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Science, Technology and Society Science, technology and society Science, technology and society (STS), also referred to relevant topics that the traditional curriculum ig- as science and technology studies, is a branch or off- nored. One such development was the rise of “sci- spring of science studies. It considers how social, po- ence, technology, and society” programs, which are litical, and cultural values affect scientific research and also—confusingly—known by the STS acronym. technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect Drawn from a variety of disciplines, including an- society, politics and culture. thropology, history, political science, and sociology, scholars in these programs created undergraduate curricula devoted to exploring the issues raised by 1 History science and technology. Unlike scholars in science studies, history of technology, or the history and philosophy of science, they were and are more likely STS is a new subject. Like most interdisciplinary pro- to see themselves as activists working for change grams, it emerged from the confluence of a variety of dis- rather than dispassionate, “ivory tower” researchers. ciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had devel- As an example of the activist impulse, feminist oped an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s— scholars in this and other emerging STS areas ad- in viewing science and technology as socially embed- dressed themselves to the exclusion of women from ded enterprises.[1] The key disciplinary components of science and engineering. STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the • Science, engineering, and public policy studies 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's monograph (1935) Gen- emerged in the 1970s from the same concerns that esis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many motivated the founders of the science, technology, of STS’s key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison and society movement: A sense that science and founded the STS program at Massachusetts Institute of technology were developing in ways that were in- Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011 creasingly at odds with the public’s best interests. 111 STS programs were counted.[2] The science, technology, and society movement tried to humanize those who would make tomor- row’s science and technology, but this discipline 1.1 Key themes took a different approach: It would train students with the professional skills needed to become play- • History of technology, that examines technology in ers in science and technology policy. Some pro- its social and historical context. Starting in the grams came to emphasize quantitative methodolo- 1960s, some historians questioned technological de- gies, and most of these were eventually absorbed terminism, a doctrine that can induce public pas- into systems engineering. Others emphasized soci- sivity to technologic and scientific 'natural' devel- ological and qualitative approaches, and found that opment. At the same time, some historians began their closest kin could be found among scholars in to develop similarly contextual approaches to the science, technology, and society departments. history of medicine. • History and philosophy of science (1960s). After During the 1970s and 1980s, leading universities in the the publication of Thomas Kuhn's well-known The US, UK, and Europe began drawing these various com- Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), which at- ponents together in new, interdisciplinary programs. For tributed changes in scientific theories to changes in example, in the 1970s, Cornell University developed underlying intellectual paradigms, programs were a new program that united science studies and policy- founded at the University of California, Berkeley oriented scholars with historians and philosophers of sci- and elsewhere that brought historians of science and ence and technology. Each of these programs devel- philosophers together in unified programs. oped unique identities due to variation in the compo- nents that were drawn together, as well as their location • Science, technology, and society In the mid- to within the various universities. For example, the Uni- late-1960s, student and faculty social movements versity of Virginia’s STS program united scholars drawn in the U.S., UK, and European universities helped from a variety of fields (with particular strength in the to launch a range of new interdisciplinary fields history of technology); however, the program’s teach- (such as women’s studies) that were seen to address ing responsibilities—it is located within an engineering 1 2 4 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS school and teaches ethics to undergraduate engineering made to add the word “technology” to the association’s students—means that all of its faculty share a strong in- name, thereby reflecting its stature as the leading STS terest in engineering ethics. professional society, but there seems to be widespread sentiment that the name is long enough as it is. 1.2 The “turn to technology” (and beyond) In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Sci- ence and Technology (EASST)[3] was founded in 1981 See also: Social construction of technology to stimulate communication, exchange and collaboration in the field of studies of science and technology. Simi- larly, the European Inter-University Association on Soci- A decisive moment in the development of STS was the ety, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and stud- mid-1980s addition of technology studies to the range ies science and technology in society, in both historical of interests reflected in science . During that decade, and contemporary perspectives. two works appeared en seriatim that signaled what Steve Woolgar was to call the “turn to technology": Social Shap- In Asia several STS associations exist. In Japan, the ing of Technology (MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1985) and Japanese Society for Science and Technology Studies (JSSTS)[4] was founded in 2001. The Asia Pacific Sci- The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Bijker, [5] Hughes and Pinch, 1987). MacKenzie and Wajcman ence Technology & Society Network (APSTSN) pri- primed the pump by publishing a collection of articles marily has members from Australasia, Southeast and East attesting to the influence of society on technological de- Asia and Oceania. sign. In a seminal article, Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker Founded in 1958, the Society for the History of Technol- attached all the legitimacy of the Sociology of Scientific ogy initially attracted members from the history profes- Knowledge to this development by showing how the so- sion who had interests in the contextual history of tech- ciology of technology could proceed along precisely the nology. After the “turn to technology” in the mid-1980s, theoretical and methodological lines established by the the society’s well-regarded journal (Technology and Cul- sociology of scientific knowledge. This was the intellec- ture) and its annual meetings began to attract consider- tual foundation of the field they called the social construc- able interest from non-historians with technology studies tion of technology. interests. The “turn to technology” helped to cement an already Less identified with STS, but also of importance to growing awareness of underlying unity among the vari- many STS scholars in the US, are the History of Sci- ous emerging STS programs. More recently, there has ence Society, the Philosophy of Science Association, and been an associated turn to ecology, nature, and materi- the American Association for the History of Medicine. ality in general, whereby the socio-technical and natu- In addition, there are significant STS-oriented special ral/material co-produce each other. This is especially evi- interest groups within major disciplinary associations, dent in work in STS analyses of biomedicine (such as Carl including the American Anthropological Association, May, Annemarie Mol, Nelly Oudshoorn, and Andrew the American Political Science Association, and the Webster) and ecological interventions (such as Bruno La- American Sociological Association. tour, Sheila Jasanoff, Matthias Gross, S. Lochlann Jain, and Jens Lachmund). 3 Journals 2 Professional associations Notable peer-reviewed journals in STS include: Social Studies of Science; Science, Technology & Human Values; The subject has several professional associations. Science & Technology Studies; Technology in Society; Re- Founded in 1975, the Society for Social Studies of Sci- search Policy; Minerva: A Journal of Science, Learning ence, initially provided scholarly communication facili- and Policy; Science, Technology and Society; Science as ties, including a journal (Science, Technology, and Hu- Culture; Technology and Culture; and Science and Public man Values) and annual meetings that were mainly at- Policy. tended by science studies scholars. The society has since Student journals in STS include: Intersect: the Stanford grown into the most important professional association of Journal of Science, Technology, and Society at Stanford; science and technology studies scholars worldwide. The DEMESCI: International Journal of Deliberative Mecha- Society for Social Studies of Science members also in- nisms in Science; and Synthesis: An Undergraduate Jour- clude government and industry officials concerned with nal of the History of Science at Harvard. research and development as well as science and technol- ogy policy; scientists and engineers who wish to better understand the social embeddedness of their professional practice;
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