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Bahria Journal of Information & Vol. 5, Issue 1 December 2012

The Effects of Technology and on Peter Sasvari

Abstract- Various models of the information society have been Information as a term became more and more popular in the developed so far and they are so different from country to last 30-40 years; it has started to have an increasingly country that it would be rather unwise to look for a single, all- important role in everyday language while its strict meaning encompassing definition. In our time a number of profound mentioned above has gradually faded away. At the same time, socio-economic changes are underway. The application of these theories and schools on ICT is problematic in many respects. there has been a growing uncertainty about the true meaning First, as we stated above, there is not a single, widely used of the term 'information'. All this doubtfulness is mainly paradigm which has synthesised the various schools and theories caused by the so-called 'information-centered' world we are dealing with . Second, these fragmented living in and by the widespread expansion of information and approaches do not have a fully-fledged mode of application to the communication technology as almost everyone living in relationship of ICT and (information) society. Third, SCOT, developed western can experience the phenomenon ANT, the evolutionary- or the systems approach to the of technology when dealing with information society – does not take called the Information Revolution. All this suggests that into account the results of approaches studying the very essence information has become an essential part of our society and of the information age: information, communication and plays a centre role in our lives. In information studies, rather knowledge. The list of unnoticed or partially incorporated complex definitions can be found on the nature of information. , which focuses on the role of ICT in human information Informatics or is a discipline that deals with processing and other cognitive activities, is much longer. the storage, processing and distribution of information as well Index Terms: Information Society, Social Construction of as planning computer networks and determining their Technology, Actor-Network-Theory. operation principles. Determining the exact subject of I. INTRODUCTION computer science is rather difficult because it is extremely hard to define what information is. According to the German Many theories can be found in the literature on the physicist and philosopher, Weizsacker information should be information society. The theories of the knowledge or regarded as the third universal elementary quantity beside information , postindustrial society, postmodern matter and energy in science and technology [32]. society, information society, network society, information According to the ninth volume of the Pallas Nagy Lexikon capitalism, network capitalism etc. show that it is an important (Great Pallas Encyclopedia) information is a term with Latin sociological issue to understand what role is played by origins meaning report, enlightment, inform, let somebody technology and information in the society we live in. Both know; informant, instructor, messenger [15]. aspects - the form of society and the role of technology and In the Dictionary of Foreign Words and Expressions the information - belong to the central question of the theory of following meanings can be read: the information society [26] [27]. 1. Enlightment, announcement, communication; II. THE DEFINITION OF INFORMATION 2. Message, data, news, bulletin. In everyday use, the term "information" has meant a kind of guidance for a long time: when someone goes to the railway The fourth edition of American Heritage Dictionary of the station to be informed on the content of the timetable or to the English Language distinguishes seven meanings of the term information desk to find out where a product or a counter can 'information': be found in the department store. Such information exchange 1. Knowledge derived from study, experience, or works only if the right piece of information, the one that fits instruction. and makes sense for both parties of the communication is 2. Knowledge of specific events or situations that has available. been gathered or received by communication; intelligence or news. Peter Sasvari, Institute of Sciences, Faculty of , 3. A collection of facts or data: statistical information University of Miskolc, , 3515, Miskolc-Egyetemvaros, E-mail: [email protected] described work was carried out as part of the 4. The act of informing or the condition of being informed; TÁMOP-4.2.1.B-10/2/KONV-2010-0001 project in the framework of the communication of knowledge. New Hungarian Development Plan. The realization of this project is supported 5. Computer Science Processed, stored, or transmitted by the European Union, co-financed by the European Social Fund. Manuscript received February 26, 2012; revised March 30, 2012 and November 15, 2012 data.

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6. A numerical measure of the uncertainty of an Information as knowledge is subjective in every case, it is experimental outcome. linked to a given individual and it gains its exact meaning in a 7. Law a formal accusation of a crime made by a public specific environment. It is intangible as an entity but it can be officer rather than by grand jury indictment. communicated, made to be known to others. Information as a The theory of communication states that information is the thing exists similarly to knowledge, however, it is tangible. In objective content of the communication between objects this regard, data can be regarded as a kind of recorded conversely affecting each other which is manifested in the knowledge because it is necessary to know the context of its change of the condition between these objects. creation (or the record structure), without having this context, According to the science of telecommunication information the data cannot be interpreted. is a series of signals structured in time and space, which is made up of a signal set having a specific statistical structure. III. INFORMATION AND SOCIETY The sender transmits data on the condition of an object or on By definition, society refers to: the course of an event and the receiver perceives and interprets 1. Human relations and relationships taken as a whole, these signals. Everything can be regarded as information that 2. Any community of human beings is able to perpetuate is encoded and transmitted through a definite channel. itself, more or less linked to a specific region or country From the perspective of social science, information is the sharing a distinctive culture and institutions. communication of useful knowledge that is created and Whether a human community is regarded as a society transmitted in the intellectual communication system of the depends on the extent to which its members are able to interact society. It is characteristic to the society as a whole, belonging with each other, thus the capacity and extension of interaction to one of the global issues of world together with energy and is essential. environment protection. The most recent trends show that the definition of society According to the economic approach, information is partly a has become less important in trying to understand the world form of service, partly a product but, not as in the case of surrounding us because if we examine only individual exchange of goods, both parties can keep their information. societies, we may not notice social (multilateral and global) The content of material, energy and living labour is gradually phenomena between and over societies. decreasing in manufactured goods, while the amount of If we accept that the key feature of social existence is the product information input is increasing at the same rate. development of relations, then the information society may In summary, information is an expression related to bring a significant change in this very context: a lot more enlightment, data, report, learning, communication and news. individuals have the opportunity to get in contact with other In certain cases, it can be identified with these items people in a simpler way and at a lower cost. (knowledge, data, enlightment, news); in other cases it is the A question comes up here immediately: is it possible to call object of these listed items (conveyance of knowledge, every human society an information society? Information is learning, communication). the essential condition of the functioning of every society, Despite the fact that it may still sound uncertain, the group including their subsystems as well. It played an important role of the terms 'data', 'knowledge' and 'communication' can be in every social formation in the agricultural and industrial highlighted for giving an interpretation of information. societies of previous ages. Information flow is needed in every According to the literature, the transformation of data into society but none of the previous societies were labelled information needs knowledge. There are many definitions "information society" by contemporary analysts and trying to find a link between information and communication, historians. The reason for this is that the communication, which also can have an importance when looking for a reception, processing, storage, interpretation and flow of definition of the information society. Communication is a information never determined earlier societies to such a high process of transferring information from one entity to another extent as today's. The activities relating to information have through a specific medium. If we link these two different become more valuable in present day societies and that is what approaches together, the picture we are given is a very distinguishes them sharply from the societies of the past. This complex one, where the four terms 'data', 'information', fundamental difference is convincingly described by 'knowledge' and 'communication' must be interpreted in one theoretician of various interests, views and attitudes and compound definition. The same connection was made by orientation in the following five fields: Michael Buckland in his book on information systems. 1. Technology. TABLE I 2. Occupation structure. FOUR ASPECTS OF INFORMATION [3] Intangible Tangible 3. The operation of economy. Entity Information as knowledge Information as thing 4. Spatial structure. Knowledge Information as process Information process 5. Culture.

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Frank Webster’s book published in 1995 synthesizes the access to a network and how can membership then be 1960s and 1970s information society theories in order to maintained? What are the innate social relations of the analyze the concept and its characteristics within the context network, and what part do the new information and of social science [30]. These theories designate the potential communication play in those relations? directions of what might be a comprehensive project, which can clarify the concept and exploit these theories as D. Culture starting points for further exploration. Webster’s typology is the following [31]: The cultural perspective also states that we live in an information society because our life is infiltrated by the A. Technology globalised, extensively digitalized media culture that has From the technological perspective we live in an become the primary means of providing sense and meaning information society since information and telecommunication for us and predominantly determines our lifestyle. technologies play a constantly expanding role in all fields of Theories attempting to explain the cultural aspects of social existence, which has shaken the foundations of social information society describe such a global cultural context that structures and processes and resulted in profound changes in may be adopted universally as a referential framework for the , economy, culture, and everyday life. media. This approach also suggests that the media enjoy a Most of the attempts made to define information society unique status in the age of information and that they are the approach the idea from a technological point of view hence most prominent determining factors of social relations. the central question of such explorations sounds like: what However, the question remains: whether life exists beyond kind of new information and communication technology was media culture or not? Does the illusory game of signs have constructed in recent decades that determined the any connection to reality? The catchphrase of the information infrastructure of information society? age is “virtual reality” which reality very often turns out to be more fundamental than the world that created it. B. Occupation structure and economy

Studies of occupational structure and economy show that IV. THE INFORMATION SOCIETY we live in an information society because, when we have Many theories can be found in the literature on the passed through the agricultural and industrial stages, the information society. The theories of the knowledge or information sector and information oriented jobs dominate the information economy, postindustrial society, postmodern economy. The main questions raised by this approach are: society, information society, network society, information How have the proportions of employed workers changed in capitalism, network capitalism etc. show that it is an important the industrial and service sectors in recent decades? How have sociological issue to understand what role is played by their performance and the knowledge they use changed technology and information in the society we live in. Both qualitatively? Have the so-called informational occupations aspects - the form of society and the role of technology and begun to dominate ? information - belong to the central question of the theory of The question is similar to that which we posed by the the information society. technological approach: What is the point at which we can One of the first social scientist to develop the concept of the claim that the logic of capitalism, that is, its structure of information society was the economist Fritz Machlup [13]. In production has qualitatively changed? Is the often cited “new his breakthrough study, "The production and distribution of economy” indeed so different from the old one? Where is the knowledge in the United States" (1962), he introduced the turning point? Is it possible to identify the point at which the concept of the knowledge by distinguishing five former was replaced by the latter? sectors of the knowledge sector: C. Spatial structure - . As the spatial theorists see it we live in an information - . society because through the use of information technologies - Mass media. and globalization physical space tends to lose its determining - Information technologies. function. People are participating in networks that determine - Information services. such social processes as production, division of labour, Peter Drucker has argued that there is a transition from an discussing politics for example. economy based on material goods to one based on knowledge The main theoretical questions are the following: Does the [7] [8] [9]. world follow the logic of networks? Does global society exist? Marc Porat distinguishes [17] [18] Can it come to life? What is the inherent logic of global - A primary sector (information goods and services that are networks? Who belongs to them, and why do they wish to do directly used in the production, distribution or processing so? What kind of social and economic capital is needed to gain of information) and

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- A secondary sector (information services produced for decision theory, internal consumption by government and non- system analysis information firms) of the information economy. TIME Orientation to Ad hoc -oriented PERSPECTIVE the past adaptiveness, prediction and Porat uses the total added by the primary and experimentation planning secondary information sector to the GNP as an indicator for Game against Game against Game between the information economy. The OECD has employed Porat’s nature fabricated future individuals GUIDING Economic Codification of definition for calculating the share of the information PRINCIPLE Traditionalism growth theoretical economy in the total economy. Based on such indicators the knowledge information society has been defined as a society where more Alain Touraine already spoke in 1971 of the post-industrial than half of the GNP is produced and more than half of the society [28]. “The passage to postindustrial society takes place employees are active in the information economy. when investment results in the production of symbolic goods For Daniel Bell the number of employees producing that modify values, needs, representations, far more than in the services and information is an indicator for the informational production of material goods or even of ‘services’. Industrial character of a society [1] [2]. A post-industrial society is based society had transformed the means of production: post- on services. What counts is not raw muscle power, or energy, industrial society changes the ends of production, that is, but information. A post industrial society is one in which the culture. The decisive point here is that in postindustrial society majority of those employed are not involved in the production all of the economic system is the object of intervention of of tangible goods. society upon itself. That is why we can call it the programmed 1. Economic sector. society, because this phrase captures its capacity to create 2. Resource. models of management, production, , distribution, 3. Strategic resource. and consumption, so that such a society appears, at all its 4. Technology. functional levels, as the product of an action exercised by the 5. Knowledge base. society itself, and not as the outcome of natural laws or 6. Methodology. cultural specificities”. 7. Time perspective. In the programmed society also the area of cultural 8. Planning. reproduction including aspects such as information, 9. Guiding principle. consumption, health, research, education would be TABLE II industrialized. That modern society is increasing its capacity DIMENSIONS OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY [2] to act upon itself means for Touraine that society is PREINDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY SOCIETY SOCIETY reinvesting ever larger parts of production and so produces MODE OF Extractive Fabricating Processing; and transforms itself. This idea is an early formulation of the PRODUCTION Recycling notion of capitalism as self-referential economy. ECONOMIC Primary: Secondary : Tertiary: In Yoneji Masuda's framework, industrial and information SECTORS agriculture, , transportation, , fishing, processing utilities, societies are compared to one another by 20 different timber Quaternary: indicators [14]. trade, finance, Similarly to Bell Peter Otto and Philipp Sonntag assert that , real estate, an information society is a society where the majority of Quandary: health, employees work in information jobs, i.e. they have to deal education, more with information, signals, symbols, and images than with research, government, energy and matter. recreation Radovan Richta argues that society has been transformed TRANSFORMING Natural power: Created energy: Information into a scientific civilization based on services, education, and RESOURCE wind, water, Electricity, oil, Computer and draft animals, gas, coal, data transmission human muscle nuclear power systems power STRATEGIC Raw materials Financial capital Knowledge RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY Craft Intellectual technology technology KEY Farmer, miner, Semi-skilled Professional and OCCUPATIONS fisherman, worker, technical unskilled occupations, worker scientists KEY METHODS Common sense, , Abstract theories, trial and error, experimentation models, practice simulations,

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TABLE III Form of Parliamentary Participatory COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDUSTRIAL AND government democracy democracy INFORMATION SOCIETY Force of social Labour Citizens' movements, change movements, litigation INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION strikes SOCIETY SOCIETY Social problems Unemployment, Future shock, terror, Core Steam engine Computer (memory, war, fascism invasion of privacy (power) computation, control)

Most advanced High mass High mass knowledge L Y A Basic function Replacement, Replacement, stage consumption creation G N O O amplification of amplification of I L Value standards Material values Time-value T O

A physical labour mental labour

N (satisfaction of (satisfaction of goal V H Productive Material Information O C physiological achievement needs) N E

T productive productive power N power S needs) I E

power (increase (increase in optimal U Ethical standards Fundamental Self-discipline, social L

in per capita action-selection A human rights, contribution production) capabilities) V humanity Products Useful goods Information, Spirit of the Renaissance Globalism (symbiosis and services technology, times (human of man and nature) knowledge liberation) Production Modern factory Information utility centre (machinery, (information networks, equipment) data banks) creative activities. This transformation would be the result of a Market New world, Increase in knowledge scientific-technological transformation based on technological colonies, frontiers, information consumer space and the increasing importance of computer purchasing technology. Science and technology would become immediate power forces of production [19]. Leading Manufacturing Intellectual industries Nico Stehr says that in the knowledge society a majority of industries industries (, (machinery knowledge industry) jobs involves working with knowledge. “Contemporary industry, society may be described as a knowledge society based on the chemical extensive penetration of all its spheres of life and institutions industry) Industrial Primary, Matrix industrial by scientific and technological knowledge” [21] [22] [23] structure secondary, structure (primary, [24]. tertiary secondary, tertiary, For Stehr knowledge is a capacity for social action. Science industries quaternary E

R systems/industries) would become an immediate productive force, knowledge U T would no longer be primarily embodied in , but C Economic Commodity Synergetic economy U

R structure economy (joint production and already appropriated nature that represents knowledge would T S

(division of shared utilization)

C be rearranged according to certain and programs. The I labour, M

O separation of economy of a knowledge society is largely driven not by N

O production and material inputs, but by symbolic or knowledge-based inputs, C

E consumption) O

I there would be a large number of professions that involve

C Socioeconomic Law of price Law of goals

O working with knowledge, and a declining number of jobs that S principle (equilibrium of (principle of supply and synergetic feed demand low cognitive skills as well as in manufacturing. demand) forward) Also Alvin Toffler argues that knowledge is the central Socioeconomic Enterprise Voluntary subject (private communities (local resource in the economy of the information society: “In a enterprise, and informational Third Wave economy, the central resource – a single word public communities) broadly encompassing data, information, images, symbols, enterprise, third sector) culture, ideology, and values – is actionable knowledge". Socioeconomic Private Infrastructure, In recent years the concept of the network society has system ownership of principles of synergy, gained importance in information society theory. For Manuel capital, free precedence of social Castells network logic is besides information, pervasiveness, , benefit profit flexibility, and convergence a central feature of the maximization information technology paradigm. “One of the key features of Form of society Class society Functional society informational society is the networking logic of its basic (centralized (multicentre, function, power, classes, autonomy) structure, which explains the use of the concept of ’network control) society’” As a historical trend, dominant functions and National goal GNW (gross GNS (gross national processes in the Information Age are increasingly organized national satisfaction) welfare) around networks. Networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies, and the diffusion of networking

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logic substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in individual elements measurable and thus answers the question processes of production, experience, power, and culture. For of from which point and to what extent of deviation from Castells the network society is the result of informationalism, absolute or relative indicators can a society be regarded as an a new technological paradigm [4] [5]. information society. That is, where is the tipping point from Jan Van Dijk defines the network society as a “social one state to another in a sub-system or in regard to a formation with an infrastructure of social and media networks characteristic, and through this, of all society? The same table enabling its prime mode of organization at all levels will demonstrate that in many cases it is typical of metaphors (individual, group/organizational and societal) [6]. found in book titles to focus only on particular limited areas. Increasingly, these networks link all units or parts of this Returning to the idea proposed in the introduction, we should formation (individuals, groups and )”. According restate that the term information society is not a “rival” of to Van Dijk networks have become the nervous system of these terms but an umbrella term incorporating them all. society, whereas Castells links the concept of the network TABLE IV society to capitalist transformation, Van Dijk sees it as the SYNTHETIC BASIC CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION SOCIETY, THEIR MEASURABILITY AND METAPHORS [11] [12] logical result of the increasing widening and thickening of BASIC CATEGORY MEASURE AND “TIPPING POINT” METAPHOR networks in nature and society. PRODUCTION The proportion of Information The major critique of concepts such as information society, (MANUFACTURING) forming part of the information industry, knowledge society, network society, postmodern society, sector and producing knowledge information and knowledge industry, postindustrial society, etc. that has mainly been voiced by products in relation to other information critical scholars is that they create the impression that we have sectors (relative dominance: and knowledge entered a completely new type of society. If there is just more when it is the largest sector; industry, absolute dominance: when the information information then it is hard to understand why anyone should sector alone produces over economy, suggest that we have before us something radically new. 50%, i.e. it is larger than all the knowledge Such neomarxist critics as Frank Webster argue that these others put together). economy, knowledge- approaches stress discontinuity, as if contemporary society based economy had nothing in common with society as it was 100 or 150 EMPLOYMENT The number and proportion of White-collar years ago [30]. Such assumptions would have ideological those employed in the workers, information and knowledge information character because they would fit with the view that we can do sectors in relation to other and knowledge nothing about change and have to adopt to existing political sectors (relative dominance: workers, realities. These critics argue that contemporary society first of when it is the largest sector; immaterial all is still a capitalist society oriented towards accumulating absolute dominance: when the workers, sector alone produces over knowledge class economic, political, and cultural capital. They acknowledge 50%, i.e. it is larger than all the intelligentsia that information society theories stress some important new others put together). qualities of society (notably globalization and WORK How many people and to what Symbol degree are engaged in manipulators, informatization), but charge that they fail to show that these information activity “as a intelligence, are attributes of overall capitalist structures. If there were a profession” according to the brainworker/mind discourse on continuity and discontinuity, capitalism would type of work done (threshold worker level: 50%). enter into a new development stage. RESOURCE AND Information and knowledge Intellectual Concepts such as knowledge society, information society, TECHNOLOGY appear as resources and forms capital, human network society, informational capitalism, postindustrial of capital in addition to capital, society, transnational network capitalism, postmodern society, traditional forms – the theory of information growth and accounting strive to capital, corporate etc. show that there is a vivid discussion in contemporary mathematise this but so far information on the character of contemporary society and the there are no accepted and knowledge role that technologies, information, communication, and co- algorithms. assets (However, the contribution of operation play in it. Information society theory discusses the information and knowledge role of information and information technology in society, the technology to growth is already question which key concepts shall be used for characterizing measured.) contemporary society, and how to define such concepts. It has INCOME AND GNP at a national level, Affluence, welfare monthly income on an state become a specific branch of contemporary sociology. individual level. There are no accepted measures in regard to the amounts; what is more, V. MAKING THE INFORMATION SOCIETY QUANTIFIABLE these amounts vary depending At the end of the overview of examination criteria comes a on the time of joining the synthetic table which partly improves the previous models and information society. $5,000/person/month was the partly specifies them. This table includes formulations to make threshold level at the turn of the

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1960s in the USA. legal relation based on subordination and superiority, in civil law the typical legal relation is one of equality and coordination. In the continental legal system, we can distinguish between four main categories: CONSUMPTION The proportion of purchased Consumer society, 1. Civil law. information and cultural goods, prosumers, means and services in the mediatised society 2. Criminal law. consumer basket, especially in 3. Administrative law. regard to media contents 4. Constitutional law. (threshold level: 33%). Civil law regulates the property personal and family EDUCATION (LEVEL Proportion of those with a Learning society, OF EDUCATION) qualification earned in higher meritocracy relations of natural and legal persons in cases where the education (degree holders) in partners are equal and state intervention, except for legislation, society (threshold level: 50%). occurs only in the event of a legal dispute. The most important COGNITION Results and scales in the Life-long measurable dimensions of learning, scientific areas affecting information society are as follows: cognition; microscopic revolution, nano- - E-commerce. dimensions, astronomical scale, peta-scale - Digital signature. distances and scales, discovered genocombinations, sign - Content regulation. processing, etc. The scale to - Protection of copyright and industrial property rights, measure this is still to be - Media law. worked out. - Competition law. CONFLICT Replacement of traditional Information MANAGEMENT forms of warfare, placing warfare, Criminal law regulates acts that are a danger to society. We METHOD AND economic conflicts into an cyber wars, can group all those acts committed with or against IT POWER TECHNIQUE information context (business business technology which are dangerous for society and for which the intelligence, innovation intelligence, competition). The “state of bureaurocracy, law orders the sanction of punishment. Legal regulation of democracy” of society, types control information society is primarily concerned with the following and mediators of control. There crisis- and categories of crime: are some methods used to revolution, measure the “degree” of risk society - Misuse of personal data. democracy. - Content-related crimes (e.g. distribution of child INTER- The degree of mutual Telematic society, pornography hate speech, etc.). CONNECTEDNESS connectedness (objective in the “wired - Crimes against computer systems and data. case of telephone networks: society” provision over 50%). - Infringement of copyright. WORLDVIEW AND Has the static and energy- Global village, Administrative law is the regulatory system of state LOGICAL centred worldview been techno culture, functions. State administration extends beyond central FRAMEWORK replaced by an information- information centred one? Have the global civilisation government and local government to larger systems; for system level and the “space example the operation of transport, security, military and age” become a framework for information systems. The following functions essential to analysis and interpretation? Is orientation to the future a information society belong to this group: characteristic feature? - Electronic administration. - Electronic register of companies. VI. LEGAL REGULATIONS OF INFORMATION SOCIETY - Administrative procedure. - Electronic public procurement. The legal material concerning information society is The fourth field is constitutional law, which arose out of interwoven into our legal system horizontally. The rules continental legal development. The object of regulation is to related to information society are enshrined to a greater or structure relations between the citizens and the state and the lesser extent in the several areas of law. As in any regulatory organizational structure of the state. The constitution is the domain, the legal content concerning information society can document describing basic rights, responsibilities and be grouped according to the system of law. There are two procedures thus creating the basis for the process governing distinct groups: the laws organizing legal relations between political, economic and social life. Areas of constitutional law the state and its citizens, and between the various state or related to the information society are as follows: public organizations (called public law), and the laws - Electronic freedom of information. organizing legal relations between citizens and partnerships, - Personal data protection. and between members of civil society (civil law) [10]. - Freedom of the press and freedom of expression. Differentiation is based on the relationship between those involved. While in the first case we can speak of an unequal

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VII. THE EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ON interdisciplinary field of research with both common research SOCIETY areas and methodology. Technique can be defined as the application of some The STS school is far from being the dominant scientific devices or knowledge in order to accomplish a specific task or paradigm of this area of knowledge, but has several fulfill a purpose. These purposes may range from industrial advantages that make it indispensable when examining use to social needs, improving working conditions or raising information society and ICT. These are its strong empirical the standard of living. For humans, technique is an acquired basis and complex approach to analyzing interaction between way of using the surrounding environment for satisfying their technology and society, their manifold co-dependence, and own instinctive goals and cultural desires. It is the knowledge complex co-development. Within the several concepts of STS, to create something new. many schools exist criticizing and complementing each other. Under the term 'technology' I mean all the procedures and A. Studies of the interactions between science, technology knowledge of procedures that are needed to perform a specific and society task. The foundations of STS were laid down in the 1980s by the Studies considering science and technology as an “Social Construction of Technology” school, which focuses inseparable and organic part of society, like information on the development phase of technologies at the micro level, society studies, do not have a unified conception and and pinpoints that technology (and natural scientific methodological apparatus, nor a comprehensive and prevailing developments) are basically shaped by social processes. scientific paradigm. We can talk about a variety of Any given technology stabilizes when debates are settled. multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies, schools, This is the phase of ‘closure and stabilization’. Closure, theories and approaches interacting with each other and however, does not mean finalizing: newly joined user groups comprising works of scholars from various traditional sciences can reopen the debates which can lead to new modifications to like history, economics, sociology or anthropology. The great or variations of the existing technology. number of diverse approaches makes it impossible to review Using the terminology of evolutionary approaches, we can them completely, so we have to forget about introducing say variations, mutations and hybrids are brought to life schools like the technology theories of evolutionary during the diffusion of a certain technology, which is chiefly economics in detail. On the whole, the goal of this chapter can true for ICT. Take the different variations of be nothing more than to provide an ”intellectual crutch” for (desktop PC, portable notebook, PDA, etc.) or the discussing and interpreting information communication convergence of mobile phones with other electronic devices technologies by reviewing the most relevant and important (such as PDAs, digital cameras, mp3-players, game consoles, theories, concepts, models and notions of the topic. or GPS devices) which are typical hybrids. Technological determinism argues that technology is the Bijker and Pinch emphasize that the meanings assigned to principal driving force of society determining its mode of technologies are determined by the norms and values of social operation, development, course of history, structure and values groups which draw the “wider context” of socio-cultural and in a decisive manner. Converse effects are taken into account political environment into the set of determining factors. to a limited extent, fully disregarded or disclaimed. Drawing on the wider context concept, Laudan R. argues that Technological development is thought to be propelled by the changing social values can bring new technological constructs logic of science alone. or their complete generation to life. The heterogeneous and Most scientific concepts explicitly reject technological hierarchical community of technological development determinism; yet they assist its survival by studying only functions as a mediator of social values and forces value technology’s influence on society. This is more symptomatic orientation in society to change. of ICT related . Capital mobility has increased incredibly, the economy has The beginning of Science, Technology and Society studies shifted to the service sector, innovation has become the dates back to the early 1970s, when the first studies were primary source of growth in relation to published. The novelty in the pioneering works, which lends , organizations, institutions as well as individual them their special character even today, was that they stressed workers. The "technical construction of society" has become a –contrary to technological determinism – society’s crucial role major issue, that is social processes are mainly mediated by in the development of science and technology, framing the technological development. The society's level of being three intermingling domains in complex theoretical systems. informed, with exploiting the opportunities provided by The works of philosophers, historians and sociologists were information and communication technology, has been collected in two books in the mid-eighties, which have increased dramatically. This new technology, together with become the most cited publications of this school. Some of opens new perspectives in the fields of these approaches have developed into theories, generating industry, trade and education. further discourses and STS has been crystallized into an The nature of economic competition has been undergoing

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huge changes, as more and more people think that there have process, networks are formed progressively, in which certain been profound changes in the relation between economy and entities gain control over other entities. society and innovation requirements. The continuous and self- B. Diffusion of accelerating innovation processes characterized by the intense competition has brought about some changes in time relations. Innovation has become a key activity of information People start moving on a different time scale, time has been societies. It is the cornerstone of economic competitiveness. speeded up. National and regional (such as European) administrations Space has become globalized, by turning into more unified develop high level strategies to promote innovative activities and more complex at the same time. Socio-economic in the economy. processes create new virtual spaces or even real spaces are Innovation can be defined as basically novel inventions or modified: the processes are arranged in new ways in the concepts – arising from either professional research or ideas interacting local, regional, national and supranational spaces. by amateurs – translated into practice. An innovation can be a While integration processes are considered to be a general technological object, a new organizational solution or an idea. tendency, clear attempts for isolation also appear repeatedly. Innovations become market goods through product Knowledge has become the main economic source, and development and/or . The product cycle learning abilities and skills have become a criterion of consists of the following stages: introduction (to the market), adaptation at the levels of individuals, companies, local growth, maturity and stabilization, and decline. The life cycle communities, nations, supranational organizations and the of common goods (e.g. road infrastructure) and public goods world taken as a global system. (e.g. public safety) go through the same stages. Rogers’ theory Actor-Network-Theory is another school of STS studies, applies to the life cycle of innovations as far as the maturity which is more and more widely used. It is a new branch of the phase and at the level of communities and societies. sociology of science and technology, the basis of which was Rogers explains the as basically elaborated by Michel Callon, Bruno Latour and John Law in communicative: diffusion is the process by which an the 1980s. They – along with other scholars – developed their innovation is communicated through certain channels over concepts into a theory. time among the members of a . Diffusion is A basic statement of ANT is that technological objects determined by the above mentioned four factors (innovation, along with their socio-political context co-develop and shape communication channels, time and social systems). It is a each other mutually into socio-technical entities through process of decision making, in the stages of which different constant interactions. The objects and their context form types of information and knowledge transferring mechanisms heterogeneous networks made up of human and non-human play crucial roles. components which are connected to each other dynamically. The diffusion of innovations – thus, of technologies too – These heterogeneous components can be objects, techniques, takes place within social networks, so called diffusion institutions, organizational solutions, human abilities or networks. The ability of individuals to adapt depends on the cognitive structures. cohesion of these networks, in other words, to the extent of its Human components as network builders are constantly homophily (similar socio-economic status, qualifications, formed and constituted by the networks they are part of. attitudes); on structural equivalence (on the individual’s Actors in this network are connected by intermediaries, which position in the network); and on the threshold of other users in many cases, have social meanings. Texts, technical arte which makes it worthwhile for a group member to adopt the facts, currencies or human skills can function as given technology. intermediaries. Innovators play a crucial role in diffusing an innovation One of ANT’s – much debated – theorems is that the natural between homophile diffusion networks. They tend to use the state of society is disorder. Order is achieved through the technology first, and usually possess heterophile social constant and endless efforts made by the actors to build relations (they maintain regular relationships with several networks. social groups and through them, several networks of Callon argues that an actor-network cannot be derived diffusion). Chronologically, the second group to adopt an either from the actor or the network. The actions and the will innovation are called the early adopters; these are followed by of actors are inseparable from the network, and their effect the early majority, then the late majority, and lastly, the runs through the whole network. laggards. Each of these ideal-typical groups is characterized This leads us to one of ANT's radical novelties: the by specific socioeconomic factors, personality values and boundaries between the actors disappear and even actions communication behavior. For example laggards are the most cannot be interpreted in the traditional way. disadvantaged group along the socio-economic scale. In the literature, the constant shifting of power between When studying the diffusion of ICT, at least one more technology and society is called translation: as a result of this category must be added: the refusers, who consciously resist usage throughout their lives (also known as diehards). The

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existence of this group indicates that no technology ever REFERENCES penetrates a society fully. To reach 100% diffusion both [1] D. Bell, “Az információs társadalom társas keretrendszere (The social society and technology need to change as compared to their framework of the information society) “, Információs Társadalom initial status when the innovation was introduced. 2001/1 [2] D. Bell, “The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society, A Venture in The process of diffusion is broken down into different Social Forecasting“, London: Heinemann, 1976 stages from the individual user’s point of view. First, one [3] M. Buckland, “Information as thing. Journal of the American Society for typically acquires information regarding innovation through Information Science“, 1991 [4] M. Castells, “Az identitás hatalma (The Power of Identity) “, , mass media channels (or cosmopolitan communication Gondolat Kiadó, 2000 channels). The following three phases are dominated by [5] M. 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The meaning, history and conceptual framework of an the theory a close relative to other approaches such as SCOT expression), Az információs társadalom, Az elmélettől a politikai gyakorlatig (The Information Society, From theory to political and ANT. Rogers’ theory can be drawn upon in the analyses practice)“, Gondolat – Új Mandátum, Budapest, 29-47, 2007 of such information society related issues as the [13] F. Machlup, “The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the or e-inclusion. United States“, Princeton UP, 1962 [14] Y. Masuda, “Az információs társadalom (The Information Society) “, OMIKK, Budapest, 1988 VIII. CONCLUSION [15] Pallas Nagy Lexikon IX. kötet, (The Great Pallas Encyclopedia, Vol. 9) [16] A. Payne, “CRM-kézikönyv, Ügyfélkezelés felsőfokon“, HVG Kiadó The application of these theories and schools on ICT is Zrt., 2006 problematic in many respects. First, as we stated above, there [17] M. 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Lecture at the Conference, approach to the – when dealing with “New Knowledge and New Consciousness in the Era of the Knowledge Society", Budapest, 2002 information society – does not take into account the results of [23] N. Stehr, “Knowledge & Economic Conduct“, Toronto: University of approaches (such as information science or information Toronto Press, 2002 systems literature or social informatics, information [24] N. Stehr, “A modern társadalmak törékenysége (The fragility of modern societies) “, Gondolat – Infonia, 2007 management and knowledge management, communication [25] K. Szabo, and B. Hamori, “Információgazdaság (Information and media studies) studying the very essence of the Economy)“, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2006 information age: information, communication and knowledge. [26] A. Toffler, “The Third Wave“, Budapest, Typotex, 2001 [27] A. Toffler, “A harmadik hullám (The Third Wave) “, Typotex, 2000 The list of unnoticed or partially incorporated sciences, which [28] A. Touraine, “Return of the Actor“. Minneapolis, University of focuses on the role of ICT in human information processing Minnesota Press, 1988 and other cognitive activities, is much longer [29]. [29] T. Umesao, “Japanese Civilization in the Modern World“, 2003 [30] F. Webster, “Theories of the Information Society“, Routledge, 1995 These, though, miss the approach of STS and evolutionary [31] F. Webster, “The Information Society Revisited“, In: Lievrouw, Leah schools, particularly the concept of technology and society as A./Livingstone, Handbook of New Media, London: Sage. pp. 255-266., a seamless web. Merging the two modes of understanding 2002 information society is in its infancy, though studying ICT [32] C. F. V. Weizsacker, “A német titánizmus (German Titanism) “, Európa Kiadó, 1989 systems cannot be completes without them both [27].

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