynrMqMZdM process, is a plan both for the shoot and for the or search for ‘Miss Wonderly Hires Spade and edit that follows. Multi-camera cinematography Archer’ to see an example of continuity editing. was expressly conceived for the purpose of

59 The Maltese Falcon: The Opening It is the editor that Sequence joins the dots, without Huston’s film opens on a sequence establishing the cityscape of 1940’s San Francisco. Dissolving them you have no film briefly between shots, a final cross-dissolve and no story, nothing, introduces the same view, now seen through a window, on which are stencilled the names no more than the raw Spade and Archer. With a jib-shot or crane footage, the unedited shot, the camera drops, introducing Sam Spade in mid-close-up, smart and business- rushes. Like a jigsaw like, seated comfortably and rolling a cigarette. puzzle or a box of Off-screen a door closes, prompting an eye- line match (although he doesn’t look up from Lego, it’s nothing what he’s doing) to a long shot, over Spade’s until someone puts shoulder, introducing the rest of the office and the sound source, Spade’s secretary, Effie. the pieces together. With the setting safely established, the next cut is to Effie’s mid close-shot, bringing her closer and allowing her to deliver some exposition. She informs Spade, a Private Investigator, that The rule establishes an imaginary 180° line of he has a visitor and potential client. Cutting action between characters in a dialogue scene back to Spade and then to the over-the- (see page 47). On one side of the line is the shoulder shot that provides his viewpoint, dramatic action. Here we find the characters and the client, Miss Wonderly, is ushered in. the established mise-en-scène of the sequence. As she enters, Spade stands to greet her, the Once the situation and characters have been camera jibbing up with him, providing a wide fully established in relation to each other and shot to allow the audience to take in the new the space around them, then it is safe for the character. Wonderly is smartly and expensively focal length to move into close-ups so that the dressed in the height of 1940’s chic. As she actors can earn their money in the minimalist moves towards Spade’s desk, a match on action dramatic style typical of film and TV. This was in cut allows the camera to move with her. As the stark contrast to the theatrical and expressionistic characters settle on opposite sides of the desk, a style common to early film, where the inability to flat angle, mid-length two-shot is chosen to allow cut into a scene with close-shots, meant internal the audience to appreciate the new arrangement emotions had to be expressed by the exaggerated of the space and the characters within it. external physical gestures of the cast. The process just described operated On the other side of the line are the crew, three in line with the principles of the 180° or more cameras, the associated photographic rule, a core element in the shooting of team, sound team and director. In this way the dialogue scenes for film and television. scene is fully covered as each camera records its own perspective on the action. Often this would mean cameras in close-up on each of the leads and another zoomed out, recording the establishing two-shot. This long shot would usually be used first within the scene, to establish the action and could then be cut back to for A badly shot film can be rescued re-establishment during pauses in the dialogue, or if new elements were introduced during the in the edit and many have scene, such as the arrival of a new character. been, but a badly edited film Returning to the scene, as Spade and Wonderly discuss her case, the editor cuts in shot-reverse- is beyond redemption and will shot between his face and hers, following have you leaving the cinema the flow of the conversation. He appears mid close-up, she in a more emotionally exposing cross and frustrated at the close-up. As Wonderly speaks, there are periodic gibberish you have just seen. cuts to Spade’s reaction as he encourages her explanation. This visual tennis is broken by another off-screen sound as Spade’s fellow detective, Miles Archer enters the office.

60 Mary Astor as Ruth Wonderly, In this scene, expository Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade and dialogue is used to establish Jerome Cowan as a range of characters Miles Archer in the opening sequence and events that are never of The Maltese Falcon (1941) seen but referred to only as off-screen events.

Needing to re-establish the positioning of the characters within the frame, the editor cuts to Archer in mid-shot, the camera panning with him as he moves into the office, integrating him into the existing elements of the scene. In the new arrangement, Archer perches himself on Spade’s end of the desk. The 180° rule re-established, the editor continues to cut to Wonderly as she finishes her story. However, now when cutting to the opposite end of the line, the camera favouring Spade has re-framed to a low-angle two-shot. This features both men, but now in mid-shot rather than mid close-up, the low angle giving them confident visual dominance, whilst Wonderly, confined within her close shots, looks tense and nervous. Later, it becomes clear that this framing and editing is a deliberate misdirection as to Wonderly’s true character and motives. What this brief analysis hopefully shows is how utterly fundamental continuity editing has become to the construction of film, and how much it is directly and expressly planned for in the shoot. In this scene, expository dialogue is used to establish a range of characters and events that are never seen but referred to only as off-screen events. That this information be delivered to the audience digestibly and clearly is essential to the establishment of the back- story events on which the rest of the narrative is based. For economy of time and budget, this linear sequence relays complex events with clarity, and permits the narrative to move swiftly to the next scene. Here Archer is murdered, setting in progress Spade’s investigation into the circumstances of his friend’s death. Continuity editing, seen here in the expert hands of Huston and Richards, is a core principle of the construction of narrative film. It is an essential technique for any student of the medium.

Jonathan Nunns is Head of Media Studies at Collyer’s College and an A level moderator. Public domain Public

61 simpler time, in and Steve, yearning to to belong a Natalia Dyer asNancy Keery andJoe 62 Stranger Things Stranger

Image courtesy of Netflix How homage and intertextuality are used in Stranger Things to appeal to a mass audience

n 2016, Netflix launched a television Undergraduate Erin phenomenon that brought the Charnley explores 80s to a generation who had never experienced it. Stranger a brilliant OCR set ThingsI (2016) quickly became a text and suggests sensation with audiences old and that nostalgia and young; within its first 35 days on the popular cultural streaming service, the supernatural Image courtesy of Netflix references lie at the drama averaged an audience of more heart of its success. than 14 million adults aged 18-49. culture, Stranger Things showcases Netflix is currently the most popular the decade to an audience that never online streaming platform and an experienced it, and creates a sense apparently unstoppable force when of yearning to belong in that time. it comes to knowing what content Regardless of whether the audience audiences want to consume. When the experienced the time period first hand Duffer brothers (the show’s creators) or not, the ‘80s aesthetic’ is exploited brought Stranger Things to Netflix’s to generate feelings of nostalgia and audience, it seemed to be the perfect sentimentality, even amongst the genre blend of Steven Spielberg’s show’s key demographic of 18-24 family adventure films along with year olds. The notion of fandom, a the sci-fi horror of Stephen King, subculture of people who share a seen through the lens of the 1980s. common interest in a specific popular It could be argued that the creators’ culture, has grown in modern society ability to meticulously reference and ‘being a fan has become an ever popular culture within the show while more common mode of cultural effortlessly homaging classic 80s films consumption’ (Gray et al, 2007). Each generation was one of its greatest appeals, and Nowadays younger generations have in the show perhaps the chord that struck with been brought up consuming pop most audience members. One could culture to the point where films such exists in a claim that nostalgia plays a large factor as Star Wars (1977), E.T: The Extra different ’80s in the show’s success both for older Terrestrial (1982) and Jaws (1975), all viewers and, to an extent, younger of which are referenced in Stranger universe audiences too. Using references Things, have been hugely influential and homage from familiar 80s pop on the modern audience’s childhoods.

63 Using references and homage from familiar 80s pop culture, Stranger Things showcases the decade to an audience Noah Schnapp as Will, Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Gaten that never experienced it, and creates a Matarazzo as Dustin and Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas sense of yearning to belong in that time. Image courtesy of Netflix

Henry Jenkins suggests that is understood as a storytelling will recall their emotions from their device because it is ‘explicit’, is previous viewings; when watching The practices of fandom ‘clearly marked as part of the new material that alludes to prior texts, have become increasingly show’s aesthetic storytelling they will experience similar feelings. enmeshed with the rhythms and and will be ‘automatically’ E.T and Carrie are just two of the temporalities of broadcasting, recognised as a reference or many media texts that are explicitly acknowledging the huge significance a quote (Haastrup, 2014). intertextualised within Stranger Things of popular culture for today’s audiences. Season One. The Duffer brothers have The show relies on two forms Not only does the nostalgia factor within clearly drawn huge inspiration from of intertextuality: the first, ‘explicit Stranger Things transport audiences Steven Spielberg with regards to the intertextuality’ relates to the use of visual back to a simpler era, the 1980s, but tone of Stranger Things. For example, as a homage, specific character stereotypes the Duffer Brothers’ uses of homage town, Hawkins, Indiana is reminiscent of and allusions to certain films within and intertextuality take audiences back the small, suburban towns used regularly the show’s narrative, while the second into films from their childhoods – again, in Spielberg’s films such as Amity Island directly references, within the show a time when things were simpler. (Jaws) and the suburbs of Northern itself, other media texts from the time California (E.T: the Extra Terrestrial). Stranger Things, period in which the show is set. In Stranger Things Season One, Hybrid Narratives, Post-modernism and audiences were overcome by the sheer Intertextuality number of references and allusions to an Generations and Genres It has been suggested that ‘a common abundance of 80s films, stereotypes and One of the most interesting features feature of postmodern Hollywood conventions, making the consumption of Stranger Things is the hybrid nature cinema is its intertextuality’ (Aragay, of the show a form of ‘Easter egg hunt’. of the show’s narrative and the fact that, 2005). In recent years there has been For example the first shot of season one according to Ross Duffer, each generation a rise in the interconnectedness of episode one is a visual homage to the in the show exists in a different ’80s the media, perhaps because of the opening shot of E.T: the Extra-Terrestrial universe (2016). As he says, each separate huge range of media texts available to (1982). The panning-down shot of the generational arc within the show takes audiences. Julia Kristeva has stated that night sky is used frequently within this on a different category of 80s genre: the this began with the rise of modernism season, and allows the Duffer brothers children partake in a Spielberg/ King and now, according to Graham Allen to effortlessly evoke a sense of eeriness inspired adventure, the teenagers are and mystery in those audience members in a John Hughes/ slasher film hybrid, Western art... begins to self- who watched E.T: the Extra Terrestrial (E.T). Hopper is acting out a conspiracy thriller, consciously unleash the force Structuralist theorists would argue and Joyce is part of a supernatural of the semiotic’ (Allen, 2000) that intertextuality is used to drama mystery. Thus Stranger Things within its media. By definition, locate and fix literary uses genre and genre conventions intertextuality describes the relationships meaning (Allen, 2000). to provide audiences with instant between texts for example books, recognition and fast understanding films and television shows. They suggest that, on an unconscious of the narrative and character types. Scholars such as Haastrup might level, audience members who have In theory, the show’s hybridity argue that the intertextuality experienced the original texts referenced works because each genre is attached used in Stranger Things, through homage within another to specific characters, and relies on

64 Prom night for what Barry Grant has referred to as the Stranger active readers who bring their Things kids generic knowledge to bear in watching movies (2007, p21). The show’s pastiche nature allows the Duffer brothers to rely on their audiences’ familiarity with, and pleasure in, these references and genres; clearly, their faith ‘The practises of fandom have become in their audience was well placed. It’s clear from spectator responses that the increasingly enmeshed with the rhythms most enjoyable narrative arc of the show and temporalities of broadcasting.’ belongs to the kids; the children of the Image courtesy of Netflix show (Mike, Eleven, Lucas and Dustin) are reminiscent of the groups of kids from The The Retro Appeal that in the 21st century audiences Goonies (1985) and Stand By Me (1986), have a heightened understanding of In terms of younger audiences, it may two incredibly popular cult 80s movies pop culture, in which media texts hold be the show’s retro factor that attracts that have grown in audience’s hearts greater value than they perhaps held the youth of today. Arjun Appadurai since their release. Dustin, the lovable fifty or so years ago. The Duffer Brothers has coined the term ‘armchair nostalgia’ fan-favourite of Stranger Things, bears have effectively ‘recycled’ popular media which describes ‘nostalgia without huge resemblance to Chunk from The texts by homaging them in Stranger lived experience or collective historical Goonies, with his love of food, excitable Things and this is what has really stood memory’ (Appadurai, 1996, p78). There persona and the fact that he is the group’s out for fans. Thus, it can be argued that is a definite attraction to the 1980s comic relief. Similarly in episode five, the use of homage and intertextuality as a decade for modern audiences; there is an obvious visual nod to Stand by truly do lie at the very heart of Stranger whether thanks to the cult films made Me as the kids, in long-shot, walk down Things as a television show, and it is during the time period, or younger train tracks exactly mirroring the film. those two factors that have made it audiences yearning for a simpler time, Through the homage to these two films, incredibly appealing to a mass audience. or even an element of escapism, the the kids are semiotically positioned in a 80s is currently a hugely popular era. conventional adventure drama genre. Stranger Things is a new calibre of Erin Charnley is studying TV Production at The combination of hybrid genres television show: one that feeds off Bournemouth University. and the homage to classic films loved by modern audience’s understanding audiences old and new perhaps explains and love of pre-existing pop culture. why Stranger Things was successful from Arguably it is the use of homage and the outset. It could be theorised that the intertextuality that has boosted the from the MM vaults show’s use of intertextuality and homage show’s appeal to a mass audience. increases its appeal to a mass audience The Strange Concept of Henry Jenkins’ theories of fandom and because audiences often ‘communicate Genre in Stranger Things, consumer culture support the notion and understand each other through pop Claire Kennedy, MM58 culture’ (Hyden, 2017). The 21st century rise in extreme fans and fandom is Ross and Matt Duffer evidence of the huge influence of popular on the set of Stranger culture on modern society. Henry Jenkins Things season 2 has suggested that the act of fandom has expanded into ‘regular consumption’, highlighting the passion of modern fans. The concept behind Stranger Things is seemingly fool proof because it so heavily relies on the audience’s love of prior media texts, and can thus instantly attract any audience for any of the films it pays tribute on an unconscious level, audience to. Moreover, Stranger Things’ references members who have experienced to family/ childhood film favourites such as Star Wars and The Goonies enhances the original texts referenced audiences’ appreciation because they are through homage within another fixated on what first will recall their emotions from mattered to them as kids or teenagers (Sexton, 2016). their previous viewings. Image courtesy of Netflix

65 Section A of the legacy AQA MEST3 features an ‘unseen text’ and often fills students with Know (and don’t fear) the ‘media dread. Put your mind at ease, and let us help landscape’… you cope with the fear of the ‘unknown.’ MEST3 is officially titled ‘Critical Perspectives’ which means you should be aware of as many Differences from MEST1… significant developments, changes or controversies that have occurred in the contemporary media • Two unseen texts instead of one. world. Think of yourself like a media sponge. • Instead of four, equally weighted twelve Dive right in and absorb as much as you can! mark questions, you will answer three questions, worth 8, 12 and 12 marks each Set up an academic twitter account… • Knowing what each question requires will be crucial to securing the correct marks • Keeping up to date with this media landscape and the need to refer to your own examples can be very daunting. It is the one thing that causes the anxiety in my students each year. The 8 mark question... • Set up a ‘professional’ academic Twitter account. This will seem familiar as it’s replicating If you follow the correct accounts, you can the questions from MEST1. It will: watch them do the hard work for you! • ask you to refer to the texts directly; • Take this seriously. The more active (and • focus on one of the media concepts, so frequent) you are with this research, the continue to swot up on those; more valuable the experience will be. • possibly double up on two media concepts; • Hot topics are usually controversies in advertising, • expect you to be able to confidently deconstruct stereotypical and countertypical representation texts using correct media language. of women, LGBT or race, and viral marketing If the question does not specifically refer to media forms, it stunts, both successful and unsuccessful. will be highly likely you can utilise the terminology anyway, Guess the texts… How many unseen texts? • Keep yourself exposed to the media landscape TWO. Yes, two! Unlike MEST1, you have to talk and try and guess the unseen texts. about both texts in one question, for just eight • Analyse past paper texts to spot patterns. marks. Maximise your viewing time, plan, and try to • TV or film extracts, or adverts that represent compare and contrast the two texts. Ask yourself: certain groups of people, are often valuable. • Are there any similarities you can identify? Have • Try to expect a challenge, that way the texts been chosen because they conflict? you can’t be caught off guard. • Keep your answer balanced, and only utilise • Collate possible unseen texts in one place. the concepts the questions asks for. Share the love… • Bookmark potential unseen texts or send them to your teacher as a starter activity. The 12 mark questions. • Better yet, tweet them using the #MEST3. • Using past paper questions, set yourself a mock exam, Think of these as mini MEST1 Section B case studies. or write your own questions for a friend, and swap. Question 2 says you may refer to your own examples • Self or peer assess your practice answers to fully in your answer, and question 3 says you should, so understand the Section A mark scheme. by this stage, rely on the unseen text less and less. • Follow the #MEST3 hashtag. It is used It is sensible to use your own examples very often, by experienced Media & Film in both twelve mark questions. Studies teachers around the country. This will show the examiner you really understand • Several of my students, now at university, still the media landscape, and can refer to a range contribute, having kept their media accounts active. of media products that you have studied.

66 How to Evaluate Tip #1… • ALL FOUR of the Section A level bands refer to evaluation. • You MUST consider various points of view. • The easiest way to do this is to disagree with every point you make. • Use phrases such as ‘however, on the other Know (and don’t fear) the MEST3 Mark hand’ or ‘it could also be argued that,’ to Scheme… offer up an opposing point of view. Don’t see the mark scheme as a ‘teacher’ How to Evaluate Tip #2… document. It can be a useful tool. • Have a printed copy when you are revising. • A more sophisticated way of evaluating is to Read it carefully and frequently, and use Stuart Hall’s alternative readings theory. use it to assess your own work. • You will inject a media theorist and have an • Be aware of the differences between each level. opportunity to present three different points of view. The Level 4 refers to answers that are ‘sophisticated • First, discuss the dominant reading, the one most and ‘detailed’ but Level 1 and 2 talk about audience members will probably relate to. answers that are ‘basic’ and have ‘some’ detail. • Then explore the oppositional reading, and why • Study the past paper questions, certain audiences might reject the product. and brainstorm answers. • Finally, the negotiated reading, an evaluation gold • Have pace and stamina. Write enough, and don’t mine! It is quite literally a scenario where an individual exhaust your knowledge in the first question. might agree and disagree at the same time. How to Evaluate Tip #3… Read the question… • The most sophisticated way to evaluate is to refer to a range of alternative readings. It might sound obvious, but make sure you read the • Usually, a Marxist would disagree with a capitalist. question. If the question asks about the mise-en-scène, • A media utopian might conflict with a media dystopian. it doesn’t matter how fluently and confidently you • What could a possible feminist reading talk about the special effects. If you do not answer the of the media product be? question, the examiner might not give you the marks. Use media language… • Use media language as currency; the Make the time count… more you have, the richer you are! • Question 1 is worth 8 marks, which is 25% of the 32 • Using it frequently and confidently shows the examiner marks available. So 25% of 45 minutes is 11 minutes. you know what you are talking about, and can use • Any longer and you risk missing out on terminology correctly, in different circumstances. marks in question two and three. • This proves you have not just • Question 2 and 3 are each worth 12 marks, which memorised a list of ‘buzzwords’. is 37.5% of the 32 marks available. 37.5% of 45 Use media theorists... minutes is 17 minutes for each question. • Use media theorists as keywords. • If you are able to talk about stereotypes, why not use Richard Dyer too? • If you are given the opportunity to talk about More advice, including past paper exam narrative, then namedrop Propp or Todorov. questions, sample activities, media theorists • This shows the examiner you know the media and an unseen text vault, can be found on my theorists, and when to correctly deploy them. blog http://mest3sectiona.blogspot.co.uk/. • Bring in theory from your Section B case studies, Please follow me on Twitter @Gary_ even the media products if relevant. Rose and subscribe to #MEST3. • Offer up counter media theorists as well. Might one theorist agree with your initial point, while another might argue against it? Gary Rose is Lead Teacher at Durham Sixth Form • This will show evidence of ‘very good critical autonomy.’ College.

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