AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR AID USE ONL WASHINGTON, D. C. 20523 BIBLIOGRAPHIC INPUT SHEET r______lo_7 A..'.,J"J., TEMPORARY

FI(.ATION h

2. TITLE AND SUBTITLE A report on tribal peoples in Chiengrai Province,north of the Mae Kok River

3. AUTHOR(S) Hanks,L.M.; Hanks,J.R.; Sharp,Lauriston; Sharp,R.B.

4. DOCUMENT DATE I S.NUMBER OF PAGES 6. ARC NUMBER 1964 135p. ARC 7. REFERENCE ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS Cornell

8. SUPPLEMENTARY 14OTES Spo1fo1n Or.anlzgj £fbft 0?8. AVflIib ict ion) (Incomparative s u -es o culturaT cnange. (In Bennington-Cornell Anthropological Survey of Hill Tribes in Thailand. Data pape" no.1)

9. ABSTRACT (SOCIAL SCIENCES R&D)

10. CITLNUER II. PRICE OF DOCUMENT

12. DESCRIPTORS 13. PROJECT NUMBER Thailand Anthropology 14. 10& a6RIIR r MMrn9o94 RAA_ 15. TYPE OF DOCUMENT

AID 590-1 (4-74) Bennington - Cornell Anthropological Survey

of Hill Tribes in Thailand

A REPORT ON TRIBAL PEOPLES

IN

,CHIENGRAI PROVINCE

NORTH OF THE MAE KOK RIVER

by Lucien M. Hanks

Jane R. Hanks

Lauriston Sharp

Ruth B. Sharp

Comparative Studies of Cultural Change Department of Anthropology

Cornell University Ithaca, New York

1964 Orr .L.L40 INTRODUCTION

In 1963, the Department of Anthropology at Cornell University contracted with the Agency for International

Development to conduct applied social science research.

A principal goal of this research is to aid foreign

government officials and Agency for International Develop­

ment project administrators, technicians, policy and program planners to arrive at sound policy decisions

through a better understanding of the total socio-economic

context of the problems to be solved. The research also aims toward improving the long range planning of U.S.

assistance programs. One of the specific problem areas

the Cornell research group has undertaken to analyze is that of the integration of tribal, ethnic and other

subordinmted subcultural groups into national societies.

One member of the Cornell University Department of

Anthropology, Professor Lauriston Sharp, spent the period from September of 1963 to August of 1964 in Thailand studying precisely this problem supported in part by funds from Contract AID/csd-296. In cooperation with Drs. Lucien M. Hanks and Jane R. Hanks of Bennington

College, who are also Research Associates of the Cornell University Department of Anthropology, Sharp s.urveyed hill tribesmen in'Northern Thailand. Now subject to

i. ii. significant demographic and cultural pressures from Thai, the northern hill tribes have been little studied. Few facts about them are available to permit rational planning or policy formulation. Sharp and the Hanks have contri­ buted materially to knowledge of the tribal villagers.

This trio transmitted a report on its rusearch findings concerning tribal peoples in Chiengrai Province directly to the government of Thailand on 5 August 1964. The report constitutes a noteworthy e;xample of applied anthro­ pology which uncovers basic social and cultural facts and communicates them to responsible decision-makers.

It is reproduced, therefore, for the information and use of the Agency for International Development. The recommendations and conclusions of the authors are, of course, their own, and do not reflect the policy of the Agency for International Development or any other sponsor.

Henry F. Dobyns BENNINGTON. CORNELL ANTHROPOLOGICAL S 0UR7:YC: HILL TRIBES IN THAILAND

A REPORT ON TRIBAL PEOPLES IN CI-.lNGRAi PROVINCE NORTH OF THE MA.E KOK RIVER

DATA PAPER NUMDER 1 1964

A

. . - : ,

THE SIAM SOCIETY Under Royal Patronage BANGKOK 2507 Letter of Transmittal

The Siam Sodciety Bangkok, Thailand 5 August 1964 To: The Director of the National Research Council The Director of the Public Welfare ,Department' The President of the-Siam Society

Your Highness, Gentlemen:

We have the honor to present to you this report concerning the tribal peoples of Chiengrai Province north of the Mae Kok River. Because of its and roughness incompleteness, we offer it with apologies; yet its possible usefulness to the many already at work on problems of the hill tribes made us decide to offei, this document now rather than wait for a year or more for a final report. We hope it may be acceptable in this spirit.

We offer this report also as a contribution to :;research which has become an integral part of governing. In the past the Thai Government has drawn on research to define the nature of its problems. From such research official policy emerges.

In dealing with tribal people the government has again recognized the need for research. The Socio- Economic Survey of Hill Tribes in Northern Thailand by the Department of Public Welfare in the Ministry of the Interior, published in 1962, is but the first evidence of research allied with governing the hill peoples. The establishment of a Tribal Research Center is a further outgrowth of this recognition. Our research merely follows this already established precedent.

We are well aware that our recommendations add little that has not already been recommended in the 1962 report of the Socio-Economic Survey of Hill Tribes in Northern Thailand. Indeed, many of the recommendations of this 1962 report, we are happy to observe, are being implemented at present. If the present report has value, we see

/ourselves iv ourselves as independent observers confirming the gaeneral recommendations already made by earlier research and underscoring their urgency. In addition, we late comers to the scene have possibly been able to build a little further on the results of earlier research, for now we can assume the Tribal Welfare Station, the Tribal Research Center, and the Mobile Development Teams.

Finally, we wish to express our gratitude for the invaluable cooperation of your institutions which made this research and this report possible. Your sponsor­ ship was ind.-Densable to our work, and we hope that this preliminary report may in some small measure repay your kindness. Very truly yours,

Lucien Ii.Hanks Jane R. Hank$ Lauriston Sharp for the Bennington-Cornell Anthropological Survey of Hill Tribes in Thailand Foreword

During eight months of the year 2506-2507 Bennington College and Cornell University jointly conducted a survey of hill tribes in north Thailand which was designed to investigate systematically the relationships of the inhabitants of defined upland tracts to the land, to each other, and to peoples of the adjacent lowland plains. Members of the survey group spent one month (August) on a reconnaissance of the northern provinces to determine suitable working areas; two months (November and December, heavy October rains preventing an earlier ascent to the hills) were spent working out from the Public Welfare Department's Nikhom Chiengdao, a tribal welfare station in Mae Taeng District, Chiengmai Province, some seventy kilometers by road north of Chiengmai, where study of Lahu and Meo villages helped define problems and develop methods of operating under field conditions; and five months (January through May) were

devoted to conducting the survey in the region of Chiengrai Province bounded on the south and east by the Mac Kok River and on the north and west by the Lao and Burma borders. A preliminary summary of data collected in the Mae Kok Region,

as we have called it, is presented in this report, together with a discussion of the major policy problems to which these data, in our opinion, are relevant.

/This v vi

This ethno-ccological survey of tribal conditions in a region of north Thailand was planned to help fill an obvious gap in the meager information available on the hill peoples. What little material has been published on the area deals almost exclusively with particular ethnic groups or specific village communities among hill tribes such as the Akha, Karen,

Lahu, Lawa, Khmu, Meo, and so on. The relations between the villages of any one tribe, between such villages and the villages of other tribes, between inhabitants of the hill tracts and other ethnic groups dwelling in the lowlands, or between any or all of these and agencies of the Thai government are matters on which there is almost no published information.

A survey such as the one reported on here seemed an essential prerequisitp to more detailed studies of the complicated net­ works of human relationships which follow the rivers and the upland trails from the market towns and District Offices of the

Chiengrai plains through the hills and along the ridges and over the ranges to Lao and Burma and beyond.

In presenting this report, we would emphasize the word preliminary. Only a portion of the data which we gathered is given, then often by sampling rather than complete presentation.

We have included only minimal reference to the work that has gone before us and no comparison of our findings with those of other studies. Instead we have sought to make our findings

/quickly vii quickly available to the agencies of the Thai government and professional co-workers, for they, already actively at work with the hill tribes, would be inconvenienced by waiting a year or two for a fuller report. Our recommendations may have value from our position as independent witnesses. Where these recommendations agree with current practices or future plans,

we hope they may reinforce the sense of need. Where our recommendations diverFe from those of our co-workers, we have not benefitted from discussion with them but speak with innocent candor rather than criticism. If our views have added new or useful insights into current problems of the hill tribes, we shall be grateful.

The Bennington-Cornell survey received financial support from the National Science Foundation and from Cornell University. In Thailand the survey was sponsored by the National Research Council; the Division of Hill Tribes, Department cf Public Welfare, Ministry of the Interior; and the Siam Society, all of whom have given invaluable aid, logistic support, and encouragement to the work of the survey. Both in Bangkok and in the field our work was made easier by drawing upon the readily shared experiences, publications ind facilities of the Public Welfare Department. Members of the survey group owe a special debt of gratitude to the staffs of the sponsoring bodies, to members of the Border Police Patrol and other local officials

/of viii

of the Ministry of the Interior, to missionaries of the Overseas Missionary Fellowship and the Church of Christ in Thailand, and

to many other individuals who shared with us on the trails and

in the towns their skills and their specialized knowledge of the area and peoples surveyed.

The following persons were members of the research group

for longer or shorter periods and e ich has contributed an

important share to the work of the survey.

Miss Chanrien7 Bhavichatra M.R. utilert Devakula Miss Chalermsri Dhannabutra Mr. Pramote Nakornthab Mr. Sirin Nimmanahaeminda Mrs. Ruth B. Sharp Mr. Suthep Soonthornpeset Mr. Edward Van Roy Mr. William H. Wohnus

Lucien M. Hanks Bennington College

Jane R. Hanks Cornell University

Lauriston Sharp Cornell University

On board m.s. "SAIBURI" Gulf of Siam 12 July 2507 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography has been supplied and annotated

through the kindness of Dr. Hans Manndorff, United Nations Advisor

on Anthropology to the Division of the Hill Tribes, Department of Public Welfare, Ministry of the Interior. After a pre-publication

reading of our report, he indicated the need for at least this

minimal reference to existing work, and we are grateful to him .for this helpful addition.

1. Ministry of Interior, Department of Public Welfare,

Land Settlement Project for Hilltribe People in Thailand

as of 1960 (B.E. 2503). Bangkok, 1 November 1959 (Mimeographed).

2. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far

East, Division of Social Affairs, Report on a Field

Trip undertaken in connection with the Project on a

So.cio-Economic Svrvev of the Hill Tribes of North

Thailand. Bangkok, March - April 1961 (Mimeographed).

3. Ministry of Interior, Department of Public Welfare,

Report on the Socio-Economic Survey of the Hill Tribes

in Northern Thailand. Bangkok 1962.

This report has become an authoritative source

of information and its recommendations and conclusions

are used as a basis of the present Hill Tribe Develop­

ment and Welfare Programme as carried out by the

ix /Ministry x Ministry of Interior. The field study was conducted

from October 1961 to May 1962 with. the support of

organizations such as the Asia Foundation, ECAFE and

United Nations which provided technical assistance and advisory services of an expert in anthropological

research. Cooperation was also received from the

Siam Society, USOM and from the Border Patrol Police.

Gordon Young, The Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand. A Socio-Ethnological Report. Bangkok, 1962., This report was prepared under the auspices of

the Government of Thailand and the cooperation of the

United States Operation His.sion to Thailand.

5. Robert Heine-Geldern, "A Proposal for the Es-tablish­

ment of a Tribal Research Centre in Thailand." Bulletin

of the International Cemmittec on Urgent Anthropological

and Ethnological Research, o. 5, Vienn,.!962, pp. 21-22.

6. Patya Saihoo, "The Hill Tribes of'-Northeyn Thailand and

the Opium Problem." jinited Nations Bulletin. on

Narcotics, Vol. XV, No. 2,_1962, pp. 35-45.

7. Hans Manndorff, "--Introduction

of State Administration among Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand." Sociologus, Journal for Empirical Sociology,

Vol. 13, No. 1, Berlin, 1963, pp. 15-31.

/8. xi 8. P.D.J. Campbell, Report on Survey of Tea Growing

Areas of Thailand. Colombo Plan, March 1963 (Mimeo­ graphed).

9. F.R. Moormann, K.R.M. Anthony, and Samarn Panichapong,

Note on the Soils and Landuse in the Hills (,f Tak

Prcvince. Ministry 0lf 1.citional Development, Land

Development Department, Banglkok, Harch 1964 (Mimeo­ graphed).

10. F.G.B. Keen, Prospects for Land Development and

Settlement of Hill Tribos in the Uplands of Tak

Province. Ministry of Interior, Public Welf-ire Department, Bangkok, il 1964 (Mimeographed).

11. Ministry of Interior, Public Welfare Department,

A Manual for Field Work(rs among Hill Tribes. Bangkok, 1964.

12. Laurence C. Judd, Dry Rice Ag.riculture in Northern

Thailand. Corne]l Univciz-ity Southeast Asia

Program, Ithaca, 1964. (Data Pape-c. Number' 52).

Finally, an earlier source .ight be mentioned:

13. Hugo Bernatzik, Akha und Heau. Probleme de:r

angewandten Vlkerkuiide in flinterindien. 2 vol. Innsbruck, 1947.

/Although xii

Although-this book-is an accourit of field research

undertaken in 1936/37 it is sti li-the-only anthro­ pological monograph on hill tribes of Thailand today. Several sections of this book deal with problems

relevant to the topics under discussion. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Since the tribal villages of -the Mae Kok Region may be

approaching the limits of their ability to support themselves

by shifting agriculture, we advise studies to ascertain the

minimum and optimum resources of soil, timber and water necessary

to support the population. If this research confirms our

impression and further immigration threatens overpopulation,

we believe resettlement of population in other hill regions

will be necessary. Research ir, the techniques of raising

upland rice will help in the future to stabilize some villages,

but the mos, immediate means is the introduction of wet-rice

culture to villages already interested, along with new methods

for raising livestock. Though improvement of the cash economy

seems less urgent than the subsistence economy, we e)pect cash

income to increase as research demonstrates ways of improving the present cash crops and discovers additional ones suitable

for the region, but training 4n marketable skills may begin at once. The introduction of tools lcading to industrial development of hill resources must not be neglected. Marketing of native crafts, especially textiles, should be supported - with adequate protection of quality - less perhaps for the cash income it may produce than to provide employment, parti­ cularly for women and children during the period of assimilation when it will be important to maintain work habits, morale or

xiii /ethnic xiv ethnic identity.- Due to rapid expansion of government services to the hill

region, confusion of duties and functions has occurred at several

points in the government structure. Every effort should be made

to straighten out these serious difficulties on a local or

district basis, it being recognize

require initial action and support by higher levels of govern­

ment. Only if these efforts faiI. should radical administrative

reorganization be considered. Governing would also become more

effective by greater, use of tribal languages and the employment

of a corps of competent interpreters. Its effectiveness would

also increase with better understanding of customary law,

tribal government, and related aspects of religion. A medical

survey, an extended program of immunization and the establishing

of clinics will meet current heafth problems at least tempdra­

rily. Since interest in education occurs in only a few

villages, we advise concentrating efforts in these villages where interest lies and introducing professional teachers to

hold classes during the dry season. At the same time interest *in education may be stimulated by tcaching literacy in the

tribal languages and by developinF a program of radio broadcasts

directed to the expanding interests of various tribal peoples.

Friction between Thai and uplanders is retarding assimila­

tion of tribal. people. A prolonged campaign on many levels is

/necessary xv necessary to increase the respect of both groups for the other.

To enrich the Program of the Division of the Hill Tribes,

the staff should become familiar with the minority group

programs of oth-er countries and visit those countries where

problems and methodis of solution a]-pear reiev.a.nt. Since

development of the program dcpenrJs on many kinds of -.esearch, we suggest the selection of a :.vou- of *echnical consultants

on sciences related to tribal welfare; these technical consultants may advise on research at the Tribal Research

Institute and recommend action to the Division of the Hill Tribes.

CONTENTS

Letter of Transmittal iii

Foreword v

Bibliography ix

Summary of Recommendations xiii

Description of the Mac Kok Region 1

Introduction 1 Geography 2 Population 4 Migration 8 Transportation 10 Government Services 12 Security 13 Mobility of Settlements 17 Basic Economy 20 Distribution of Wealth 25 Cash Economy 26 Commerce 30 The Sense of the Economy 34 Leadership 37 Health 44 Education 45 Special Relations between Villages 47 Uplands and Lowlands 52

Recommendations 60

Problem of Ponulation 62 Problem of Subsistence 65

xvii xviii Recom:iendations (cont'd.)

Problem of the Cash Economy 68 Problem of Government Se.rvices for Hill Areas 70 Problem of Health 72 Problem of Education 73 Problem of Communication 75 Problem of Interrelation between Thai and Tribal Peope 77 Problori of Sustaining, a Vital Program 79

Appendix I. Tribal Arts and Crafts, by TPuth B. Sharp 83 Appendix II. Gazetteer of Tribal Villa,,es 103 Appendix iII. Work Schedule of Survey and Survey Personnel 113 Map. Chiengrai Province North of Mae Kok River At end DESCRIPTION OF THE MAE KOK REGION

Introduction

At the beginning of our study we planned to visit all tribal villages in the hill region of Chiengrai Province that lay north of the Mae Kok River, and west of the highway from the city of Chiengrai to the i3urma border at Mae Sai. We would visit riot only the ui~lanu tribal villajnes but also up­ land and lowland Thai villages and market towns that border on the tribal area. Before many weeks the plan had to be changed.

Three tribal villages lay to the east of the region which we had designated. Tribal people were moving back and forth from

Laos and Burma. Among them lived Shan, Karen and Yunan Chinese.

Because of two international borders we were observing the effects of past and present civil disturbances abroad, for displaced people from the nearby countries had moved to the region. Not only the decisions of the Thai government but, indirectly, the decisions of governments in Laos, Burma and

China were affecting the legion. The scene had boch local and international reference.

Our anthropological survey began in January and ended in May, 2507. During this period we gained information on what appear to be all tribal (Akha, Lahu, Lissu and Yao) villages of the area north of the M[ae Kok River. There are 130 villages, of which we visited 122. In addition we surveyed 6 Thai, 5

/Karen -2-

Karen, 4 Shian and 3 Chinese> vil.lages, as well as certain military encampments. Interviews also took place with representative provincial, district and local Thai officials.

In each village our survey tearzi gathered information on the geography nc!cessary to loccit; the v'illagc on a map, on its population and on certain of its socio-economic and cultural features. This re:,ortu includus data 3athered by others and estimates by ourselves, though we shall distinguish these two sources of information from our own first hand observations.

Geography

We shall use the word region to mean the setting of our entire project in the Province of Chiengrai; area refers to a particular part of the region such as the "southwest area".

The region north of the Mae Kok River which we shall -call the Mae Kok Region, is a segment o:f the extensive Mae Kong drainage system. All streams flow east from the hills into the broad plain which forms the valley of the Mae Kong River.

There the great bulk of the Thai p.mpulation lives cultivating its paddy fields. Some low-lying, scrub-covered hills rise in these plains, and a few tribal people have moved into some of them to build their villages. But in the main the plains form the setting for lowland Thai cu-lture. From the plain

400 meters above sea level the hills to the west rise to peaks

/varying -3­ varying from approximately 1200 to 1900 meters. Here live the tribal people cultivating upland rice. Though at f4rst the steep-rising hills seem chaotic, a little familiarity reveals their pattern. The hills form a great basin with the highest ranges lying to. the north and west -along the Burma border.

To the sovth lower hills form the bank of the Mae Kok River.

Between this south ridge and the Burma border lie parallel rows of hills running east and west, separated by subsidiary streams.

From north to south these streams are the Mae Kham, the Mae

Salong and the Mae Chan.

When the upland people clear their fields of brush* aid weeds before planting, the typical red soil of the region becomes prominent. Black granular and sandy soils occur much less frequently in this well-watered area. These soils

overlie a base that appears to be predominantly limestone.

Hardwood forest once covered most of the area, but where hill people have cleared fields and the vegetation cycle has begun

again, bamboo grows. There, in the shade of these bamboos,

seedlings of hardwood trees may take root to begin the forest

again.

/ Population Population

In discussing the population of our region, we use two

words with somewhat special meaning. We shall speak of an

ethnic group and of a tribal group. We use ethnic when we

emphasize the particular cultural tradition of a people, as

distinct from its nationality, religion or race. Thus in the

region we encountered eight differing ethnic groups: Thai,

Shan, Yunan Chinese, Karen, Lissu, Yao, Lahu and Akha. Since

three of these peoples lack tribal identity, when we speak of

tribal groups, we mean particularly the Karen, Lissu, Yao,

Lahu and Akha.

The region of our study consists of four districts

(amphoe). Three districts include substantial sections of

the hill region. The District of Chiengsaen to the east

contains but two tribal villages in its low hills. The

following tables enumerate the upland villages, houses'and

population for each district. Because the District of Mae

Chan is heavily populated in several tambons, we also give our

-enumeration for the tambons of this district.

A word of caution is necessary in order not to mis­

interpret these tables. We assigned a village to a particular

ethnic group when a majority of the household heads of a given

village belonged to that ethnic group. If a village contains

/four - 5 -

Total number of villages, households and tribal peoples by tambon and district of the Mae Kok region

* District of Mae Chan Tambon Tamb6n " Tambon Mae Kham Pasang. Mae Chan'

Vill. House Pop. Vill. House Pop. Vill. House Pop.

Akha 23 443 2774 18 318 1983 4 48 311

Lahu 9 69 314 5 79 454 15 145 844

Yao - - - 1 41 291 7 107 668

Lissu 1 62 366 3 38 252 5 63 414

Karen ------­

Shan - - - 2 17 64*

Chinese 1 105 -...38* 1 16 "- - ­

Total: 34 679 3892 30 509 3113 31 363 2237

District of District of District of Mae Chan (total) Chiengsaen Mdc Sai

Vill. House Pop. ll. House PoD. Vii. House Pop.

Akha 45 809 5068 2 39 187 4 91 555

Lahu 29 293 1612 - - - 2 34 188

Yao 8 148 959 - --

Lissu 9 163 1032

Karen - -- --

Shan 2 17 64* 1 100 432 - - -

Chinese 2 121 507* - - - 1 150 1558*

Total 95 1551 9242 3 139 619 7 275 2301 - 6 -

Total number 'of vil].ates, households and tribal peoples by tambon and district of the Mae Kok region (cont'd.)

Dist..c1: or Total for Myanig Ciengrai Mae Kok Region

Vill. house 'iL House POP.

...-Akha..... '4- 60 . 4.71 . .. [5 . 999 6281.

Lahu 1.9 188 1024 50 515 2824 Yao 2 17 126 10 165 1085

Lissu - - - 9 163 1032

Karen 6 169 967 6 169 967 Shan 1 32 151* 4 119 647*

Chinese - - - 3 271 2065*

-Total: 32 • 466 2739-. .... 137- ..2431 14901....

*These.totals are the number o Shar, and Chinese vii]aes

surveyed, not the total of tf! Than -nd Chinese villages

in any tambon or district. - 7 ­

four Lahu household heads and three .issu household heads, we have called it a Lahu vi].lag:e. Thi::; definition gives a particular meanini to our totasJc;, t in our total 'or this village we speak of seven households I all of them were

Lahu. For purposes of this c:ew,.e: the three Lissu households have become Lahu. So when we seak of the total households or people in a :ambon or distr'ict, these ethnicallv mixed totals contain in varying degrrees minor admixtures of other tri.bal people. They are not the total. numbcr of ethnic Karen, Lissu,

Yao, etc. households or people. They are the stated number of households and people of varying kinds 'Livinig in villages which we have defined as Karen, Lissu, Yao, etc.

Population characteristics: We have endeavored to gain a picture of the triba. population by studying a sample of 5,530 people from the total. Though in ieathering our data we did not distinguish the sex of the inh±1itants, we gained a rough indication of age groupings by asking, our informants to count adults and children separate-ly. ?iet i.ibal people have fixed on fifteen years of age as the a--i chimerichild becomes an adult. This gives a convenient apprroximt:ion .or comparison.

Among the Prx-ople of our- sampie, 117.0'. are classifiable as children and may be compared roughly with 37.4") for India and

26.9% for the United States. Our dat,i on births correspond badly with what we believe probable. We estimate a crude birth rate of /about - 8 ­ about 40 per .000, as compared with 24 to 33 for India and 17 to

25 for U.S.A,,. Data on deaths seen reasonable, for deaths in a tribal village are specia.i.y marked occasions. Per 100 of the population there are 25.1 deaths, comared with ].0 to 23 for

India and 9 to 10 for U.r.L. This is a population with an apparently high birth rate, a high death rate, and, we infer, a low life expectancy. From tribal. group to tribal group there are considerable variations; LdA,,u an,? Akha seem to have greater numbers of children and shorter life expectancy than Yao and

Lissu, but our numbers are too small to make this assertion reliable.

Migration

By observing the distribution of population in the various tambons and districts, we can see therpoints of highest concen­ tration. Then, knowing some of the history of the individual villages, we can infer miration. The Akha concentrate most heavi]y in Tambon Mae Khia,,- on the Tlurrma borde-r- and become fewer as one moves thr.ough tambonr. Pas.an.j and Mae Chan to the Chiengrai district. Most Akhu vi.Llaes -.eport havin.ra moved from' Burma within the past 50 years, and old inhabitants of Mae Chan recall when there wemr no Akha villajes in the hills. Thus the Akha seem to be the most recent migrants into the region.

/ The -9-

The concentration of Lahu almost reverses that of the

Akha. It is heaviest in the Chiengrai district and diminishes

as one moves northward through the tambons of Mae Chan to the

Burma border. Except for one new village in Mae Kham (Calae)

these Lahu villages report having lived for as long as they can

remember in Thailand, often in the same area. Old inhabitants

in Mae Chan confirm t>at Lahu have always been present in the region within the span of their memories.

We can infer less from the distribution of the Lissu viliages. The major concentration lies farther south beyond

the Mae Kok River. Lissu report having lived in the area for

considerable lengths of time, except for the single village of Ban Pang Nun and its new off-shoot, Huei Hak. The Lissu

villages tend to be larger than the Lahu, and at least three

or four large villages formerly existed in the region. Instead

6f moving short distances, like the Lahu, the majority moved outside our region south to Doi Chang and beyond.

The foregoing Tribes all came south through Burma. The

Yao, however, moved in from Laos. The majority of them came about the'time of Worid War II,' moved for a few years to the

Mae Chan district and thence by large leaps south into the hills between the provinces of Chiengrai and Chiengmai. The major concentration in Mae Chan is the residual of this migration. The two Yao villages in the Chiengrai district are

/exceptions - 10 ­

exceptions, for they moved into the region from Laos more than 100 years ago.

The Karen, settling always in the lowland of the Mae

Kok valley, report having come from Lampang and Chiengmai

provinces. The first village reached the area about forty years ago, and the present five villages are still being filled

each year by new migrants from these same provinces.

Though evidence is incomplete, the movement of tribal

peoples from Burma into Thailand appears to have begun within the last 150 to 100 years. Red Lahu and Lissu were the first migrants, Akha and other Lahu groups following. We believe another major migration route proceeds south and west in the

Chieng Khong District where Meo as well as Yao live today.

Transportation

Roads by and large have been made for bullock carts and connect lowland villages. They may also lead along the valley bottoms near some stream into the hills, but generally a short distance beyond the last village they end in some bushy field where the hills rise steeply. At this point the main trails take over, serving only man and his pack animals.. They follow the ridges, cut across valleys, and rise again to the heights.

Beyond the main trails lie secondary ones where the grade4s.

/too - 11 ­

too steep or the clearing of jungle too haphazard to risk going even with a sure-footed mule.

A single motor road into the hills has been constructed by the Tribal Welfare Station; it branches from the Ch!engrai - Mae Sai highway at Mae Kham, following some eighteen odd kilo­ meters along the Mae Salong River to the Station and thence to two tribal villages. One may also approach the hills from the main highway by side roads at Huei Irai, Mae Kham, Mae Chan, Bang Du, and across the Mac Kok River from the city of Chiengrai at Ban Rong Sya Ten. These roads lead along streams for three

to fifteen kilometers and at some risk are usable in proper season by automobiles.

Five east-and-west main trails run along the ridges, one at the Burma border, others at the north sides of the Mae Kham, Mae Salong, Mae Chan and Mae Kok rivers. A sixth trail follows the Mae Kok River, connecting Chiengrai with Myang Ngam and Ta Thuan but is little used by tribal people who prefer the heights. A seventh trail goes diagonally northwest, approximately from the Tribal Welfare Station to Ban Pang Nun in the northwest corner of the region. In addition two trails run north and south; one with alternative routes parallels the western border connecting Ban Pang Nun with Myang Ngam in the southwest corner. A second cuts diagonally southwest from Doi Tung via Saen Chai and crosses the Mae Kok hills near Doi Bau on its way to Doi Chomphu. / Government Services - 12 -

Government Services

Governmeiit services to the hill region center at the

District Offices, and reach only the most accessible villages of the region. The District Officers and their aides have had occasions to visit few that lie deeper in the hills. Some kamnan and village headmen consider it a part of their duties to visit the more remote spots within their jurisdictioni and others have appointed Thai who reside in outlying villages to assist them. From Chiengrai the provincial police in the course of its duties has penetrated over the years most corners of the hills within the District of Chiengrai, but this body does not station permanent forces in the area. In other districts the Border Police is stationed more or less permanent. ly in seven villages: Ban Doi Sango in Chiengsaen, Phami in Mae Sai, and in Mae Chan at Ban Pang Nun, Hin Taek, Caculaba,

Saen Chai and Phale. Border Police Assistants of Scouts in an estimated five other villages have the duty of reporting events of interest. This is approximately the scene when the Tribal Welfare

Station entered in August 2506 to build its first roads-and buildings. Its presence is felt most in the neighboring:,,,. villages of Phale. and Saen Chai. From these villages, tribal people have come to earn money helping construct its facilities

/and -13 ­

and carry out its first trials of new upland crops. The road

.it has built together with its motor vehicles have already

introduced a new era by bringing hundreds of lowlanders to the

hills and uplanders to the plains. As the services of this new

agency exparnd, government will have increasing influence in

the region.

Security

Because of the presence of an international border, the

problems of maintaining peace in this region are somewhat

special. Before turning to the international aspects, let us

consider local problems. Each tribal village has its own

customary means for dealing with disturbances of the peace.

In certain tribes, elders acting as judges exact fines, indemnify the aggrieved, and may even have power to exile or execute offenders. None of our data concerns disputes between villages of the same tribe, yet we have heard that in such cases persons of tribal repute in the area are called to judge the cases. Between villages of differing tribal affiliation, disputes seem minimal perhaps because of the relative ease of moving a village; certainly no violence occurred during our stay between villages of the region. We did encounter cases of civil dispute between villages where the aggrieved people appealed to the Border Police or a nearby Thai village headman

/to - 14 ­

to act as mediator. Where the decision was unacceptable to

both parties, the contestants appealed to a higher official.

Though the hills were relatively quiet, along the eastern

fringe where contact between tribal and Thai villages is most

frequent, friction has developed at many points. Its usual

manifestation is frequent thefts and apparently wanton destruction

of property by Thai villagers. Indeed, Thai villagers can

easily make away with untended tribal buffalo, cattle, pigs

and chickens. Tribal people have further accused Thai villagers of

setting fire prematurely to fields, and theft or destruction of

crops. On the other hand the Thai villagers complained of

favoritism shown tribal people; for example, in cases of arrest

for cutting forest trees the courts. have sometimes dealt lenient­

ly with tribal offenders on the Frounds that they have always cut

the forest in the past without hesitation. In the great majority

of losses suffered by tribal villages, prosecution of a case has

been difficult because of insufficient evidence. Though courts have awarded indemnity to tribal people, these cases are not

sufficiently numerous. to overcome tida2 suspicion that Thai law

enforcement agencies are slow in prctecting them. Let it be

said, however, that in the jurisdiduion of certain headman and kamnan friction between Thai and trital people seemed minimal

and the number of breaches of the peace relatively small, e.g. at Mae Kham.and Huei Yano. / Special r15.

Special problems of security arise because of the

presence of the international border. Trails lead between

Burma and Thailand at many point,. Though few of these trails

appear to be i.,,uarded, police aind civil officials may have good

intelligence concerning the trafic that pcisses over them.

Generally the border can be crossed with ease by foreign agents

as well as refugees, ]by smugglei.s as well as honcst traders.

We have no information to say whether the easy passage of these people constitutes a threat to national security in Thailand. The most serious disturbance of the peace for tribal villages was organized groups of bandits which raided villages and withdrew into Burma. Though district and provincial authori­ ties have been quick to send limited tangible relief to afflicted villages, the Border Police with five to ten men in the area can take few steps to prevent recurrence. At best the Border Police has issued a few arms to certain villages and encouraged villagers to defend themselves.

Complicating local affairs, an irregular but disciplined foreign army has received asylum on Thai soil in the west of this region. Some observers cl;im that this army, several thousand in number, has assisted in preserving the peace.

These people point to the. shooting of certain outlaws and to less frequent raids by bandit groups across the Burma border since the foreign army has moved in. Indeed, the two raids

/of - 16 ­ of this past year took place in an area without military out­ posts of this group. However, the very presence of this army has in itself created some disturbances. Runaways from military discipline have been pursued and shot near tribal villages. We know of at least one case of friction between this military group and a tribal village, where two soldiers

.were shot. Had it not been for the intervention of Thai officials, more lives might have been lost. Thus this army is not an unmixed benefit for maintaining the peace of the region.

A further problem related to the international border concerns refugees. We estimate that during the past year

1,000 tribal people crossed into this region of Thailand, declaring themselves to have left their villages because of inability .to live under, existing civil conditions in Burma.

One observer of the tribal scene indicated that if a mass exodus of tribal peoples were to occur, their numbers might reach more than 20,000. Aside from considerations of political subversion and diplomatic relations to friendly powers, the possibility of settling -this many tribal people presents many problems, particularly in an area which we believe to be approachinF already the natural limits for supporting a population with present techniques of agriculture and husbandry.

A semi-starving, restless population of tribal people in this area may itself become a source of national embarrassment. /Mobility of Settlement - 17 -

Mobility of Settlements

Tribal people move their villages in the face of some

crisis. Wehave noted already that villages move because of

civil disturbances, but the most frequently given reason for moving is the desire for better land. However, the readiness .

to move varies considerably from tribe to tribe in a complex manner. Karen, Lissu and Yao villages move less frequently than Akha and Lahu. In. tho Mae Kok valley the Karen have succeeded in settling more or less permanently by cultivating wet rice. Lissu and Yao tend to choose sites for their villages with the expectation of having a large settlement and hence seek sites with abuhdant fertile land. The Akha also consider sickness and death to be sufficient reasons for moving a village at least a short distance. The Lahu not only move because of sickness and poor crops associated with an old site but, judging by the light construction of their houses and fre­ quently small accumulation of property, we believe they are more prepared to move than other tribes. The social organization of *a village may also have a bearing. The Lissu seem able to ride out the death of ordinary people without moving a village, but the death of a headman is a signal to move. In contrast

Karen and Yao villages continue past the death or immigration of a leader, as if an orderly mode of succession had been worked

/out - 18 ­

out. Possibly these latter villages are organized on corporated principles, while the Lissu depend on personal loyalty to a headman for sustaining their villages.

Preliminary inspection of our data indicates a low

positive correlation between village size and duration of a village at a particular site. This correlation is clearest

with the Lissu and Lahu, beccming unclear with the Akha who.

renew their vi.llai es on a new site every five to ten years.

With the Yao the correJ.ation is also lower because many of the villages are new, as if the past few years had been a period of reorganization. A correlation between size and stability might be expected on several grounds. Large villages tend to occur in areas where the land is fertile, and fertile land in aLundance not only attracts but can support more people.

After reaching a certain size, a village becomes too inert to move easily as a body. A few households can and do move awa'r according to -their inclinations withoit disrupting the body of the village, and if the villige is sufficiently renowned, new households attracted by the villape nove in to replace them.

Among all tribes a new village -ite must have sufficient fertile land near the village, wood for housebuilding as well as for fuel, and a good source of water. Though particular altitudes are reported frqm Yunan and Laos to be preferred by

/ certain - 19 ,

certain tribes, we have been unable to find altitude uniform­

ities in the locations of tribal. villages of this region.

Occasionally villagers stated that they moved to a higher

altitude to find cooler temperatures, but all tribes covered

the complete range from the valley to near the peak. Certain

tribes, however, indicated tupographicai preferences, like the

Akha who sought hill tops or shoulders jidway up a moun in to locate their villages. Lahu villaes were almost always on

a shoulder midway up a mountain. Yao and Lissu, on the other

hand, occupied sizable flat are:as regardless of position on a

hill; they said they wanted places where many households could live together.

Aside from the village site itself, the inhabitants lay claim to certain of the surtounding areas for their own culti­ vation. Though we have not studied concrete examples, village lands appear to be fairly precisely defined and separated from the lands of otI,her villages. A new villaze seeking to find a site for se-tiii ordinarily consults head­ men of nearby villages to find unuced land before selecting the spot for residing. W1hen Lahu refugees from Burma moved into the Tribal We].fare Station and were settled by the director, the neighboring Akha viJ.]aj r of Saen Chai objected, declaring that the new comers had settled on their lands.

/Addressing - 20 -

Addressing the leader of the refugee group, the Akha said,

"We would be glad if you went somewhere else." It appeased the Akha wrath little to learn that the Welfare Station's

director had settled the Lahu, and that they would probably remain only until after the (7rcwina season.

Basic Economy

Aside from the Karen, who raise both wet and upland rice, all tribal villages of the region grow upland rice for people and maize for their animal.s:. In addition many vary their diets a bit with such produce as soy beans, peanuts, pumpkins, squash, peppers, various tubers, bananas, pineapples and tobacco.

The key to subsistence, however, lies in the size and constancy of the rice crop, for the other, foods merely supplement rice.

We obtained in each village an estimate of the rice produced over the past three years by the person interviewed. Usually our informant was the villave headman, and we asked him also how much rice his household needed for a year. Though our technique was not precise, we do have a rough relative measure of this year's crop as compared with the two preceding years.

To obtain some idea of the economy in abbreviated form, we have taken a sample of thirty villages which we hope may be representative. They come from two areas of the region: the

/northwest .- 21 ­

northwest and southeast. This group contains 15 Akha,

11 Lahu, 2 Yao, 1 Lissu and 1 Karen villages.

Altogether 90 crops o0 -vice were raised in 30 villages

over a period of three years. Of this number of crops 33

reached or exceeded the. amount deemed necessary for a yoar t s

consumption. In 20 of these 3_ C-'os theroe occurred a surplus

that ranged from 5 to 460t abo.ve eftil;iatd needs, averag7ing

117%. The 57 crops whih we1e deficient ranged in loss betw,.,n

4 and 100%, averaging 40% V'iow estimated needs. Our data

further show that in only six of the thirty villages where the

crops were grown was there a uniformity of production over three

years. Twenty-four villages had crops that varied more than 25%. Of the six cases that produced little variation, only

four filled their stated needs for a three-year period. These

four villages were of all tribal affiliations and were located both in the northwest and southeas1 areas.

Unfortunately these data give us T means of knowing whether the rice produced in the region i..s, sufficient for its needs or not. Our imprjessio-cn is, however, 1:hal: the v.cme is only barely sufficient and the crop hiihly unpredictable for any one village from yeaei t, year. I-eadien in oertain aIIeas reported difficulties in findin- viilages with a surplus to sell. We encountered no't infrequently tribal people returning

/to 22 ­

to their villages with rice bought in the lowlands. Further­ more the presence of the foreign army, which provides no more

than 40% of its own rice needs, is quick to buy up surpluses

in -the villages. Theso solkdiers too report having to spend many days and travel far to obtain their rice. Certainly .-tricultural experts refer to soil conditions most frequently to explain jiod and Lad crops, and tribal people also blame poor soil as the chief cause of poor', crops.

All vil.ages in our sampe clcltred new fields each year, and the best crops came from clearing_; uncut forest. Only in a

few Yao villages, not include,,] in our sample, do we find a rotation system for a field of two years' faliow between crops.

In a few villages people grow pepper,: as a cash crop one year

followed the next by a rice croy.; ;Fter that they abandon the

field. Besides misjudgment of so.il f:ertility, tribal people offered further expfanatin:; -or crop variation, such as

insufficient rains, drying wind and rats. Among the causes

over which man may exert greater c'.ntr ol, tribal people blamed poor clearing, poor seed, late planting, poor preparation of the soil and insufficient weedinH. owever, they also mention­ ed sickness, civil disturbances and moving a village as contrib­ uting factors to making poor crops. During the growing season

labor is in Onemand; any prolonged diversion of it cuts deeply

into the size of the harvest. / The - 23 -

The raising of pigs and chickens is a second feature of

tribal economy. All thirty of our sample villages reported keeping not only these animals but many alsc raised cattle, horses, goats, buffalo and dogs, which the Akha use as food. The ordinary household consumes one pi.v a year at the. New Year

celebration. Chickens form the exceptional food foi. visiting guests and other special. occasions. Only in case of sickness or some important ceremonial occasion are these animals, particularly the larger ones, killed fo food. Yet when these animals are abundant, a houseChold usually eats more richly.

Wild animals, said to have been abundant until twenty or thirty years ago, have become relatively scarce. Though occasional barking deer, monkeys, gibbons and small birds supplement the diet, hunting is now a minor source of food in the region.

In the thirty villages were an average of 6.6 pigs owned by the persons interviewed, with a range from 1 to 22. Chickens averaged 17.3 with a range from 0 to 80. Comparing the two areas from which the villages were selected, significant dif­ ferences exist only in the number of chickens and the number of cattle and uffalo. Thc southeast has a considerably greater number of chickens; in cattle and buffalo the north­ west is superior. Conceivably some of these differences betweerih_-a__.pas are-due to tribal preferences; the Akha, for

/example, - 24­ example, keep cattle and buffalo for sacrifice at funerals,

and more Akha are present in the northwest area than in the

southeast. Differences in the number of chickens would have been smaller, had the major flock in the northwest not died

in an epidemic during the past year.

The size of a herd of assorted livestock varies with the sickness and health as we &si, the ceremonial. obligations of the owner. in a hea&..thy family, sacrif'ices need not be made.

As a person rises in .;tatus with his village, his obligations to feed people increase, so that headmen and spirit doctors are apt to have larger herds than the average villager. In addition the health and vigor of these animals depends on the success of the crops raised by the owner. While all animals

forage for a portion of their food, twice a day they gather at the owner's door for more substantial fare. When the

crops are good, more maize is added to the pig swill, and more paddy is thrown to the chickens. There are differences among tribal groups in feeding p;ractices, the Yao, for

instance, adding more grain to the feed for their animals and using smaller quantities of banana stalk. The general

vigor of their animals reflects this dict.

/Distribution of Wealth - 25 -

Distribution of Wealth

On the basis of the .forcaoing considerations, the number

of animals owned by a man may .;serve as a rough index of his wealth. If at the same time we ir!y accept this index of wealth of the person interviewed, most often the headman, as an index of wealth for an entire village, a rough measure is available to reveal the distribution of wealth among the villages of the present region. The following table shows the distribution of total animals owned by the person interviewed from thirty villages.

The Number of Animals owned by the Person interviewed in 30 villages

No. of animals No. of villages

1 to 9 4 10 to 19 7 20 to 29 7 30 to 39 6 40 to 49 2 50 to 59 1 60 to 69 1 70 to 79 80 to 89 90 to 99 100 plus 2

Total: 30

In general the outline of this distribution resembles curves of income distribution. The average is 27.6 animals for these /villages. - 26 ­

villages. The 15 Akha villages stand very near this average at 27.7 with a range from 2 to 56, while the eleven Lahu villages average 24.1 with a range from 1 to 105. The number in the other tribal groups is toG small to make the averages useful. It may be of interest to note that a low but positive correlation exists between this index of wealth and the popula­ tion of villages. On the whole larger villages tend to be wealthier or at least have wealthier headmen.

Cash Economy

Not many years alo all tribal villages grew hemp or cotton and wove their own clothing. Today in this area only the Akha continue this practice, and ,even amoni" them not al. villages grow their own cotton but buy it from neighbors. The majority of hill people buys cloth in the mairket and makes its own clothing according to tribal styles. Yet ready-made shirts and skirts may be seen in many a villa e. Individuals from every hill village make at l.east one annual 'trip to the market towns of the plains, and those fE.on nearer villaes visit these centers as often as once a week durin,- the dry season. From the markets come not only cloth but kerosene, salt nd steel.

Besides, even the most humble hou.sehold has somehow acquired a metal pot for cooking. Beginning with this near minimum,

/the -27 ­

the range of market goods extends to canvas shoes and wrist

watches, to enamel plates and porcelain cups, and to flashlights and radios. Beyond their subsistence, households have special

sources of cash which permit greater or less access to the commercial markets.

In our enquiries about sources of cash, we were careful

to permit mention of opium but never enquired directly about it.

Only a few of our informants volunteered information on this

subject, and hence our data concerns almost exclusively sales of livestock and non-narcotic crops. The former include sales

of pigs, chickens, cattle and horses; crops were mainly peppers,

soy beans, and sesame. A village close to Mae Sai reported

earning 10 baht per day from charcoal they had made.

The following table reports cash income, probably not

including opium, for the past year from 26 of our sample of 30 villages. Four villages reported sales but did not state the amount received from them.

Annual Baht Income of the Persons Interviewed in 30 Villages, 2506. Income Number of Villages 0 to 499 11 500 to 999 4 1000 to 1499 7 1500 to 1999 1 2000 to 2499 1 2500 to 2999 3000 plus 2

Total: 26

/The 4~44~28 ~* ~ ~ ~ ~ .~~ ~

h The a v e r . noeJsI h w . hcainauulyf-

14 4' 44 44~4 >4 4 444~~ 4."'40 '4*44 - ~ .~ -.. oyb e 44an..''.- (4 '4 '.44s r". 44 s"' .44414 ~ ~ e ~ ~ ;4C C ,c i S4444 of p p e , a t 4 ro~ J 111c Tho v .. j

4i4 c'r .7 h r .' 11 0 t 01i of. I e

Inh'~ r ealoiursel 4 o vilgsuaby arvom fo the souhes i~oigif.fnl highr Lhn forbcthe nrte averags bah ve yea08bas hci.rewt 44 ~~rg wear Thc~temode ncom for' t:uheorthwes lies betwe1iwed0huh

r500 *bLttI'I p'h2(le thatfl o2±CfI th O C te s be5t ween1-00tan

1150C.vilae Ab-ha~ ~ aw., ~ mos 'iietr:iehaie i.rot'e~t

Thi00s differenlce~hiuIV'~'~icuh i;eI' 'yrelw with a: .rage'ou

finte0torv 00iews v I tc..'ihihetincome inrth ourte . .­

wee alrst an suse'd our san le ourvll.e bycorfa qioncome north­ fonr the j sotea'odi acinii'.ntl ruuthanhigher for th

wes mar e 1eali1. wthe actudwihal6era aea pithr

yer. Theion mod. iondom fon th nrtwstiliso-'- betwenl 0 at

c00icahns whie thatnu(ovf th otheastn li:est betwee 1000 an

Tis diffwerene a rtmeroly i~nrsn the-: Thse ofni ura's intevies~aaixwfr'daa..-.onincme or e vsit/ate nrh ...... ,>v1<{ . are pensivP, aid 4e sug es tIat h t'i lying -Icorc<

r emotely fl.'r -the .Centerts of eoirnnileent Control,; devive., a,

,reater am~ount of cath- r! r oiui Co1i'iAvhtaun~ an

siz,- of

pos'sible- that the l.=eater '%,ccessibiItvy of thr., %marketsin

the southeast ,.C this area to nroduce a greater variety of ;.qarketablco itoems. Urif ortunate ly data from thith Pre.iAJnt"nar,anlso the survey cannot provide a conclusive answer.

On... furthev source of cah inco,: must be noted, wo..1. for

wages, was r:po.tc* in .ivevleihich of our sample, partiulciry inthe SoUth.aast area. A wealthy individual may S hire by the day local peo..le To havest arid ,arry his crops, clear his fi,1ls, -plant h-11. a;-pan, gather firewIod. Some­

times these workers ccme fro!': vilag*he"a es.S (ome st1gma seems to attach, to wor-kinxj in I:hi.:-anor for when. a villagec re-Dorted hi-iL. workerf. f.,om a nech-' villai;e the neighboringin usually c ieing hired but Uometimes reportedl -irinlothers tO wo,:1Z its fields. iverywhe pay is the same 6obahlt per day in cash or il:s equivalent in opium plus a meal. 'le gainod the. impvcs .ion that those who hired out were often poor people wha could riot readily support themselves.

The working seasor is about three months loni, mainly during the / dry

- pp U: pP 2 } [5 : [ A .44 -

s A' , , A u c-nt be 77iiiihwzly,puchse from!

'4'4

: 'A: A " ' ' ... A ...... € - ) 'i P"- P: 'A :7

i no kow :what proziportion of 'oa n c pent .in: v! lges :

"-h.Lat ha ppi 1iiti A Thogh' ~ha' A~t~pokr Thffi~kt aJeonrv; mor eemote:m v.aIas Juaike fewe. t,.aps to e marknt per ymc a

tof r hutuunthe dereaed 'Thughevjec T at prionofth

to traden atevhanc bytir o thi,- ativts toertainth. inipa thprya ::'dccdemreaseno~ , iitfi~h~ s~,oil;l.osinrabe.fa, ina :7acc.ount -'c,--k:o!th totewic-acccu-rs eap,i.aght yre,- i aosd luno euae ly-.bua Coreof whoi haves ote tae. -,eidn

deedi ift~d~sth h~2ls ~veincrase duing he'/of sf the go ae i Th aillags, by

Eachitknow of Tovtl inom to sAent pin rllag ein -- al i- irnmbr hv

of rths ± gi faohlt c ~nmox-~ dvacin ad citrib A thersae"in setbey ntra&i.l 'L,- .e tht< Tchif unipbers tavoug

Chtin Ino thanonlyons cuI.of cTudram nor clersofitnxe n

trae iarr thgely coi.-,ectn byei thon'.s TyIca eycinlm to i.

mechadsesg 1~hiharettes, a aters,:ardci7. Thind mutey A,:Ito

buy pigs and peppers and, are f.ound most frequently in the hills , > : r r : ;, ;. , , .:,,, , , 4:,;; , , : ' % - , ,,i .' , : , ,, ; .. : 5 5;

' on the southi fringe' ', ' " ' ' ' ' z of': , , the 's v ' , reffior. " " ,, ' : ,' . Yao, traders, , ,, work'; ,5 in the 555 !- i' , !! ; i~ ! ! li i i ,, ' i i 'i i ii! , ! 5 i 5', i~! i ! !ii ! i !< ! ! ! i !- i~:: ! 4 i i~ii , i !. i ,i ~i" ii! !5 5 5il i i :4 ':!/ , ! '. -- . % " ' - !'. !' -­ , i! ~ii ' . ! . ~i:: £ ii 5 ! -5, <5 sout'hern' ! are,:i i noar, theiri':' ' owin5 . ' iiae;they: i ! t11oo:: sseok i !'to buy' 5!i i ! ; ! !! ! ! . ss55'i.~ ?i peppers and T).kgs. To th:'otraders and buy.i-vs wec must add the nii-tary 5 . ! ,. 5 <<' ;-5 grouDS grantp7 asyltlil -in Tlia.i2.anJ? -whose solc15ir, rswe often on . 55 ...... 5 5 < 5f' ' 's 55 s ~ 5" S 5. the trails see-king to b-uy -pzvovis2on.: at trihad villagLs. They

h55sme 5 tun a '5eye5,h ,=.!n: 91. l :c ,r :. buy ri-c r a;.'Iipigs, povin z-. s2ihy hIghe1-r DI -,ceS than the traders, and o~rtn ainly in .vb,7 west. and cenitral areas.

Where cash is avai-.ahl, s'elle.rs te-n- to oreae In the past y, !i-~ Thai wcintri f-rom ilagsof the plains have appeared at tribal ilae on the 4atr-fringres of the hills with sweets, cigarett- s and toys for sale. This kind of /atvity 32

.. tv~3,onl~epat ~ N2'wtqcnthough f miliar e~nough in

>w'.>~tthrl)rs ms~t have bc--uri during the pitesert year, pe'rhaps ~as P. r'csult,' OfI the j7'cad itO t] v! Trhai Wlfa :ec Station,.

DetweonMa Sai jnc1 C"ir' tile< ohief tnwns t c receive

those rar]ke.':s Nae- Chan is bLknown ancriTd- Thrc-~irde a greoit volietv o)r recnds acuatc1to attract 'the tribal

i People naV be SNerchnctt-- acce)-,t 1:siver cu ns from~ Burma and India aL wcll as Two"L".70 .!_e SrO-4thr res-7ide there w..ho deriJ. in tr:Ubal1 -'Lyles of jeeiy.Scmap steel is easily avail­ able for 'forging. into knivoc ni hoes. Many merchanits speak tribal languages. So the bulk of tribal purchases occurs in this town. Less important but of som~e local weir-ht in the western area of -,,he recgior. eire al artsthat have develoDed at the. pr-riphery of -me raijlitai-y ancami-oents.. E-,cept. fox, za slightlyv greater variety the wax'es for 3ale durplicate those of the Yunan C in1ese tLpra d 's Elsewhere st*.ros1 are rare:- in the hills, though traders r-. siding in tribal village:s mcay mak~e certain

items available locally. T1, onc village ain Akha 'has tuaken to selling salt, m"oeicines and kcorosene to his. neighbors; he is also known to hav,-; soJAf mea,t to his fellow village:rs after killing a buffalo. Conceivably ventures of this kind occur in other villa(TeS. /Between - 33-

Between tribal villages a small cormierce goes on in certain special items. When & mian .u-ii.:shor4t of rice, he first seeks to borrow.,?3N)]' h: nci.hbc"s ; J.f- ot this sort are usually xr-uPid a-ter' th'Fj "'--,o h"r',t [ot iitcrest but may run lorn1ger, if nec'.,ssaY? ilare ias no vice to loan, th:. a nei. .i village with a surDlus, where h.- buys ,:':" a' a ofbaht1j.3d'0 per liter. In the moni:hs bEi.-(.,c :'J,'ct, i. s scin the hills, an. somc house olcs the -,muist: buy ro e :x..,r. -e rice from the plc-ins. Cerain .,A a. vil l u, ..e.. ra-Ise surj.[luses of cotton and sell to othc!. P,.kh.E 'ilajcs ;.here eioth i still being woven at 2 baht n-er kilo. Lah.. vil.I a e , also buy small. quantities of coCton for theie Year ceiebrations. A fe.' vil2ages manufacture such it(ems -as ca:-ryinF basets, st-aps for pack ani;!:als , cross bow:.., etc. wicz have a mark.ct in the immediate neii°hborhood. L"jh , ,,h; no'ir, nanujaci-rC ].iquor, are occasional ..... ito.t is .Aside from these minor iteiis some cc-,-,,.. o cur' in S(ervices

Villages without aic,z pay fees for such services. iilar!y, : ted e,±=,iier, }ich villages may hire labor from th,.:irDool' 'c . . o:,'s-oes a small and intermittent kind of commerce between villages.

/The Sense of the - 34-

ThSe rj.se o the Lconom1

Dicure 'INt] ti; Ott[±..r) cC t1- .z:k'; '.we iFeel our L-.t, C-,?ow " " .. ... , ."zthe wouldWt. be 0.iij; onKrt, ; ,,:fY .....~ ~5~io ~

[j S:st intei.'ests a-!d o"ot.',e'.:.:he ?:ih . 2,ar-t3i .a':t , T let us Aistin uin@- , .: :. ..,:.. :n,: v. "ci.: ri c'.it motive. A

' ' person with a, u'S ..ter:''&t f e wi" C'e:2o:Iccuring to tangihT Ic :ormiodi ties , )'.:5 1,Jl].C .or,.oi3i-1 1,- J.abor.. le obtaiii -deie,.:, he would eat . :.a n to gu. huntinf so that may cat aviai. A pvtson .:ith a 'io:it mi'tive is conecrned not only with obr:dI TJnin;_ ,c,2s Y'2Y, his , L.imtediate colnsumltlion ne,.--.;, u also in acquiri.ng< -- siirpLus cvc:, and above such needs , lu which h, can utse f'r,.. e:change or saving., if he is in coiit;c t with a .. t..o.:....ea.h he is as inter­

ested in a .-T ...... sux us - Oos I ; seeksk oC iI rea se t : -:.1n'i- ofPpc',e' inhis po.;sessi-on , Such

a person buys :,.Pic- c,1, a do'. not .itn 'rcer to eat it. but in

ordor to reseli it.

/%pplying thi:" di±sti.CLion to tribal e..hoiC

we can S'. . both.,-ti mot_,ves m...; 0",."-. AT c .,tan times a

tr ., " 20 .., ::. must labor fox, them

" or buy then. h -lu.u;ts t' hi<:- o _cin'teoe t:cA in obtain­

ing the be- -.,c-. pr-ck7ibe "our'. c t ia.:. -or his ueppers or pigs. 'e beliove, howivcr, th t the subs Istenc, motive, /wh iCh - 35 ­

orients him toward obtaining commodities for his own consump­

tion, is the dolrinart one c,."t;,vion's ccnomy.

Gur incipa]. r'eacols i-: ,-i- this ,ie,'fir 't that this tegicr, :t th'3 Dv-'ocon i t{,i '.as n ul'kpenidu.lc. supply

of rice which wo beli cv,'.t o v cde ,uat a.loIorrar. the deinand.

Second, we note that th.- cb''p "',:t-ri ba] 1) eop l,:!of th is

region are in alm1nost ,ev:.y ,.cs crop; h Q-,tin be consulleu, by

the producer. By and larg, iP'oupie sell only the :urplus,

satisfying first their own needs. Thc cpium cro:p is no exception. When it is rai.seli by i:ribal 1)ca-.-.e who de not

smoke ortunM or raised in excess of personal needs, then the profit motiv.- is operating. 11 apears to be concernod, not with the opium itself but with the return from it. A third characteristic of the eccnomy pocems t, run counter to this conclusion. To know about : o::rofit requires knowing both, income and expenditure. T-ib. nec2... have some i C ,dec:both but do not .'ut he: togmth:r to cpcuate profits. W'oe attempted to ascertain tribal income by lsKiivir; ctly ab-ut cash earn­ ings over the year. This ]kit ci question ii-ad been successful in working with Thai farmers o:= th -.entral n.ains , who could tell about prices of ri.ie *-id The a:.ts sold over many years.

Tribal inform.ants could tell aseUt1ho pm.ices enld q!uantities of their sales but had no idea. o:i tct. inc,,me. Yet if one asked about- how much money was needed to r.ake a-.l oneIs purchases for,

/a - 36 ­ a year, most everyT one could estirmate how much he ha- spent not only du-i.'n-j thvn ast yea. often in previous years. We believe thar since these ro].,le .-nly knew theiP expenditur,es and have never cmc,-..?ed -thc.m w-c tloii' income, they cannot know abou- - rofi.t. r~n]-j knteyknow hud to convert goo-s into cash and t, gec .-s many of t: .ocxs as they can from the cash the'; h . nd&c ., t*.h3 mrer.ccn ...... tribal villages Iso thatL'ar: eIch cai know precisely how works1 on Fixed pr~i,-es, o t r -ah ,a- L much he : ;uo .ll -to buy whct 'e wishes from his neighbors.

Only when he. becomes -n trader does he measure his expenditures against his .inc.:.e.

So we believe thaiu rhe economy cf this region is ,)re­ dominantly oriented toward sibsistence. This wouldC not deny that a small. number of r,.ducer.'s is orixented toward profit.

These operxtoy.s of many enterI.5.s li.vinp in well-appointed houses are well knowri; they, tr'ade b.'a.y in Di. "-s, horses and cattl,=; th e. h'iA-e ].abc, t'e,,om any qurtem.s to harvest t h e ir e xt, , " . ?. C Vo Dso.. u.u . '-i . .7 th vC*, . . f ew b u t the i r n umb.e.r a,,...n...E o.-.:e .:-t.=, 2 ike. th,(: Akha man who -:raspin.. uh, "dea of p,f'.t be,:on t, ? and se2.l to his village. lost -,- J" ]!ome thic.', . :ists of their lives deal with subsistence and not with profit.

/ Leadership - 37 ­

D~aclershi1 )

Our Sur.x'vy dic nct cnqui2-.,-;of 2 ~yabu ut~~r government in 2 i L.Y4 t.::',.vici:d eothls

varii-s C;i £0?:inW-n-ticf.,~I

village ;&:ppea-rs to lj.:o. j.,,iti~ zT~~ 61 :' 4~

Straz~aers &miJ;.- oV :.-I.n~i' ~t~iiu o d~~o

once resiclent, ei nea ~iou.ch2.titi~ t,': ce-,:tain privi.­ leizes and muszC fuJ..fi.J.a;t-:o iaios fiua~ cl

the ipreccril-

traditcion tile tcn ut ; f sCms~ti. tut ion OCTCe1-rmie

the julrisdiotior,:D of )~vr~cItadwa : et t tt~w~1-" f a rouip of Jkimno-eu or *hoeh l. uc cstoma'y rc.;Yllations further 5p2 vthe nat,.ize z the irv1ae and ob I fti o n,,,Z

well as the m2e-Aer c.- thi. Tn1~n e ILur ieit­rc of nei'3on auiuS ,oeryr~i "-'11C r1uv-v!~; of ma-I n and

the spir'it wo.1d 2utcotib i.(c-.2nis .l~-)rtC rblic Torks , furni-l- ceertEAir. c'maic...:!. thi ~ 1czcidn~~

tax and _r1 th7.) 1 e~tW~~c 'jtemi~ 7. 'rvatioSTh-a1 n of tho whole. J3u Wwi- occVal, *4)P .0on the ka h

corporate authorit'; ~. ~ a~euanvjtcnss.~~o public works, few cfioicts le-ft to th niiul .nd, Stlrong sr.;ctionc­ to ei-force the collective will1. '."le Lahu in contrast givfe

/l1ittle­ little ;.Thuit;' he .o..n, , rI few betr.fits C..: :)ulic works and ,rr2 , 1,with T:)+,.crt. ;ntefal&. dispTu'tes,'-.. Amon.

•h, -, and iu, .;ib y "the+L.5.,'s . .:: e is like +- fe "ati"n

o-. W.C iati,..r..1,"" .].:',1; to cf famiJlv .j+.ia 1.T) AuJo'i2'v +.-+:, c,+: v:i ,de 'or cg~VaJ~L pi~jrwrK~3~m~'.:~i v. ....Kr¢G-WJ.&'O 2C'2s::'ofiC.3

, while thIe,,ri.''tj.;;..;,'hi.,fau. ,,, QTt: ..... - v brcovide for the w.elf- .e can :..+d: c 1:1,.*., t0e s

Thc powe&. O± *tfh le> 2j a v j:O i la~ea measure on his :-.,ealth wchic. tcc - i v 1 a like the svmbols o:F we&alt o'i aI /]Jh. iilao~a gat,-. Ordinarily the headman is one c:,the r_ chesi., _if not the richest, men of his v.1i .g...s.i..uI-euE V:,.: :S a Treeting, pi;!au.':a1.'" ","ve ' s a meei . _ discussini.- vi.]!ag.: af-, irs, so th,..t his sto,es of tobaco, tea and Othei.... rtun.I,,t tbe be be able to irovide help forth ' ii'Wicrt . f -i..e '-'Likec; he must Lave access CL, .O Sid t.Co -co bein., a -oclitica]. to cure. Since a villil: , in " "itc~" c en .~~tcJ unit, is I bodP. to ),C) , , the '. Jirit world, the . , t] ':ol.-, . .i. -, " ii.man -s vililake. ].':ce ;.ent­ ly d~ecis aoer,," .-..+. i ...t -,', o.',ov ,cf . I ltdr-: c f cere~monaL ,mc :uS i.. :-.the .'o:,.ctiot' ",f all these authorities - ie ia:-v. e 1v., ,:-,,c his labor For. a few TI--perc yeier :u dcm" ,'" , : meat the animals he has killed. The eoaichie - heaJm,:.n and his villaire are, the more people feel attreoted, yet a Ilaader -ay :aiso choc.- t,) limit his / following - 39 ­

following. P heaW.an vill\.,.;e.. had just lost two families

stated thilt thav hI J.eft i cind, to !"..I: cnough t,: eat. We

mentione o,, " .: : &..:ar£shold ID'ovi.r:e'stand' for

indigent r op.. _e 7 " ue.c I'2a For two ycar.s.

That was enic ugh ." '11-1011U, 1i alcng without contribitinF.

A difi =-r n :ind cf .ot r-t...' - t,.. sofleties occurs

betweren viJLa,--s, Thus th,,', s:i!. *'kha \,illa.es Uc care

themselves undCer th. Drote:tic:-, c.f: o 1is:.u vill.--,, of rin Panr Nun. Perhaps this "t,,helped t tree to avoid

attack by frorn 3u .hcn s.e c f eir neighbors were being robbe(,. f. similax, r. ].ationshi] exists betweein "h ce an.:

certain of it:s smalle r neighbohis, as wel 1s -. at Uakumu. Aniong,

Akha the weJl-known Phava o:ral0.d , ! o0Lo: the I !1nmous hodcman

and curer, Phaya Ehakha!, conta1...... n nco Far beyond his v1i c-!e In two ava; oliti.t.. c ... . mn w-ord was senttc, the .:kha v.,i o.,rer.ofr.-, 2en Ch.i, :'cr whih men went forth to resto-",: "J;.- ,,aen c,:,':....~s .b.; t o ,:~o l -:]-ethat e

Chat is wel.. c.. b'- the 2

Other villi'-es stand :o .th,,."r bcaus( c-f kinship ties between .am(ri . Thus the Lahi.: rhieaadr..;,n --t Caplv, 3acn C.honiphu

Saen Phom and Kae iai are brothers of sons of their sisters by

/the - 40 ­

the same parenzts. Besi.es frc..quent visitinp between these four vi]]aruss wo expect :.nc* :u assistaince to oc-cur.

Among th= Akha we frequcnt y f..:und vi.llages wnere a soij had led a group aw,'i .fv'm Itis f;atihe:' vil aca, to establish a new onec,

Calau .,,ani Calau W-7 ,m2Ixamp.I. Cc~rdial relations between thh, two-.ila.s ornlai'ue and ;.'hen the father dies, another son may. ,tai.n the ti,:: witl! his Lhotheor Or Uousin. PRCL,:a3*-nFS be tWe, 'heacin of tribl vi!laeL and the Thai govenM;LIeC ta.kc no single eon :i'tent: form. The Lissu headman at San Supha .'clar,:d that h. ;.d received soeyc,ars apo a letter from the .amnan of Mae Chan asin: hi- to assume, c1iarg. over thc!,,, Akha villages, then in thc vicinity of his village.

Since Thai. officials rarely sneak any of the tribal languages and since Saen Supha knew at least the northerr- Thai di.alect and had frequent dealings with the iKamnan ,t-.r-InCruhis visits to the market, the sOI.e,:1:t un c,: Sa n Sul?1i ,oo."sonab-. lc. The

Akha village, wher- icw 4pk T.., r'edi.ilV agre t:-t.. let the

Lissu head'm.en speak fo., t. . Though. th- author- 'ty .Lsems never to have av.:,: d in -. i:'; s,,....:""c case , the protcctive understandiy:.., cn1tJ.iu.s.

In another instant.e, Th.:,i ass't-ant !ieadman sent notice of an asoess .it ,: 7 baht ".-r household 'to a number. of villages in h.s jurisdict:ion. We infer some active working agreement between the Thai headman and the tribal villages, /though - 41 ­

thourh we do rot ,now its .recise nature. We sujggest that

since many of these villages crime from Burma, some of these

tribal villaes now.., in Thailand may expeft treatment from

government 'omparable to what uhey '4ne experience-d in Burma.

There in return for, their anrlu_ tax anc: Tr~s:ible labor on public works, officials ...... - -r..t)keep the outrysid

safe from bvi.sar-= , medi.ted er-.yrtain Jisr,)utes between villages,

issued titIes to deservinr .edmen, m, promptly sent relief

in case of crop failure o-', other disaster. Conceivably the tribal headmern who paid theiz, asossmntc -xpect comparable

protection. We may not apply this conc.usion brcadl%,,, however,

for elsewhere headinen contrasted livinu in Thailand with life

in Burma. They considered themselves well-off to be free of taxes and governmental pressures; in Thailand they lived

independently.

Other kinds of relation of Thai officials have arisen in

villages lying ne.r t",,e pIans. In mar- s oZs fef tribal

people speak Thai or i:he rorth.-2r!. Thai dialect. Thus anyone with some knowledge of toese .... :rexu..ence : d in dealing with lowland peoicl cor.ves 17, opcousiv :,ci 2 position.

In certain instiri es these: 'kiJ.:c become ! t;xerequisite for becoming headman, and rar.ny i:eaimen 1-v, such skills However, in Kaciu and Ai Saer the Lahu residents have chosen Khmu as

/headmen; - 42 ­ headmen; at *he issu viliame of Huei. Ilahin Fon the headman

is Thai. Llsewhere some youni- man with faoility in Thai has become a kindk o :i.nt..prt:tc': c..,asListant e the h"id...an in dealin,'s with Thai se(akers, most such :.ases the ass:istant enjoys iic si.p : . a:1... . '," b - oct cisie.aJ .y s b-ccor.e figure of :cnsiderable infiuen2e. The case ,f 2een Chai illus­ trates su2h a turn ot ¢vants. L~c,',e of his asocati on with

Thai durin.. Woild War T.I, tl-iz iioni..znt.i-.za ,.;ar pushed into the role oi dealing with t:hc,- lo*_lands. In tur.n govei'nment officials assumed him :. be headinan of hisy gave him the special titie of Saer, Chai; the village ;n which he lived bec'ame known by his n.irne. He, bc2ause of this sDecial relationship, hai b.-±-n able t: brin, - suecial benefits to his vi.llaie, and other Akha vI.a.es cone to ask for his assistance in their dea].inws i .vc'nm.nt. Yet aeien Chai is not and h.as nle',: been the hacd-iman of his vi.ila., Though influential in village couci2s- , ]ic. mnrce like a i.iin.si-er of foreign affair: Lan th: yr i :1 m4 ni ter. Ever. in the reic.,test 'ci; .,,-:c.freiucn.ly :inds a portraic of 2ie Kin- , :r:J :,o x7!!.±e' .. the .ir:ast .:oubt that he is i.v3.n:;.::.'... - F.atto...... unc tand that thc:; ire ex:nectc- tQ :be, 7r)vervr,.:atfrmrr's drthat communists are danrierous people living in other covuntrics. /Government, 43

Government, however, mean~s various things to these people.

The meaning i~s s~riplest: an&i cleavcrt when the main relations to but .ogan * -, governme~nt issue through a singvle agency suc~h Eis-the 56rder Police or a local Tha.i headman. Theseopl aT~.re the protectors- who.

Confusion mounts as intimacy develos, for then tribal people come

to dNO with not only the Border ~.0ic0 but the District Police, not only with the village Madmon but the District Officer, not

* only with district officials but Public Welfare officials at the

Tribal Welfare Station. Lines of authority and jur'isdiction

are not always clear. A tribal delegtation seeking aid after a raid by bandits from Burma had to make five trips to various

offices before findinj out what help, if any, the government

could give. In such instances government must seem like a great

* enigma rather than a IFreal pr'otector. There is also a growing

group of sophisticates whoire well awar of the compl.ications

of government agencies and th problems of AdminiLtration.

They compare ..he priVileges.njoy.d'by Thai citizens and wonder

whether these same privilcges, "ill extend to them.

/Health !!FT T'7 - 44 -

Health

A samp].ir.;- of fifty vi l.age-, shows the following assigned causes of death.

Causes; of De.at]h ".Qortct trow 50 V:[ A.. Je

cause unassii.n-li rdults 23 chi.1d.iron 3.0 fever ------25 ------2 4 old a ------­ accidient. ­ "cswollcn bely" ------3 unspecified didease ..... 5

Total : 105

We lave alredY observd ]-' t:e crude *leath rate of 25.2 per thousand is a reiatively hi.; figure. Enquiry about the known causes of fev.r ,uggests that tiie eople may have died from influenza .r,malaria. ,elat.d ro iarri i and iep-rt41e in the repion ,- typ'ioid ard va-iou ps :sit s, Thce District

Hoalth Officer in M-: (aini ),2coP.d L- t U. I-.'ia indtphoid are the maii c&.us'.s death .:.tivet. hills.

(dat,.., i.mun .zati.{ in:-; .. - fla r '_ hed only the villages on u *aster:iw.:: sid. -,i t1ia iills. DIDT spray­ ing hcis occuvrei on thE Levi ;. rrinoc. of ci~e hils, though judgin- by the number Of u.;c:uites en.:uountered in the hills during the dry season, 5As ,icub:fu?.wiether mosquito exter­ mination in the hills is going to eradicate malaria. Less /than 4 4.

than ten villa1EFes r"epojtc-d h'vip st peo-2ple 'to the hospital b in4 vhtefw mi m.uthed' c -y r ues ts ffOr assiG aric

in1 Curing' disePass tht~:et~tour ~r.a.in a villago, al11

villagers arc- eay to us LLl$f:,ron .thoj T)-ins.

Ten schosaE3o: ~~r~ro MaeNh 1(o R ive ' lave

one or' rnorc tribal ch-.'o s i~p..S-ven cfte'schools nr; cn c b hh eii Bo:rrDordec' i': .ice it -1:1 t,,ribal Vi]q cSwhe

the"' are sttoe:Doi r o in the -iLrc Ff ihnc n,

Phami. in the Ditr~jC"tZL ofiL zc-~ i Saea ai ijC1ale Caculaba Lin Taok ancd Bani Pang 'Nun in th c.; it'i i t o C-hanp. .r e

other four :3ch~xols ai-'e unsrtee.initrv of Fduuati;On arid-, serve bot~h TZ~hai arid1 trib tl ch:Vldre-±. 'Thrr , of tLhesc, fcur schoolsi.'jj are i~ :iilucle. Thi coin iicbut trib J. chiJ-dreri

from aearbv or tribal famiies :'esident i:. th;Ti

comunity. They -.r'e at ic Ch-in,.7- c WaO-31 andr, Hue1i Jiahin

k Fone. Vc havc omlittr :o thii ;-ouit "he "our Yarn villages

pupnear s.Cki*igri.l cjwic-!".so -Esr i ntc iiltonrThai1.

1 Schools . Th o..r ..:icooj ",arheo n : is the Wolf.rc .chool *: ant Mae Chan a boar(iigp scbc2K'ou t1b2.iis h piai o0- t a

pupils. Dui n, the ,-'st wear the. VAmT .ca"o!'.tV O chldrer. were from Thai and Karen famalse S Less than 15 of th1 thre

/hundred

*4 4 4 4 :)h £ d 4 hundred od2 children were of t:.'ibal background, and perhaps a single child from the vai.on was in attcndancc-. School authorities ;aTr that it vas dUifr*,ict!1: to ;ersuade tibal parents to a icw their children to attend this school. How­ ever, four' "tribal :y dint cf.t.hi1rn,sv.ecial charitable grant, were bardin, u..i1.s at the Vidhayakhom School in the city of Chien!..ra1i.

In this ezion irter.-st iii Ieduca'ticn occurs almost exclusively among the Yao. ,m China thi" zrmrup came with a tradition of iteiacy, and in the past they hire-J Chinese to teach their, children readini and writing. Indeed, written accounts of Yac history, mexicine aniU ritual existin;g in their villages arc dll in Chines,. cha acters. Many in the younger generation are now becominv ac,:" to read andi write Thai.

Alone in the Yac villa..e of HPhale have we hear.d complaints when the Bordei- Police teacher could not find time fro. his other duties to hold school. Discussint. vill7e problems with head­ in men of other t-,,ibes, we hca".i- ,Liy one -2x-ress an interest a school: this man 3eem:d, how to bho less interested in education thai; in kee.in- :.pii-Jl!a.; on .inar with neirhiooring

Caculaba where k; Border Po .ce Scchoo. w UI:de? construction.

In many vi].>gc,,-es -arents wished tirol:' children to learn to

speak northern Thai, yet they :id not consider the teaching of /this - 47 ­

this language to be a function of the schools.

Special Relationships between Villag:,,es

We have already described some of the trading between

villages and intimated "the need for more thorough study of the

political arrangements. Here we deal with visiting, marriage, household migration, and the changes observable in tribal culture.

Men rather than women are the mcre frequent visitors in other villages. Casual visiting occurs mainly between villages nearest in the network of trails and then principally between villages of the same tribe. Though a man may just wish to pass the time of clay, often some transaction occurs along with the visit, the purchasing of a little li.quor or the consulting on the purchase of a pig. Less frequently a group of three or four make lonper trips, usually to the market, spending the night or passini, hot noonday hurs in the house of some friend along the trail. Even in Thai villages of the valley there are houses where tribal people fecJ. welcome to return. This kind of traffic moves mc:t rr.quc.ntly east from the hills into the valley and back, much less, often nrh.L and south across the streams to! ax; adjoining rid. - residnts of villages lying to the east visit their western neighbors less often than

/these - 48 ­ these western neighbors come to visit them. The small traffic moving in other directions .s mainly young Akha and Lahu out looking for brides; old men and women rarely leave their villages. On the trail during the dry season one meets many young men dressed in handsome silver-spangled costumes. An eager suitor is most welcomed in one of the villages linked to his own by the fact that others from his own village have gone there in the past for their wives. As an AJha, he would find the brothers of his mother or her sister; as a Lahu, he might find the brothers of his father or his mother. Then after marriage there would continue to be one or more villages where brothers or sisters are livinr and where one could turn if need arose.

To these very villages where a brother or sister lives, there a family goes when it wishes to move from its present village. We di,3tinguish this movement of a few families from the movement of an entire village, a subject which we considered under the headinig cf Mobility of Settlements. Here our topic concerns the continuous flow of a few households from one village to another, though the village as a whole remains where it is.

Let us return to the familiar samDoe of thirty villages.

Seven of them showed a net loss of population varying from one to seven families, eight a gain of one to four families.

/Eleven - 49 -

Eleven other villages had neither gain nor loss, while we lack data on four villages. From these twenty-six villages as a whole we record a net loss of population totaling eleven families. By and large the number of such migrants is small in this region of mobile people and seems to represent only a normal kind of village contraction and expansion. Our data showed no correlation between number of losses or gains in population and our index of wealth. In a few cases we glimpsed possible reasons for moving. As with migration in general the given reason dealt most frequently with seeking a better living by joining relatives in another village. Behind some such moves we occasionally detected an energetic household head who wished to become richer but also the indigent ones who were drifting from the reluctant help of. one relative to that of another. Quarrels also set some families in motion. Up to this point we have been considering largely the relations between villages of the same tribe. Let us also consider marriage and migration between tribes. The assistant headman in Tambon Pasang who lives at the Shan village of Hin Taek declared that over the years tribal groups are associating with each other more freely. Such events in his village as the building of the Border Police School have brought tribal

/people - 50 ­

people from many villages to his village to see what was going

on; then they became better acquainted. If we consider the ethnic mixture in the villages of the region, we gain the

impression that the western villages are ethnically more uniform

than the eastern, the northern than the southern. If more

detailed study of our data confirms this impression, we may

infer that where contact with the lowlands is greatest, the

mixture of ethnic tradition is most frequent. Particularly in the southeast area we find villages with residents of Lahu,

Lissu and Chinese backgrounds all living together. In this

same area live Thai and Khmu residents of tribal villages.

Contacts with foreign cultures have long occurred. The

Yao, for example, have certainly been adopting children of other

tribes for years and have many customs that indicate strong

Chinese influences. Other tribal groups were not immune to influences from their previous contacts. Tribal languages contain many words of probable Shan origin; the silver coins that adorn many tribal dresses point to influences from India and China. Though we do not know what changes in custom these and other influences have brought about, these tribal traditions have continued. However, we may ask what changes the present contacts seem to be making;

The best guarded tribal culture appears to be the Akha, for Akha who marry outside the tribe may not live in the village.

/ Yet - 51 -

Yet this prohib.ition may be breaking down. Along the north­

east corner of our area a dotting of Yunan Chinese occurs in

Akha villages. Phami in the Mae Sai District includes four

or five Chinese who have married Akha and are living in this village. Yet the children of these marriages will probably

remain largely in the Akha tradition, for they are living in

an Akha village.

In the southeast cultural blending has occurred and is continuing. It began three generations ago in the region,

when Chinese and Lissu men married into a Lahu village. The

oldest resultant is found in four villages (Caphy, Saen Phom,

Saen Chomphu and Kae Saen), all of which are prosperous under vigorous leadership. The culture seems to be predominantly

Lissu in favor over a Lahu base. New Year ceremonies, for

example, appear more Lissu than Lahu. Though the people call

themselves Lahu Si, their language is more nearly like that of

the Lahu Nyi of the locality than of the recent Lahu Si migrants from Burma. In other villages of the southeast

region the genetic blending continues through intermarriage

of Chinese and Lahu men with Lissu as well as Lahu women.

Lissu households also exist in many of these villages, and the cultural resultant appears predominantly Lissu.

Another cultural mixture is occurring where Shan on the one hand and Chinese on the other have married tribal women but

/ are - 52 ­

are settling in their own separate communities. In such

settings tribal traditions are weak, so that the cultural

resultant is more ambiguous. Unfortunately we have little

knowledge of these people, but since the children are growing

up familiar with the hills and at the same time positively oriented toward the plains, they may well help bridge the gap

between uplands and lowlands. The Chinese village of Huei Mak and the Shan village at Hir, Taek exemplify these mixtures.

Uplands and Lowlands

We think of the uplands as the center of ethnically

varied people who practise dry agriculture, while the lowlands

are the center of Thai civilization with its irrigated rice.

Until the last decade the lowlanders took only casual interest

in the uplands, but circumstances of history have brought these uplands to the attention of all. Thai traders seem to have entered the hills little more than fifty years ago. Though

Shan settlements could be found in upland valleys, jungle lay on both sides of the streams until about forty years ago when the search for paddy lands pushed the newly arrived Thai migrants from Lampang, Lampun and Chiengmai deeper into the mountain valleys. After World War II came the first Christians to this region. A number of missionaries from China trans­ ferred to Thailand to specialize on work with the tribal people / already - 53 ­

already versed in Chinese, Lissu and Akha, they quickly learned

Yao and Lahu, then took to the trails. For many a village these foreigners were the first contact with western civiliza­

tion. Besides their religious activities, they gave counsel

and medical aid. About the same time the Border Police began

to patrol the hills, representing the extension of government interest which has since grown as district officials moved their

services deeper into the uplands. The advent of the Tribal

Welfare Station is but the latest move increasing contacts.

To date Thai influences in the uplands have lacked the intimacy of Shan and Chinese. We encountered only two Thai residents in this region who have married tribal women. The tribal people who have moved to live in the lowlands are also few. Mae Chan is the residence of just six households of tribal people. But a single village of uplanders has moved to the plains, and this one still plants its crops on the low­ lying hills very much as if it were still in the uplands.

Despite this minimum of intimacy, the very presence of lowland culture has had unmistakable effects on the uplands.

The nearer and wealthier villagers wear shoes, shirts and skirts, eat from enamel plates with enamel spoons and listen to programs over their transister radios just as the lowlanders do. In many villages of this kind the younger generation speaks at least the northern dialect of Thai, and some observers

/believe - 54 ­ believe that northern.Thai is beginning to replace Lahu as a common language of the hills. We have heard of an Akha woman who ran away from her village in the hills and lived in a Thai village for several months dressed in Thai costume, until her elders learned of her whereabouts and forced her to return to her native village. Others have spoken of a tribal boy in one of the boarding schools who has fallen in love with Thai culture and no longer wishes to returnto the uplands. More than six upland families now living in Mae Chan had originally sought to live there but had to return to the hills because they could not earn enough money to support themselves in this cash­ oriented town.

Though still in the uplands, five tribal villages show the influence of Thai culture by their interest in learning.to grow wet rice. All these villages recognize the superiority of wet-rice agriculture for producing a dependable supply.

Three of these villages (Doi Sango, Moraunh and Lao San Kwei; i.e. two Akha and a Yao village) have on their own initiative sought advice from neighboring Thai rice cultivators and are trying out on a small scale wet-rice techniques. Phale, situated near the Tribal Welfare Station, is awaiting the assistance of this agency to develop this crop. Huei Hom, a Lahu village, has expressed interest but has taken no steps to implement action. Here we have not considered the five /Karen - 55 -

Karen villages in the Mae Kok valley which have been slowly

converting from upland to wet rice for many years.

Though a more rapid absorption of lowland culture by

the uplanders might seem easy and natural, Ehe process is filled

with difficulties. To illustrate some of them, we shall

relate briefly the case of Naung, Wacn, the Yao village which

moved, from the uplands to the lowlands in 21102. Acting on

government policy of those years, which would solve hill tribe

problems by moving villages out of the hills, the Border Police urged many villages located on the Mae Salong range to move to

a designated place in the valley. Naung Waen was one of two

villages to respond. Subsequently a few households from other

Yao villages joined them. The new village settled in three

clusters of houses, one representing a traditional Yao community, a second one made up largely of Yao Christians, and a third of mixed ethnic background including both Chinese and Lahu. Except for the new setting, these people might have been still living in the hills. Their, houses were of bamboo and plank construction built on the ground; water entered these houses through bamboo pipes; dry rice cultiva­ tion took place by clearing the low hills near which the village was located. This habitual practice brought one of their first difficulties, for the Forestry Department prosecut­ ed several cultivators and was able to exact a fine of 5,000 /baht - 56 ­

baht for cutting forest trees. This they paid and set to work again. Then Thai villagers of the neighborhood began

to plague them by stealing livestock, which they permitted to roam as freely and untended as if they were still living, in

the uplands. The headman said that over sixty head dis­

appeared during the five years of their residence. In

addition Thai neighbors were accused of wanton destruction of

crops and stealing of produce before it could be brought in

from the fields. The nearest Thai headman took nc steps to

redress their grievances. When they sent their children to

the school of the neighboring- village, the new pupils became

involved in fights, where Thai children threatened them with

knives. Yet the village, perhaps because of encouragement

by the Border Police, continued in its new location.

As the crops from continuous planting of upland hill­

sides began to diminish through repeated planting on the same

plot, interest grew in cultivating wet rice. A few of the wealthier Yao community members bought from Thai villagers

uncleared lands at the foot of the hills for planting their

crops. (We have not investigated these sales, but knowing

that title to unused land generally reverts to the government, we question the necessity and tho validity of these sales; no document of title was requested from, or given by, the

sellers.) These people themselves chose the land they /intended - 57 ­

intended to cultivate without benefit of guidance from the District Office or elsewhere. When finally thev secured

guidance from a Christian agricultural mi:3siortary, he reporteci

that the fields they had purchased were of only modeatel'. -'o0 quality and could be made productive only after many vlclrs of hard labor. Short-cuts using earth-moving machiner , xco:eded their ability to pay, even if equipment had been available.

In the meanwhile they hired their Thai neiighbors to help clear

the land and instruct them in leveling, dykinpg anId channlin. water from the brooks into the fields. At this moment the

crop of the present year stands in doubt. Will the trees and bushy weeds that could not be cleared flourish at the expense of the rice crop? For the future still. more serious questions arise: Will the returns from the depreciating upland fields suffice until the new wet rice succeeds perhaps three years from now? Or will this community grow discouraged with the fruitlessness of its efforts to live in the plains and return to the uplands? Many a tribal village is watching from the hill tops to see the outcome.

The foregoing case illustrates not only the difficulties of uplanders in learning the techniques of lowland living but popular resistance of the lowlands in receiving them. Of course, when people meet, friction is as frequent a consequence

/as - 58 ­

as falling in love, and judping by other minorities which have

been absorbed into the ].owland population, the period of

friction will die, if we can allow a gi,,neration or two for it

to burn out. Any newconers may be regaro'd suspicuj.uly at

first, particularly those with strange l-inuace and cutorus.

Moreover, these Yao may have taken up land which Their Thai

neighbors hoped eventually to possess. This could Dasil'/

account for many of the hostile acts, were it not for' th* fact

that similar aggression occurs in other points of contact wihbre questions of land are not involved. Of course, on the part of the newcomers, they too were slow to learn the Thai custom of constantly guarding any article that has value. It would seem easy to pen their animals and send a boy to watch the crops left in the fields.

Other subtle factors also arise when two proud peoples meet. Thai may criticize the costume of an uplandor, but uplanders take special pride in the costume which distir uishes them from the Thai. If the Thai ridicules his pronunciation of Thai words, the uplander who may know un to six lan iuages disdainfully points to the ignorance of Thai who know but one.

Each glance and gesture intended to humble merely strengthens the pride of the other arid increases the separation.

Also the friction continues through lack of direction from Thai superiors, who themselves do not agree. They have /not - 59 ­

not agreed on whether an uplander born in Thailand is to be

treated as a Thai citizen, an alien, or something in between.

They have not agreed on whether to bring the bennfits of

lowland civilization to the uplands or to brinF the uplnCdSers

to enjoy the benefits of the lowlands. Once policy on these

and other questions has been firmly established, many iuc&

frictions will decrease through public example. Inwee, ,here

kamnan and village headmen have already taken interest in

tribal welfare, as between the Thai Christian village of Huei

Yano and the Lahu village of Huci Horn, upland and lowland people

live now together with some harmony. The rich-culture of

Thailand, which has absorbed such different religions as Christianity and Islam, such varied languages as Cantonese and Mon, such divergent races as Negritoes and Europeans, will in the end experience only short-lived difficulties in dealing with the uplands. Yet perhaps today two generations of friction are not necessary To weld the uplands to the lowlands, and perhaps the nation cannot wait for two generations to bring this about. - 60 -

RECOMMENDATI ONS

In the discussion that follows, our aim is to emphasize problems which we consider relevant to the process of assimi­ lating tribal peoples of the North into the Thai nation. The various suggestions point to difficulties that have ariFenr may arise in this process of assimilation. We cannot maintain that unless these difficulties are overcome, assimilation will not occur. At best we could say that assimilation will be de­ layed or assume a different form perhaps less congruent with the national interests of the country. Let us look briefly at assimilation.

Assimilation may take place at varying{ rates; so the Thai nation can assimilate Shans faster than Lahu lust because the

Shan language is closer than Lahu to the Thai language. Assimi­ lation may take differing forms. In one form tribal. languages, dress and customs disappear and are replaced by Thai equiv­ alents; perhaps even the memory of a tribal existence will disappear. This is one form. Yet assimilation nay result in a situation comparable to that of the Mon villages where people live separately in their own communities and enjoy their own customs, perhaps speaking their own languages as well as Thai.

Another form of assimilation may take place as in a Swiss can­ ton where the people speak their own language, follow their own customs, govern themselves in certain matters but parti­ cipate in the national government. If assimilation of this /form - 61 ­

form occurs, we might think of forming Districts in the uplands

where tribal people may continue living, govern themselves, but

participate in the nation. These are -,omc of the foras of

assimilation, and eventually, though not neceosauilyr now, thk.

Thai government will have to decide which kind is p.f. nab .

Assimilation, however, is by no mean. an easy process to con­

trol as is shown by the sad experience of many countric in deIling,

with minority groups. Such groups may become so culturally im­

poverished before they have adjusted to the culture of the majority

that they are listless, apathetic, and prcne to disease, drug or

alcohol addiction, and other ills. At the other extreme, the

minority group, feeling threatened and frustrated, may react

aggressively, becoming fanatically militant against representativec

of the majority group, and seeking to preserve its self-respect a.nd

group identity by grasping at any means, which seem to promise: better future. Such reactions, known as nativistic movements or

cults, have been common among native peoples of the modern woli~d, and have assumed rer.carkably similar forms. People susceptible to this reaction are most easily swayed by foreign leaders and in­ fluences, since their own.society and culture have faileu tc pro­ duce their own means of coping with the new situations which confront them. To prevent either reaction from developing during the assimilation period it is essential to maintain or build up the minc ity's confidence in its own continuing capacitj.es and leadership and its trust in the benevolence, intelligence, and /good - 62 ­

good faith of leadership among the majority group.

We have little evidence that either of these r.sponses is

likely to develop in an extrene form in th( Mae Kok region in the

near future. Nevertheless, the wav would be opened to such a development if there were continued :iscontent or material and

psychological distress among the hill tribes. Lookinf into the

future, and the possible susceptibility of these minority peDoples to a backwash of propaganda against "colonialism", "imperialism",

"exploitation" and "fascist degradation of native populaticns",

it would be intelligent as well as benevolent for those concerned

with the well-being of the northern region to follow a policy cf preventing trouble before it begins rather than actin,7 later to

correct trouble. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of curoC'". Rather than make precise recommendations for- action b ,ov­

eminent agencies or others, we have chosen to underscore certain problems that have come to our attention. Thou,i.h ve usually

indicate our opinions on the general direction in which _sol­

ution may be sought, our limited knowledge of available. p~er­

sonnel, equipment and funds has made us vefrain fromg attempting to implement most opinions in detail.

Problem of Population

The people living in the Mae Kok region are approaching the

limits of satisfactory living set by present methods of making a living and by existing resources, particularly of soil, water and /timber - 63 ­

timber. Moreover, an incroase in population through mirration

from Burma may occur on account of the civil unrest in t:i ,i ccuntr,.

If the population increases, the drain on naLural :1uioc. 12

increase, and the standard of iivin. delJine. Vi ll'>: w-i.

more frequently and tend to divide inito siali, uo:. .. T1i'ebv

soil., timber and water resources wie. .>in.e Iuithar. I K a 12n.'

with these related chan,,es, there shaud be an incx.aaae <,f dis­

satisfaction, the entire 'Mae IKok r mjona\y become .;uscptb.le to a variety of leadership that is not in the national interest.

Opinion A. At present land, timber and water requirements of tribal

villages are unknown either percapita or for entire co7m'unitics

of different types. Without information en these points, no one can judge whether a given repion is overpopulated or no,_,t. !% knowledge of these requirements is also necessary a, - bair; for all programs tc improve tha standard of livin, c existin,, vi ila,,

Therefore a program is needed which will continue and refine our census so as to dterrmine whether the popu.ation i', growing and if so, whether by migration as well as by n,rvural r'nroducuj.-n.

In addition the program should determine as precise as :r.; ib. the soil, water and timber recqi.iremnnt.; of an iverage huuhold.

Such an investigation should also suk to dit, rmine the 1'elation of a stable vil.lage to its environment and coriverselv1 what en­ vironmental as well as social conditions lead to th- mobility of other villages. /B. We - 64-

B. We have indicated that attempts to control the influx

of immigrants from across the border will be costly and probably

ineffective. In view of this the best plan would make their

arrival and settlement orderly. Should immigrants appear in large

numbers, special posts may be established to register and proc,,s

them medically as well as to determine their destinations. Nor­

mally tribal people may well go to the Tribal b'elfare Station for

formal processing. We believe, howev'.r that these people are

quite able to settle and provide for themselves, to that aside

from emergencies Welfare Station officials need not be concerned

after official processing. Headmen in whose jurisdictioin they

intend to settle should receive prompt notification of their intended arrival and then report back any irregularities.

C. To make an appreciable effect on the population problem of the region, we estimate that thirty to fifty tribal villages should resettle outside this region during the next five years.

The Division of Tribal Welfare may well assume an active but limited role in resettling these villages. The first reiquisite is to gather information on possible locations where tribal people may expect to establish stable villares. Presumably the Tribal

Welfare Station at Tak, Chiengdao and Loei already have roui;h ideas about the number of additional households that might settle in their areas. In other hill regions where no Tribal Welfare Stations vet exist, Mobile Development Teams may well extend this information by observation and consulting above all tribal villages as well as /District - 65 -

District Officers. The second requisite is to find the villages. definitely interested in moving. No village should bt. ordereu; tc

move. If the Tribal Welfare Station at 1ae Chan has itsufficcpt

personnel to carry out this task, a Mobile eevelcpuent Team 111a

well bring in the preliminary information jiecessary ov' selection. We then propo-a that the Division O: Triha!i/elfir_ ! rN,;j j -

portation that will enable tribal cL-te; from or(- or mol

villages to visit distant regions for vroconnaissance. Lacil deie­

gation might visit up to three localities and make its decision after talking with tribal people of the new locality. Division

responsibility should end with assisting villapes to know the

resources of other regions arid possibly piving limited aid in moving the villages. The Welfare Stations -3hould avoid becoming entangled with the internal problems rhat a village faces In a ne. location. However, no one need stint in helping cstablish rela­ tions to all governmental a7encies of the new lccality, from the local headman and school teacher to those in chart-e ;f various services at the District Offices. We might also observe that some of these groups may be able to contribute signiTicantly tc national plans of developmcnt, should they wish to resettle out­ side a hill region.

Problem of Subsistence

The stability of a village depends, among many things, on the adequacy of its food supply,.particularl.y the adequacy of its rice. In our judgement the quantity of rice produced in this /region. - 66 ­

region is sufficiently small and unpredictable to constitute a

problem. Though many villagesare firmly settled, orhers move

every few years to satisfy their rice re]Uirements. Though the

shortages may not yet be serious, since we found no one starving, the problem would become acute with a sharp population increase.

Opinion

A. There is sufficient confusion about the requirements for,

growing upland crops and sufficient variation in opinion on the effects of growing these crops to necessitate basic a-'icultural research. We hear much about depletion of fertility as a factor that necessitates shifting cultivation, yet we have encountered large villages where the inhabitants have reused the same soil after a two-year fallow for nearly twenty years. We have heard it said that annual shifting tc new field- is necessary not bccause of the inadequate fertility but because of the difficulty of clear­ ing the soil of weeds. Yet in certain instances tribal villages use the same plot for two successive years, sometimes for, growing the same crop, sometimes for growing two differing crops. If so, some cultivators have not been stopped by weeds or lack of fertil­ ity. Much is also said about the evil effects of unland crops in producing soil erosion, floods and progressive dessication of an area. Yet if weeds and bamboo quickly replace the forest, does this new vegetation pre.ven.t. erosi..on. .and hold the water? If agricultural experts answer these questions so differently, the time has certainly come for careful study of basic factors. /Only - 67 -

Only on the basis of.firm knowledge can we.hope to improve present techniques. B. Though it may require many years for agricultural ies-c:c-, to find satisfactory new crop s to raise tribal star,,larcs .of ]J v[ng, in certain cases the means of didinT tribal villa!.,es ,r, ailr('Idv present. We found six vi~lages already considerin, the irt rcduc­ tion of wet-rice, somr, even proeeediu, by thei:- own t]?i ] and error methods. If any of them appealed for guidance to the District Agricultural Officer or the Tribal Welfare S-tatioii, theso avrencies did not act, for no official help or encouragement reachod these villages. However, in the case of wet-rice cultivation the inswe.. to their questions already exist and should have bcen made avail­ able to all of these villages. Here is an opportunity to realize quickly the government rrogram to stabilize villages, stabilize food supply and save the forests. In addition to .aet-ric.e a good many techniques of livestock raisin) arc elearl, known ha;ndv

immediate applicability to the vi]lage scene. Where such tech­ niques already exist, there is no need to postpone action. C. Wide differences exist betweer, villapes in their interest and readiness to accept new techniques for improving their standard of living. It serves no purpose to insist that every village or, the most accessible ones try out every technique that we consider to be' for their own good. Introducing new techniques had best be undertaken only after a survey by Mobile Development Teams of many villages to determine where interest lies. Then the work may begin of introducing a few proven technique,4 to selected villaves. / Problem - 68 -

Problem of the Cash Economy

We tend to regard developing the cash economy solely as a means to diminish opium production and to raise the standard of living. Less often do we consider it as , means for increasing contact between people. One of the reascns that trbal ,.op.. have little contact with the lowland,,; i becau--w they lack the money to participate. A tribal boy declined cur off.:ev ot . ride to town in our, automobile because he had no monv to pen. l. Oie

Yao who had moved to Mac Chan at governent",eque,s rturne to the hills because they could not earn enough to buy their daily food. Increasing the cash income will improve the standard of living and at the same timc increase participation with Thai peoples in the total economy of the regJion.

Opinion A. In addition to study of new products that may grow in the uplands, research is also lnecessary to ascertain the problems of cultivation of these new crop, in tribe] villavues and the marketing of these goods. Though the fruit of this r-search lies ahead, study of existing cash crp: may also tabilj.ze and 7"ncr-ase outputs to the present markets. We blieve the Tribal \!elfare

Station has no necessary duty to help market present cash crops; for it to enter upon marketing activities will only upset the present arrangements which seem to function adequately under existing circumstances. The Tribal Welfare Station is,however, indispensable in experimenting with new crops and in studying the problems that tribal cultivators encount.c. /We - 69 -

B. We must also look to introducinp new devices, ser,*iccs,

and small industries with their associated tokIste tribal

villages. Before attemptin- aiiythin-if new, the 'v, L:]f::. Station would do well to determine -i 1..is in an, iit .? csn

seek to train tribal people in th - skills:, -- r ,-'<, '.. , t',"

pickers are in short supply at certain seasoiis. Th(, uLihf, t;-o al

people now pick tea, mdy th,-2% be t au.glit the t'?-chn iJ uC- ,.lfj e,.rn

extra money for themselvas? Ater this initial we: :- T'ri bal

Welfare Station may look for the new. Perhaps the tirm. his nc,

yet arrived for introducing electric renerators, uut simpl r tools

are already welcome labor-saving devices. A sewine machine, which may already exist in a few villaies, will c,-.rtainly not inc-,.. very much the cash which a household has, even if the skil.led operator should sew garments for several villae,. Nevertheless, the training in its use as well as 'he problems of maintenance and repair form b,:ises for valuab c new contacts with tje lowlands.

Such contacts help demonstrate that the lowlands have resourcer, useful in the uplands. Even now some one with the tools and skills of radio repair might be in demand.

C. Now is not too soon to think of industrial enterprises and not just the production of craft items for local sale such as baskets and items for the tourist trade such as costumes. The time has come to think of rice milling and saw mills, for example, using wind, water or solar power. Tribal people art! already thinking of such possibilities, and government should have answers /ready - 70 ­

ready, when persons come asking for guidance. For example, dc'es

the government wish to make loans at low interest rates in ;rder to develop upland resources? 'hat other sources of credit, if

any, are available to tribal people?

D. Before introducing new crops, animals or obj,.cts, the Tribal Welfare Station should ;ur-vy Te surroundix-f villaFes to

determine where interest and adequate -ustaining resources lie.

In introducing something new, the ?[aition may dJmonLr:ate, c iva

instruction in its use, if necessary, and perhaps encouraTce

villagers to try it. flowever, the Station ,;Ihould avoid 21vinq

anything away free. The payment of even o token fee Ly a triibal

person demonstrates interest, and the Station must avoid bcing

held responsible for failures. indeed, the Station, instead o­

undertaking an entire job by itself, may open the way for a Thai

or tribal person to act as agent for a new enterprise. Thereby

it has contributed to enriching contacts between uplands and lowlands on a normal basis.

Problem of Government Services for Hill Areas

In past years government has extended its interest so rapidly into the hill regions that at certain points confusion and over­

lapping of functions have -taken place. For example, an Akha wishing to report the theft .f a buffalo went first to the District Office, where he was told to report to the Border Police nearest his village, who in turn directed him to the village headman.

From the administrative side we may ask whether a Tribal Welfare /Station - 71 -

Station replaces the District Health Officer in all matters of

health for the hill tribes? What are the roles of the Director of a Tribal Welfare Station, of Thai villae headmen, of the Border

Police and the District Office in handling civil and cr'imina. '...­

involving tribal people? On what matters of law ma' tribal v.!L.I-12vi 1 ,

simply apply their own customary proced .. ad i-.wh,;t ma1:.ter7 is it necessary for lowland authorities tL:act? or example, if a

man is killed in a tribal. village for einga sorcerer, must the

government try someone as a murderer, ol: may it consider Lhat

the village has acted according to its own standards and already

rendered justice? Eventually we shall have to ask such questions

as whether a tribal person is a citizen and can own property, or

if he is to be a citizen, under what conditions is citizenship to be given? On the administrative side we may wonder whether it is

desirable to establish a department of government to deal sp eci­ fically in all matters concerning tribal people. The American government established the Bureau of Indian Affairs to deal with the Red Indian minority but never established a comparable one to deal with the negro minority. What are the advantages and disad­ vantages of specialized agencies with total jurisdiction of this kind?

Opinion We believe that the subst-antivc answers to these questions go beyond the scope of our professional competence. Nevertheless, we urge that clarification of responsibilities among the various government agencies will assist relations between government and /tribal - 72 ­ tribal people. On many of the qucstions r-i.sed it seems tO us to early for a blanket answer to be given by central govern.ment. For

the time being the simp.)lest solution is to autho..ize each )i.-trict

'to determine whether confusion orvC,.priuJ-, of.. d.ties ,cm. ane to clarify responsibilities wIrever ,:c_' ary by whatevfr means seem most apprpriate. 14e sensed thue ne_-ed fear .lara iCtion on the following points: the handlin. o.' 2rimInal e.ases, t1le handlin of tribal migrants from abroad, tho ext'_nsion of a icultu, 1 aid, the registration of population and th, is:-jue of identity crds, the giving of relief in cases of distress. Ultimate responsibility in this entire administrative sphere rests with the Ilinistry of the Interior.

Problem of Health

Assuming, with the medical p,"ofession, that all human life. must be preserved, we ar'e confronted w.ith the high death rate among tribal people together with the absence of medical facil­ ities in many sections of the hill region.

A. Though limited information'e:xist,: on the incidence of certain diseases in the hills, a mcdieal specialist !nv we.].. extend this information and at the same time seek to establish the main health hazards that tribal pco,,e face.

B. Immunization against the known prevalent common diseases should continue as rapidly as possible into the remote areas. Mobile Development Teams may offer the best means to undertake this work. /C. Medical - .73 -

C. Medical clinics should be held periodically at pre­

determined spots, and wherever possible, tribal people hould

be encouraged 'to pay for the medicines they receio.

D. If medical investiaat ll does; not fi ,. a se.ior monaco

to health in a hill region, we are inclined to ;;costp:one pros.raris

of public sanitation or restrict theicn to -.imple malt., rF, s.uch -s

improving the quantity and quality of th-e wat(!r supply. inleo;s

a village requests aid in combattin; a hea.Ith probl'm c()or-,ra­ tion in carrying out programs is likely to be small.

Problem of Education

Though many people regard schools as indispensable aids for

bringing the tribal peoples into the Thai nation, at present they

are of limited usefulness in this regard bec,3use few tribal people

understand the advantages of literacy ini the Thdi languape. As

a consequence the few existing schools sufier from irregular

attendance. On the other hand where i.nterest in liter-.cy is high,

classes meet so irregularly that learini Most' luffc.s. tribal

people are at present reluctant 1o allow their children to attend

boarding schools, and the few c'hildren in attenldance tenc tr run away. Education is making a slow start.

Opinion A. Though Border Police schools are so far not effective in promoting literacy, their presence in a villae may indJrectly help prepare tribal peoples to rccognize The value of :,-uuation. The present school program should continue, but unlcss a s:-hool /is - 74 ­

is requested by a village, we see no need to extend these services.

Where villages are interested in education, we reconamend the hir­ ing of a ful1-time professional teacher to replace the Border Police teacher.

B. It may reduce the difficulty of finding teachers willing

to live in tribal villages if, for the present, schools were

opened only during the dry season and then only after the main

harvest, perhaps from February through April. At this time chil­

dren are less needed for field work and hence may attend classes regularly. During this period volunteer students in teacher train­ ing classes may gain valuable.-practical experience, and interested villages will usually provide food and lodging to the teacher. ile also draw attention to certain literate villages, particularly the

Christian ones, where many already write their own languafge and can speak Thai, though not read and write it. Some such persons with no more than a year of training could become literate in Thai and serve as an additional source of teachers ior tribal villages.

In addition to teaching children, these teachers may ind adults interested in becoming literate in Thai.

C. In schools attended by both tribal and Thai pupils we sense the need for special studies of the causes and means of reducing friction between the two groups.

D. If there be interest in stimulating the demand for schools, teaching tribal people to read and write their own lang­ uage seems to serve this purpose. Systems for writing tribal /languages - 75 ­ languages in Thai letters are already available through the Ministry of Education for certain languages and for othctr' ,nay be obtained through the Overseas Missionary Fellowslip. Tnough some knowledge of tribal language is desirablet prior1 to teachin), a teacher working with an interpreter necd know littlo moro tiian t-n1 symbols necessary to write the lang!uage. We add thiat thQcce ,xist no necessary conflict between teaching ;hildicn to reld an( write their own tribal language with Thai letters and teachin,. them also to read and write the Thai language. ft certain st-ivt's the two tasks will reinforce each other.

Problem of Communication

Communications between upland and lowlands are limited to what can be said by one person to another. Few or no lowland newspapers, magazines or radio programs of particular relevance or interest to the tribal people are reaching the hills. The comuni­ cations become thinner because many tribal people speak little

Thai or even the northern dialect of Thai, and the number of Thai who speak tribal languages is smaller still. How can communica­ tions be improved?

Opinion A. Until literacy increases, radio will be an important means of communicating with the uplands; for, a time its importance will increase as radio receivers become more widely distributed.

New radio programs in several tribal languages are necessary. /Present - 76 -

Present tribal radio programs appear too infrequently and for too

short a time to be heard. As time keeping, arrangements lack pre­

cision, special techniques are nece.ssa-y to announce programs in advance, and they must continue perhaps as iong as an hour to reach more than a handful of listeners. Such prcgrams may give world news, lessons in Thai, information -:f 1.-ratical use, tribal music and other appropriate entertainment c,: instruction.

B. At present Lahu is the sin laagu,:tpe that reaches most hill people, though Mandarin Chinese and Thai will reach many.

We believe that official announcements to tribal people should be made both in Lahu and Thai, perhaps using a tape recorder, if repetition is desirable.

C. In official interviews with persons who speak customarily another language than one's own, all persons should hava, the opportunity of speaking through a competent interpreter. indeed, to avoid misunderstanding, a competent intcrpreter may bes necessary in official interviews as beiiuj- served by lawyers in courts of law. We recommend that [ovcrniient offices in districts where tribal people are living as well as Tribal W112faru Stations draw up a list of competent interrotems of the prevailing, local languages and have these persons available on re.quest.

D. In hopes that tribal proups may also communicate more readily with each other- and with povernment, we should like to see Tribal Welfare Stations determine whether periodic meetings of tribal village leaders is useful. At such a meeting they

/might - 77 ­

might discuss, for instance, forest conserva:tion, and it would be

hoped that a free but responsible discussion rrirht increase

understanding. If successful, such meeti-ni may n'ot oiiv he>.

communication between tribal villages but also between _'c\'ern­ ment and the tribes.

Problem o C Interre lation between Thai. and Tribal pc~o],

If Thailand aims to assimilat-, tribal jeople int,: the nit:ion

as rapidly as possible, the incidents ,j ictive hostility b.;tj,,n

Thai and tribal people are not contributin;, to this end. Tndud

tribal people are well aware of frequent o- ficial indii[Ferunc tr,

their problems. The wide-spread image of a child-like but dirty people addicted to opium lies behind many acts of lowlanders an­

causes resentment among uplanders. T1h hil] people - r, veud of their tribal traditions and to sp,.:ak unfavorably of their lifr, as some teachers are wont to do, alieniates them o yriorthe Thai and hardly serves to welcome these people into the nation.

Opinion Altering popular images is a slo.; ui.:dertkinii which will take many years for any appreciable chanv'. ,v,' ,teru e , , th: J'opu­ lar image must be carried out in uc!! .i wv as not tLu. off. nd but rather if possible to stimulate [ibel pride, icr this L, -idO in a tribal tradition will later' h p rcv,:nL such prcblems as demoralization of the people and delinquency wtlhen. contacts are more intimate. In this line we offer the. following su};estions: IA. I,'er - 78 -

A. Her Mpjesty the Queen has already tset an example in becoming patron of the Lissu villag$e of Ban Pang Nun by oiving a school building. If others, individuals or corpnrat groups such as business concerns or municipalities, follownd this example, much useful work could be a.complihd.

Let us be clear that the importdnt aspect of this relation­ ship is not the gift itself, but the continuin- int:re.;t and development that results from the gift. TForrmer visito-' -C tribal villages were wont to give food and clothing, but s3u1h vifts; produce a more patronizing situation and much less enduring benefits than a radio, tools, or good livestock for breeding. So from these beginnings the enlightcred patron learns to know his village more intimately by careful observation, r'tur-n visit and reciprocal visits by the tribal peop-le to see him. Then a patron can judge what will help most, perhaps a vi-it to a livestock breeding station by a village delegation, 1:.?rh.aps a contribution that enables a child to continue studyini, in a nearby city.

B. Priests from temples nnar the tribal vil]lages might visit certain ones much as Christian missioiiaries have done. The

Lissu in particular make frequent use of the concert of merit and have special interest in Buddhism. The Akhp are famili6.r with the concept of reincarnation. Where tribal villa~ges have proven friendly, a temple may invite the villarers to visit the wat and perhaps sleep there on the next trip to the locality.

C. The Hill Tribe Division might publish once or twice a year a magazine emphasizing the accomplishments of tribal people: /e.visit - 79 ­

a visit to His Majesty's palace, the entry or graduation of tribal

children in schools, the participation oi tribal people in tl.

work at various Tribal Welfare Stations. All -uch topics mirht

be used as subject matter. If simply write:on, attractively ],pi nteu,

well illustrated, and broadly circulated both among Thai and tribal people, this too may help chanre attitudes.

D. Efforts may be made in schools 1::. have Thai children as well as tribal children read intcrestinp, , al-s about tribal l-eOIle.

In other nations the Boy Scout programs have aroused int r'esr in other groups, such as the American Indians. Thai Boy Scouts might also become interested in tribal life by visiting ono of the more accessible villages or learning from a specially invited tribal person about the making of traps or crossbows. Conceivably a tribal village might also be interested in starting a Boy Scout troop as a result of these visits.

Problem of Sustaining a vital Program of Aid to the Hill Tribes

The main stimulus to the maintenai cc and enrichment of any program comes from the vivid p>ersonal experiiences of program leaders and their aides who convey new ideas into the proram.

Foreign specialists find it very pleasant, even flattering, to have their opinions in demand, but this is only one stimulus to program development. What other ways exist? Opinion

A. As an addition to the periodic meetings of all members /of the - .80 ­

of the Division of Tribal Welfare, we suggest inviting representa­

tives of countries with minority -roup.. to discuss key problems

and attempted solutions. Government officials who are dealinv

directly with comparable problems in such neighboring countries

as Burma, Malaysia and the Philippin.es would have the most to

offer, yet possibly an embassy official already in Eangkok from

some Scandinavian country might also describc his country's

program for dealing with Eskimos or, Lapplanders. Commnon prob­

lems and comparable solutions may occur in many remote parts of the world.

B. If a country has a program of special interest and

relevance, the Division may send a representative to obtain

further information by a visit of inspection to the country.

Canada, Australia and New Zealand may have pro;Traas of partic­

ular interest.

C. We have already encountered not only anthropological

and sociological problems but also problem,,; rf agriculture, stock­ breeding, health, education, law, security, ctc.. Oultlining plans of research on these varied problemis, initiating specific research projects, and assessing the results would se¢:i to be a task for the 'Tribal Research Institute. Though conceived initially as a center particularly for anthropological study, we see no reason why the Tribal Research Institute should not concern itself with all interrelated research problems pertinent to tribal life. If this be acceptable, we then propose a board of technical consul=­ tants to be associated with the Tribal Research Institute, /coming - 81 ­

coming from ministries, departments and univcrsities wiLc", reresent

the specialized fields on which the many asv),:cts ofi: t0-ibja welfare depend. They should be available foi -ront-thlv ,c !,,n weekly meetings to plan and revie,.: CeavchT th basis of research results this bocdy w(.euld reoommend nuw ,ich,' or changes in the working progra1 of tho Division of Tribal Welfare. As special problenis arc,se fi~f,ctinf! th pr'vi,,Q of one or more technical advisors, thc Tribal Rsearch Tnutitute may solicit additional time. We envision that much of the actual. research plannCJ Lb this group at the Tribal Research Center will take place in the Tribal Welfare Stations using the local. staff :nd Hobile Development Teams. For example, studies of upland iice cultivation may be planned by the Research Center buz would be carried out at all Tribal Welfare Stations. Results would be analysod an'4 compared,

and the implications drawn, at the Triba]. Pusearch Center.

D. The problems of hill tribes are likely to continue for many years, so that we must also think of staffinff the Division for the future. Prior experience in the hills and contact with hill tribes may in some cases be a more important preiparation

for the present work than formal educationai degrees. ideally one would hope to find personncl with both education and exr,er­ ience with tribal people. In the future the Division may give special attention to enlisting promising young men who have lived near hill tribes, indeed young men of Jribal background, to serve their nation as well as their people.

APPENDIX I

Tribal Arts and Crafts in Northern Thailand

Ruth B. Sharp

The argument of this preliminary report on certain limited

aspects of the arts and crafts of sonie hill tribes in northern Thailand is that many native handicrafts which aid in maintaining

tribal identities are threatened by extinction; that in the national interest immediate and energetic steps should b'2 taken

to preserve them if possible by encouraging their continued steady production at a traditional level of high quality; that this encouragement can best come through attempts to develop private or publicly facilitated marketing arrangements whereby tribal artifacts can be sold to what is estimated to be a considerable potential buying public; and that the chief responsibility for a program along these lines should fall to the Hill Tribes Division of the Public T'elfare Departriexit which has already demonstrated its intellirent concern for the welfare of the hill tribes, its professicn.1 knowledge of their capabil­ ities, and its capacity to deal with their problems. The main purpose of such an effort to support the continuing production of tribal arts and crafts, and Particularly textiles, would not be simply to provide a needed cash income to tribal people while they are undergoing a difficult period of cultural change and economic transition. Rather, such a program should /be - 84 ­ be designed primarily to help ease "the orderly integration of hill tribes into the Thai national economy, polity, and society as ethnic minorities retaining their self-resrect, dignity, and group morale. The dangers of threatened demoralization, apathv and loss of ethnic identity will soon pi-esent serious problems for the tribal peoples and for the Thai p.Overnment. Such dangers may be minimized if the hill tribes can retain pride in some aspects of their tribal traditions such as their distinctive arts and crafts, and if traditional work habits can be .,rcserved through the transition period, especially among women and children, by the continuation of familiar forms of useful employment.

The tribal peoples to whom this report refers live in the upland areas of the northern Thai provinces of Chiengrnai., Chiengra.i, and Nan, and they are in touch not only witlh the Thai. peoples who constitute an ethnic majority occupying the plains and va].levs of these provinces, but also with upland and lowland populations in

Burma and Laos and, through radio and other forms of commiunication, even with peoples and governments beyond. This report is parti­ cularly concerned with such Tibeto-Burman _.rouTs a3 the Akha,

Karen, Lahu, and Lissu, many of whom have cntered Thailand from the north within recent decades or the last century, and with more sinicized groups such as the Meo and Yao. Thai. and Mon-Khmer hill peoples, such as the Shans, Lawa, Khnu, or Thin, do not come within the purview of this paper. Among - 85 -

Among all of these tribal peoples of north Thailand, with

the exception of many Karens, basic similarities in their sub­

sistence dry rice horticulturcal, hunting7, and g.thorinj. techno­

logies exist, and it is these conron features o.[ftheir econoMic

life which permit the outsider to refer to them as "the hill

tribes". However, among themselves they .-,e very distinctl

differentiated by language, social. organization, reli.ious

and practices, and systems of ideas, sentiments, ad V1iues.

But the most visible and obviod distinctions among theat lie riT

the different styles of their arts and crafts. Village settle­

ments of different tribal groups are found interspersed anmon,.

each other within a restricted region; but even from a g:reat

distance the ethnic affiliation of a villa,,Te is clearly signalled by distinguishing patterns of settlement, house types, and building styles: Lissu, Meo, and Yao build on the Fround, while

Akha, Lahu, and Karen houses are elevated wholly or in part on piles. In the busy market towns of the north, the tribesmen and more particularly the tribeswomen can readily be, distinguish­ ed from each other by their characte -istic dress and headgear.

Lahu and Karen women may buy similar commercial cloth for their dress, but they choose distinctive colors; Her and Yao women work similar cross-stitched designs into the same dark blue cloth, but cut their clothes in entirely different styles.

Even subdivisions of ethnic groups may be distinguished by differences in their technical treatment of craft products:

/The - 86 -

The White Meo and the Blue Meo traditionally weave the same plant fiber into cloth, but the former use it undyed while the latter dye it a dark blue, thus giving ri'i to the two names for the two social groups who are otherwise culturally very closely related.

Women from certain Akha settlements in Burma wear headdresses which differ from those of the Akha women of Thailand; and Akha men's jacket designs vary not only from re:gion to region but from village to village. And the ubiquitnus shoulder bag carried by all the hill tribes remains as clear a tribal identification as a calling card. General patterns and styles in arts and crafts may vary from tribe to tribe or from village to village; but within the local group or the kinship unit the designs do not vary from person to person or from generation to generation so that clothes and other craft forms become important marks of identification not only for others but for the tribes people themselves.

Such different and distinctive styles of cultural equipment have been preserved among the mobile hill tribes through centuries of time and miles of space. As the mountain peoples periodically shift their settlements along the hiuh ridges or frm range to range, much of this equipment must be left behind to succumb to the encroaching forest. The groups are not deeply attached by sentiment to home sites nor long identified with particular places which must regularly be abandoned. Still the particular styles of the arts and crafts of a village group persist and /wherever - 87 ­

wherever the members resettle they soon emerge with new homes

and a whole panoply of artifacts which vepr'oduce the old ones

exactly and proclaim the tribal identity and within th-,t the

village characteristics of each group with immediite clarity. For, in fact, when they move they do not leave everything behind:

skills needed to make the new equipment are carried in their

hands; the patterns and designs, ii. their' heads; sond the senti­

ment for these traditional things, in their hearts. Thus wher­

ever they move they recreate a smoll -ire,t of their own culture,

reproducing with effortless accuricy the Patterns of materia=l

things they have always known, things peculiar to themselves which in each new place gives them a familiar environment and a

sense of continuing stability and security.

It may be argued that the persistent tribal style differ­ ences serve as important symbols of group identifica!tion and as a defense against deculturalization for pCples who have lived for centuries scattered over wide mountain landscapes as eauals with other tribes or as minority groups under, pressure from lowland Chinese, Burman, Shan, or Lo major,ities. It wo.uld seem that such symbols would continue to be of equal importance to the mountain tribes now established within the political boundaries of Thailand as they encounter not only tho wet rice culture of the Thai chao na, not unlike that of peasant farmers thay have known before, but also confront a whole new series of products and pressures for change emanating from the markets and capitals

/of - 88 ­

of the modern world. Past experience has taught them to resist or cope with traditional lowland cultures; but the machine made goods of the market towns, the medical and other improvement

programs of the officials, schools, roads, buses and the long

trips they make possible, and a whole array of new influences

are proving irresistible, even though they are just beginning and the force of their impact is still weak. These elementary forces of change, bringing new "advantages" and "luxuries" into the hills where they will soon become "necessities", are already creating increased needs for cash with which to purchase commercial products which in turn are beginning to create external cultural uniformities among the tribes with a resulting potentially demoralizing anonymity.

The market towns fringing the hills of the north offer to the tribes people many items in new form which they have been accustomed to make for themselves: Textiles, mats and baskets, cooking and eating utensils and metal implements. They also offer things never before known or used: Shoes, hats, lamps, radios, cigarette lighters, wrist watches, and, of course, a whole inventory of plastic objects of many types. Already most hill villages have at leas" one radio, all have flash lights, all have guns, although not all individuals in any village have all these items. Men wear hats or berets, children are given

"Mickey Mouse" shirts, and all wear sneakers in town, although removing them for the trails. The women of some tribes (Lahu, /Lissu, - 89 -

Lissu, Yao) would rather buy cloth made in Thailand, Burma, India

or the west than follow their traditional methods of producing

their own textile materials. Of the tribes visited, only the

Akha and Meo still grow their own fibers and weave their own

cloth for clothes. Styles of clothing are beginning to change,

too. Men wear old trousers of any design and a shirt from the market for every day. Children also wear such commercial garments

as are readily available in the stores. Women are more

conservative, and only the Lahu and some Karen have been observed

to abandon their own native dress for the Thai pasin and blouse;

they dc tend to retain the traditional turban which now, however, may be a cheap "good morning" towel. Four Yao girls of Nong

Waen, near Mae Chan, who recently entered a Thai school for tribal children took off their turbans, cut their hair, and put on the dark skirt and white blouse of the Siamese school girl. Preparing themselves to stop acting as Yao, they ceased to look

like YaQ. By the same logic children adopted from other tribes by the Yao assume Yao dress. Such rejections of traditional attire as outward symbols of tribal identity must presage a loss of inner cultural qualities, a loss which in situations of major change may threaten emptiness.

But the world of the mountain people is not yet emptied of artifacts which retain their traditional meanings and which require for their production the expert exercise of old skills.

It is important that some of their arts and crafts are still being

/preserved - 90 ­

preserved amidst the confusion of living in two worlds. The Akha

and Meo textiles mentioned above are a case in point. Akha;

Lissu, Meo,.and Yao embroideries are still made with the greatest

traditional accuracy and skill. The shoulder bags of all tribes retain their distinctive character. A Yao woman requires almost

a year to embroider one pair of trousers for herself, but such

trousers so painstakingly made she will continue to make and wear

without variation from the age of six or so until her death. The Meo continue not only to weave their cloth but to apply to it

their traditional carefully detailed batik designs. A new dress

requiring weeks of labor is made by most Meo women for each new

year; and in preparation for death years may be-spent in producing

the finest costume of all as the most proper attire for burial.

Akha women may buy some baskets in the market, but they still make the magnificent heavy carrying baskets in which gourds-or bamboo

tubes full of water are laboriously carried from the tradition­

ally located lower springs up to the village site above. Small baskets to hold the cotton an Akha woman spins as she walks along the trail cannot be duplicated in the market town stores so full of other containers made of plastic. Blacksmiths are still busy

in the villages making knives, sickles, and other utensils which retain their tribal distinction. Men and boys, although they may own guns, still make fine cross-bows with their tribally characteristic releases. And they still-fashicn bird traps, ingenious and delicate, which are used constantly. No machine

/could - 91 ­

could duplicate or replace such native products as these;.prime materials are used for them, and on them the tribal worker

lavishes the most careful traditional skills. A small and fluctuating natural market exists which can usually absorb, though it hardly stimulates, any surplus production of such articles of tribal handicraft. SGme sales are made directly from the village, facilitated by staff members of Tribal Welfare Stations or by missionaries. Increasingly the tribal people themselves, in their search for cash, carry their own products into the market towns for sale. Here local entrepreneurs, some of them tribal people who have settled in the towns, some Chinese, some Thai, will accept native products, including handi­ crafts, in exchange for the necessities and luxuries wantel in the hills. In Maesai, Akha from adjacent villages and from across the river in Burma exchange their surplus tribal products such as rice, cotton, seeds, beads, and small rattan stools and tables, for commercial goods. Shops accepting Akha tribal-handicrafts have no difficulty in selling them, although the quantities of goods dealt with are admittedly not large. Farther south in Mae Chan there are several dealers, including comparatively wealthy individuals of Yao, Lahu or Lissu backgrounds, through whom tribal products are channelled into the local economy, most of these being exchanged for silver ornaments for which Mae Chan is a noted center among all the tribes north and west of the Maekok

/River - 92 -

River. Shops in Chiengrai sell Karen cloth by the meter as well as ready-made Karen jackets although the volume of their local business could not be ascertained. A leading Yao family based in Chiengkhong has established stores in Chiengkham and in Bangkok which deal primarily in commercial goods but as a side line offer Yao and other hand made tribal products for sale. In these stores can be purchase- an ent Yao woman's costume, finely embroidered, for 1000 baht.. In Chiengmai, where there is much more Thai and foreign tourist trade than in any of the market towns so far mentioned,'there are several shops which regularly stock articles of tribal dress, silver jewelry, and particularly shoulder bags. Here Meo women's skirts sell- for prices between

300 and 500 baht depending on the amount and quality of the work.

Karen embroidered blouses may be purchased for sixty baht. And in competition with machine made shoulder bags which sell for five to fifteen baht, tribal bags, particularly those made by Lahu and

Karen women, sell in considerable quantity at thirty-five to forty baht to buyers who prefer the more distinctive and longer wearing articles of handwork.

Without further research it would be difficult to estimate the volume of tribal handicraft business which is transacted in these local markets. A number of points, however, may be noted about this trade in the north which is comparatively slight in contrast to such lowland Thai cottage industries as /silk - 9.3 ­

silk, silver, lacquer ware, and so on. In the first place,

there is some trade in tribal craft articles. It moves through

"natural" outlets already in existence and is carried on by

native initiative. Even tribal merchants in the towns are handling craft goods from the hills for business rather than

sentimental reasons. Except for Chiengmai, the buyers sc far are almost entircly other tribal peoples or local Thai. Chiengmai,

which appears to.be the most active northern market for tribal

arts and crafts, attracts many more Thai and foreign tourists

than does any other northern town, and'its ability to distribute tribal products augurs well for a future in which increasing

numbers of such tourists will visit northern towns.

A market for native arts and crafts and outlets to it are

of little value unless the hill tribes are interested in pro­

ducing goods which will continue to attract buyers. It takes a

Lahu.woman three full working days to weave enough material on her belt loom for one shoulder bag which she then sells for thirty baht. Paying five to ten baht in the market for the thread for her bag, she thus earns more per day for her labor than tribal males do for agricultural or other work. However, like other tribal women, she seldom has three full days at a time to devote to her weaving but must use odd moments snatched from house and field work.. Time consumed in producing handi- Scraft - 914­

craft work, sometimes expressed in terms of the :quality or

elaborateness of the workmanship, seems to be a common standard

among the hill tribes generally for determining costs, especially

of textiles. In any case, the prices that hand made tribal goods

command in the local markets are firm and such that the tribes

people consider that they are profitting in selling their labor

in this way. While there is some possibility of expanding the local

northern markets for tribal handicrg'fts, it is doubtful that they

alone can develop a sufficient volume or variety of business to

provide adequate incentives to keep such hand work in active

production among all of the hill tribes. A still larger market

must be found which at the same time will be stable, insistent on

high quality of workmanship and materials, and sufficiently

remunerative'to induce large numbers of tribal people to produce

for it. For such a market as this we must look to Bangkok, and

particularly to that-segment of it which caters to the thousands

of foreign tourists who pass through this city each year in

search of the exotic. Could Bangkok absorb fiot only a greater quantity of such tribal goods than is sold in the north but aiso a greater variety of tribal arts and crafts? The answer at present must be tentative and be based chiefly on the Opinions of merchants who know the Bangkok market, for there has been no sustained effort as yet to channel tribal handicrafts from the

/mountains - 95 ­

mountains of the north to the shops of .the capital city, and -'

only such a test will provide a positive answer. In the

meantime-, we. can consider the s'aleability of objects now being'

produced by the. h:ill tribes for their own use, we can suggest*

new objects which they could make with their traditional

techniques and which.would attract new buyers, and we can consult.representative.merchants in touch.with the internation'al

buying public in Bangkok regarding their opinion of the prospe. ts

of developing outlets in that maiket for-goods which the hili tribes can prbduce.

.. Certainly in Bangkok, if in. the north,:some tribal

costumes, handwoven textiles, and shoulder bags can be.-o'ld

just as they are made in the hills. This list could be

expanded to include bead work and silve.r jewelry, baskets, mats, brooms, parts of costumes with fine embroidery.' The sashes' turbans,.women's trousers, dhildrinys hats and men's jackets of the Yao; the woments skirts, baby-carriers, head bands,;embroidered jacket borders of the Meo; the hand woven: cloth of the Karen, and-the magnificent embroidery of the Lissu as.well as their rarely now hand woven cloth and shoulder bags; the very'attractive man's jacket of the Akha as'well as the women.s.:chains of beads and characteristic hats with theii' outcroppings of feathers, beads, tassels, silver-and jewelry.

The bows and;'arrows of all tribes have been purchased by :,* travellers.and carried home in spite of the difficulty of

/packing - 96 ­ packing and transporting.

In addition to these existing products new ones can be created. One of the best possibilities for increasing the supply of marketable goods is to make from articles of. clothing that have distinction and charm but are not usable except as curios new articles which have a wider use but still employ the old techniques. An example of this is the Meo woman's skirt;

The central part of the skirt is a band of cloth woven froma native grass called "daw". It is about one foot wide and eleven feet long. Over the entire area the Meo women, using an indigenous batik technique, apply exquisite traditional designs with wax. Each design is a panel one foot square, each separated from the next by a two inch border. The patterns differ from square to square using motifs handed down-for generations andbearing,.specific names, "eyes of the, pumpkin", "seeds of the gourd", "path through the forest", "ring"., "ja"l,.

After the design has been .applied the .cloth is dyed dark blue,,: then washed, thus producing a dark blue textile with a white design that is the distinctive dress characteristic .of the Blue

Meo. Khun Chanya of Chiengmai, long interestedin the textiles,: and textile designs of North Thailand, wanted to use this beautiful material in some form other than the woman's skirt,., a form which would appeal to. a large buying public. She designed place mats, each containing one .traditional.skirt ,panel

/and - 97 ­

and a border. By careful instruction and supervision she was able to induce the Meo of Tak to make eight sets, which required

three months to complete, and were an immediate success. Exampils

were shown to Mr. J.H.W. Thompson of The Thai Silk Co., Bangkok,

who said that such articles, if the high quality were kept uniform,

could easily be sold in the Bangkok market.

The Yao of the village of Phale produced as a little gift,

attaching no significance to it, a small pouch about three inches

square covered with a cross-stitched embroidery of their ancient

symbol called the "grey-monkey".. This design is not used .so

frequently now and only the older women know it. To the student of Southeast Asian art it recalls the Dong-song motifs seen on the

ancient bronzes. This little pouch had such charm that others like it could easily be sold in great numbers in an intecra3tional

market, and, further, suggests a way in which ancient designs.

might be preserved.

With this in mind we interviewed Mr.. Thompson, menticned.

above, of the Thai Silk Co., Mrs. Kenneth Wells of the Christian

Bookshop on New Road which carries native products from all over

.Thailand, and The Thai Home Industries of Oriental Lane which has

for some time specialized in selling and shipping Thai native

handicrafts. All were interested. All stressed the importance

of a reliable supply, a high standard of workmAnship, andt.e

necessity of a middle-man to collect the goods, deliver them to

the shops, and handle the payments. / The - 98­

.The first serious attempt we know of to colleot tribal goods

and ship them to market was made by Mr. Harvey ;Price, an American

Peace Corps Volunteer assigned to the Nikhom at Mae Chan, Chiengr

.In February, 1964,:he collected articles from the Akha of Saen"Chai

Village and the Yao of Phale Village both situated on Nikhom liand.

He collected only items which were available without being"

specially commissioned. These he packed and took to' Bangkok to

the Thai Home Industries, who,when they saw them, bought all the items and ordered more. A list of the articles commissioned appears at the end of this report.

Mr. Price then 'retur'ned'to the Ilikhom and spent two'months collecting this order. Many of the items he bought from the

Akha and the Yao they happened to have on hand. Others he' commis'sioned, and both tribes Were immediately interested and' commenced making,the articles they did'not'have. The cormission­ ed articles at first were not of the quality 'the maker would have produced for his or her own use, for a man making a bow for him­ self is concerned with perfection 'of'detail that he cannot fee'l for a 'bow'to be' sold to stIrangers'. However,' by rejecting the inferior items Mr. Price was able to demonstrate the relationship between quality and demand. He then paid for the articles

(using his own capital), and shipped them, no small *task. The ''

Thai Home Industries has received the' shipment but has' not put it on display in "the shop so it cannot yet be said how it will

- '/be - 99 ­

be received in the Bangkok wider markct. It can be said, howev.;r. that it is possible to stimulate the tribes to create more hand.­ made goods than they need, and to produce these in sufficient quantity and of a quality to interest sellers in touci with an international buying market. It should be noted that our own survey group tried commissioning various articles; Lahu bags, Meo embroideries from Chieng Dao Nikhom tribes, Akha jackets and bags from the village of Khaje in Chiengrai. In the first instance the commissioned articles were not a success for there was no one to supervise their manufacture. In the second case we were more successful because the missionary stationed at the village of Khaje, Mrs. Peter Nightingale, volunteered to check the work­ manship and so helped the Akha produce jackets which otherwise might have been inferior to their own and so unacceptable. It would seem, then, that to help the hill tribes of Northern Thailand maintain their arts and crafts, and thus their traditional identity and dignity, to help provide them with additional income and occupation, a market for these products must be found. Such a market is beginning to exist, but is inaccessible to the tribes without the help of a professional assigned to this task. If the H7"1ill Tribes Division of the Department of Public Welfare could provide such a person, the Tribal Welfare Stations already provide a place where the goods can be collected. It is too much to ask the Superintendents

/of - 100 ­

of each Nikhom to undertake the entire marketing task, for they

are occupied with the administration of their particular

stations. It is therefore recommended that the Department of Public Welfare, already deeply concerned with and knowledge­

able about this situation create at its earliest convenience a full-time position, the duties of which are to encourage, supervise and facilitate the production and marketinF of the arts and crafts of the hill tribes. - 101 -

Thai Home Industries' order for hill tribe merchandise placed with Harvey Price, 15 April 1964

Quantity Item

10 Akha girl's soft hats

10 Akha large shoulder bags

6 Akha small shoulder bags

10 Yao girl's jackets

36 Cross Bows

2 Akha woman's stiff hats (bamboo)

2 Yao girl's hats

24 Bird traps

20 Gourds

12 Akha knives, with sheath

12 Yao rice harvesting knives

12 Yao small hoes

24 Yao short brooms

Total amount of order - 3,348.40 Baht

APPENDIX II

Gazeteer of Tribal Villages in the Province of Chiengrai north of the Mae Kok River.

The following list includes what we believe to be all the tribal villages in Chiengrai north of the ,iae Kok River. .inc these villages have many names, we have ttried to giv th:: mont common name as the first name. In some cases the name of the: headman is an alternative name for the vill,-r e, but w !havu not always duplicated this as one of the names of the villaTe. Ortho _ raphy is based on the Mary Haas system of transcribing Thai into

European letters. Altitude is in meters, and when a village lies. on or.very near the level of the Mae Chan plain at 400 meters above sea level, we have indicated it as a blank (---). The map coordinates are from maps published by the Army 1.1ap Service, U.S. Corps of Engineers, Washington D.C., Series 708, scale

1:50,000. Not every village was visited by members of the survey group and as our information was inc)mplete in some cases even where we did visit the village, we indicate the absence of information by a question mark (?); our own estimates, by a single asterisk (*); or a headman's estimate, by a double asterisk ('). - 104 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popit- Ifeadman Alti- 11ap coorcl­ and alternatives lation tude inate

Amphoe HyangY Chienpr'ai 1. Myang Ngam Nya Karen 16 94 '480 2-22 x b-56

2. Myang Ngam Tai Karen .39 160 Li Silicaj .48.0 22-20 x 5-53

3. Kiu Sataj Akha 27 227 !a un 790 2 -23 x 5-62 Agaun noi Huci Lu

4. Saen mai Akha 9, 67 flocy 790 2 -2. x 5-61

5. Cawa Lahunji 8 40 Cawa 775 22-21 x 5-57

6. Capi Lahunji 27 1410* Capi 1075 22-19 x 5.-59 7. Tan Ye Luang Lahunji 7 45 CIje 575 22-16 x 5-65 Caje

8. Anapukae Akha 8 60 Ana 1035 22-3.8'X'5-67

9. Mau Phi Lahunji 7 48 Cady (?) 665 22-16x 5-66

10. Cati Lahunji 7 39 Ca'y 885 22-14 x 5-67 Ca'y

11. Hale Lahunji 9 56 Caha 845 22-13 x 5-70 Caha Ale

12. Cakae Lahunji 12 61 Cakae 905 22-11 x 5-73 Huei Lu; Saen Caka(?)

13. Maukae Lahunji 6 31 Maukae 905 22-10 x 5-70

14. Cathu Lahunji 7 38 Cathu 1000 22-.1 x 5-70

15. Saen 'ad Lahunji 6 44 Saeri'ad 985 22-1.2 x 5-72 Se'ad

16. Akau'ae Lahunji 6 35 Akau'ae 1.045 22-15 x 5-70 17. Phu Saen Saung Akha 16 117 Apho'ae 690 22-17 x 5-71 Mia Kaucy Huei Sak Khaung Apho'ae, Kaucy

18. Camaku Lahunji 5 30 Camaku 670 22-12 x 5-74 19. Canji Lahunji 12 67 Canji 600 22-12 x 5-77 - 105 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Map coord­ and alternatives lation tude int -_ _ ...... Amphoe Myang Chiengra 20. Kae Khau Lahunji 9 54 Kae Khau 540 22-1.2 x 5-78 Pukhaung 21. Saen Phrom Lahusi 11 48 Calae0 1000 ,2-]6. 5-78 22. Phakaung Lahunji 7 38 Canji 900 ;2-14 x 5-79 Can* i. ( Phakung,) 23. Ai khai Lahusi 11 49 Aikhali 1080 22-]5 x 5-84 Huei luang

24. _Ai Saen Lahunji 13 54 Ai -avn 70 22-13 x 5-82 Hua Chomphu Mauh Mauha

25. Ban Fai Karen 12 82 Nai Tan --- 22-12 x 5-Q6 Yang Ban Pong 26. Huei Bakieng Lahunji 18...... 94 Ca'y 720 22-3A x 5-74 Ca'y

27. Mae Yao Law Su Yao 7 62 Law Su Tiu 505 22-].1 5-76

28. Mae Yao rak Sai Yao 10 64 Law Su Tiu '480 22-09 x 5-7"8 29. Huei Khom Karen 50 322 Turawaun --- 22-10 x 5-80 30. Huei Khom Shan 32 151 Ma Sampesi --- 22-10 x 5- )o 31. Mae Kok Nya Karen 28 156 lntaun --- 22-07 x 5-73 32. Ban Nam Lad Karien 24 153"* Saupoo i --- 22-03 x, 5-86

Amphoe Chi:uig San 1. Ban Doi Sagno Akha 34 168 Kate no ap Kae San coordini-ites. 2. Ban Lum Akha 5 19 No hdcbn. ? no map coordi.nate-y

3. Myang Kiang Shan i00** 432** Buntoeni. ' no map Sriratana coordinates­ - 106 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Map coord­ and alternatives lation _._.-. ude .... __iate....

Amphoe Mae Sai

1. Doi Tung Ban Mai Akha 11 58 Baraun 1200 22-50 x 5-87 Bapaun Kae San

2. Lota Lahubala 5 21. Casy 750 22-52 x 5-88 Huei Lota Casy

3. Phami Akha 45 313 Sacn Phrom ? 22-56 . 5-89 4. Pataek Akha 20 115 Abobaun ? 22-57 x 5-90

5. Namlin Akha 15 69 Lo!nomai ? 22-58 x 5-90 Phahya

6. Doi Tung Lahubala 29 167' Calae ? 22-47 x 5-86

Amphoe Mae Chan Tambon Mae Kham

1. Ban Pang Nun Akha 15 81 Syja 1080 22-49 x 5-58 2. Ban Pang Nun Lissu 62 366 Asai 1350 22-49 x 5-6.0 Saen Myang Wan

3. Puloj Akha 13 65 Abc 1025 22-47 x 5-60

4. Phaja Phai Akha 13 84 Agaun 1100 22-47 x 5-63 Mau niw

5. Saen Muku Akha. .5 98* Mochi 830 22-42 x 5-65

6. Pachi Akha 17 .92 Pachi .110 22-46 x 5-68 Pache

7. Doi Khaw Khiaw Akha ii 72 Atu 1130 22-46 x 5-75 Atupusaen Saen Hua Myang

8. Puna Lahunji 14 77 Puna 960 22-44 x 5-76 I I 9. Cate Lahunji 12 7J. Catae 1030 22-43 x 5-74 Ban Phau Myng

10. CatXe (south) Lahunji 5 22 CatVe 1050* 22-42 x 5-75 - 1b7 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman ALt.i- Mp ccord­ and alternatives lation ..... _ utuge inate Amphoe. Ma.e-" 2tfn.

Tambon Mae Kham 11. Caka (west) Lahunji 4 19 Ca a 1050* 22-qG x 5-72

12. Camyn , Lahunji 12 53 Canga 1.020 22-45 x 5-71 .. Saen Kham Ly

13. Khakae Lahunji 9 38 Khalkae 910 22-112 x 5-69 14. Ahai Akha 21 118 Apha 760 22-43J. x 5-72 Huej Phan

15. Agu Akh a 18 53 ,gu 650 22-"9 x S-72

16. Huei Mau Thaw Akha 10 66 Tumdai: 760 22-1! : 5-73 Saen Sanga

17. Na Ngoe Akha 8 58 Aga 690 22-40 x 5-75 Huei Mau

18. Cate Lahunji 3 15* Cate not 22-42 x 5-78 . ... . I Visited 19. Caka (east) Lahunji 3 .1.* Caka ? 22-42 x 5-79

20. Samaki Akha 32 206 Cai. 875 22-40 x 5-77 Phaja Samaki Ca'i mai

21. Mae Pyn Akha 37 215 A-o 875 22-41 x 5-80 Ca'i kaw •Saen Pyn

22. Pasang Akha 34 203 A\o 1020 22-48 x 5-77 23. Pajang mai Akha 27 173 -'tpha 970 22-4 4 x 5-81 24. Pajang kaw Akha ].7 97 Abiau 1030 22-116 -, 5-80

25. Calau kaw Akha 28 258 Calau 970 22-46 x 5-81

26. Calau mai Akha 17 114 Turnau ACu 920 22-48 x 5-82

27. Pakwei mai Akha 14 56 Amy 930 22-46 x 5-84 Baby

28. Huei Mongkha Lahubala 3* 8* Casya did not visit - 108 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman' Alti- Map coerd­ -and alternatives .... lation...... tude--inate

Amphoe Mae.Chan

Tambon Mae Kham 29. Pakwei Kaw Akha 23 117 Acs 960 22-44 x 5-85"

30. Khajaen Ban Farang Khaje Yesu Akh 6 30 ? 550 22-41 x 5-84

31. Khajaen, Kaw Akha 28 208 Acy 850 22-41 x 5-814 Khajaeng nya Saen Myang Di Ania Khaje nji

32. Silang Akha 24 134 Sing,kham 800 22-40 x 5-83 Khaejaeng Ban Tai Halang Bajokhaphu

33. Khajaeng Tai Akha 15 116 ? 775 22-41 x 5-85" Khaje Baka Jasakhaphu

Tambon Pasanf

1. Huei Mak Chinese 16 69 Law Kung 940 22-35 x 5-64 Ban Yao Huei Mak

2. Hin Kaung Akha 6 36 Losa 800 22-36 x 5-67 Saen Saung Phan 3. Caculaba Lahunji 33 158 Cacu 920 22-34 x 5-67

4. Amae" Akha 24 165 A:e 900 22-31 x 5-70

5. Jalum Akha 5 43 Jalum 830 22-31 x 5-73 6. Doi Maesalaeb Akha 16 103 Lopha 760 22-31 x 5-74

7. Chang Kham noi Akha 15 77 Chosan 630 22-35 x 5-71

8. Ban Hin Taek Shan 6 21 Somphong 615 22-39 x 5-62" BatinwonF

9. Ca'yta Lahunji 7 35" Ca'yta ? 22-39 x 5-66 10. Abiau Akha 14 77 Abiau 960 22-39 x 5-65 Alae

11. Athu Akha 11 71 Athu 800 22-36 x 5-67 - 109 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Map coord­ and alternatives lation tude inate

Amphoe Mae Chan

Tarnbon Pasan, 12. Apha Akha 14+ 76 Aph a 780 22-37 x 5-66 13. Musan Lissu 5 30 N-susn 1190 22-3Y x 5-63 14. Adu Akha 25 138 Aidu 121u 2?-26 x 5-63 15. Huei Mak Lissu 6 :7 Su irn 3150 22-35 x 5-60 Law Ai Cole 16. Basu Akha 19 110 Basu 930 22-L10 x 5-60 Phakae 17. Canau Akha 14 73 jache 1050 22-1411 x 5-57 18. Pong hai Akha 19 222 "N7j, 890 22-43 x 5-57 Pu Hai 19. Huei Kang Akha 19 150 Aky 850 22-44 x 5-57 20. Mae Kham Lissu 27 ].75* --- did nct visil: 21. Ala Akha 7 48 Ala 720" 22-37 x 5-78 Pakwei Ala 22. Aco Akha 18 106 Aco 770 22-36 x 5-77 achema 23. Saen Chai Akha 118 317 Lovigkha 670 22-35 x 5-80 24. Adjo Akha 22 126 Adjo 670 22-33 x 5-78 25. Huei San Akha 22 145 Tuiiau 650k 22-36 x 5-81. Hosa 26. Phale Yao 41 291 Law Chi 550 ' 22-30 x 5-78. Huei Dya Chan Fin Cang, Saen Pithak Kirikked 27. Nyn Nau Lahunji 4 28 Hyri Nau ? 22-30 x 5-77 Saen Maj 28. Ban Puloej Shan 11 43 Phat Nlinkaew450 22-30 x 5-80 29. Nikhom Group I Lahusi 23 154 Phaumyn 450 22-31 x 5-80 - 110 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Map coord­ and alternatives lation tude inate

Amphoe Mae Chan

Tambon Pasang 30. Nikhom Group II Lahusi 12 79 Caka 450 22-31 x 5-80. phaumui Tambon Mae Chan 1. Hakumu Lissu 33 234 Shipu 1100 22-31 x 5-62 Ban Mai

2. Asy Lissu 6 32 M"Iasy 1050 22-29 x 5-60 Saen sae

3. Saen Supha Lissu 10 54 Abipha. 1300 22-27 x 5-58 Mae Chan Luang

4. Lisan Lissu 4 27 Lisan 1360 22-27 x 5-52 5. Saen Kham Wang Lahunji 17 101 Acy 1010 22-20 x 5-75 Acy

6. Huei Tang Akha 9 69 Aje 710 22-18 x 5-7G Aje 7. Canj5 Lahunji 5 25 Canji 860 22-22 x 5-73 (1'ae Chan)

8. Khaciu Lahunji 9 33 Khar ? 22-20 x 5-77 9. Kae Ma noi Lahunji 9 38 Casyciu ? 22-211 x 5-79 Tong Thung,

10. Huei Mahin ron Lissu 10 67 Saen Phronm ? on map as Sukham fluei Mahin ron

11. Huei Haum Lahunji 26 140 Senji ? 22-24 x 5-82 Senji Huei Yano

12. Cada Lahunji 1 12 Cada ? not visited

13. Huei Hok Lahunji 4 24 Caje not visited Caje Village name- Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Man: conri­ and alternatives lati on tude .ina e ...

Amphoe M~ae Chan

Tambon Mae Chlan

14. Kae Mai Lahu- 7 33 .Asypha 940 22-19 x 5-79' Saen Mai Lissu Asypha

15. Lopha Lahu- 5 28 ]Lopha ].000 20-19 x 5-80 Lissu

16. Caphy Lahusi 13 99 Caphy 990 22-20 x 5-80 Saen myang thai Hua Phu

17. Saen Chomphu Lahusi 8 59 Cacubu 740 22-2 x 5-80 Hua Huei Phu Nagaji

18. Huei Kang Pa Yao 16 81 Law Ta at 900 22-1.9 x 5-83 Naungr waeri 19. Lolau Lahu- 6 38 Ca'y 670 22-23 x 5-84 Lissu

20. Mogaun Akha 18 136 logaun ? 22-31 x 5-84

21. Cagau Lahunji 15 79 Cagau 720 22-27 x 5-82 Doi Ly Cawau

22. Paphui Lahunji 9 47 Paphui 770 22-26 x 5-82

23. Huei Kham Yao 8 44 none ? 22-30 x 5-8].

24. Law San Kwei Yao 6 46 Law San Kwei-- 22-28 x 5-79 Law San Seng

25. Law Sib Yao 12 89 Law .,aw Fu770 22-26 x 5-78 Law Chi Law Lu 26. Tung Kwei Yao 7 - Law Chi 825 22-28 x 5-73 Law Chi Kwei Kwei

27. Thucy Akha 14 ' Thucy 870 22-25 x 5-72 - ].12 -

Village name Tribe Houses Popu- Headman Alti- Map coord­ and alternatives lation tude inate

Amphoe Mae Chan

Tambon Mae Chan 28. Chakatau Lahunji 11 88 Caka 880 22-26 x 5-67

29. Law Ta Saung mia Yao 17 113 Law San 650 22-23 x 5-70 Thung Hiang

30. Chang Kham noi Akha 7 45 Chang Kham ? 22-25 x 5-64 (Mae Chan) noi 31. Naung Waen Yao 41 241 Law Ta marked on map Pong Palang Iluei San Heui APPENDIX III

Work Schedule of Survey and Surve-y Personnel

1. Survey Schedule and Itinerary in Chiengrai Province

January 7, 1.964 arrived Mae Chan; Deiimn-:ry visitin, of approximately 1.0 vi].lages by day trips from Nace Chan. January 30 to February 4 from (hier -rai by boat up ae Kok ive, to 11 vi].pes of Amphoe 11yang, Chie.­ rai. February 17 to 24 from Huei Kriii to 12 villares cf Tambon Mae Kham and five ;r,.11a0E!S Of Tambon Pasan,-. February 28 to March 8 from Triba]. Welfare 3tation to'17 villaes of Tambon Mlae Kham and 13 villages of Tambon Pasang. March 16 to 25 from Tribal Welfare Station to six villaues of Tambon Pasang and 21 villaaes of Tambon Mae (,ain. March 31 to April 5 from Huei Khom to 10 villages of Amphoe Ilyang, Chienfrai and 17 villages of Tambon flae Chan. April 9 to 10 from Ban Pong to 14villages of Amphoe iyang, Chiengrai. April 13 to 15 to 3 villages of Amphoe Chiong Saen and 6 villages of Amphoe Mae Sai. April 16 to May 22 to miscellaneous villages by day trips from Mae Chan. - 114 ­

2. Personnel Associated with the Survey

in Chiengrai Province

Charoen Phinit, interpreter and medical adviser'f0i' survey, February 17 to May 22.

Phan Lao San, .interpreter and guide for survey, February 17 to May 17.

Lao Jyau, guide, carrier and cook for sur'vey, February 17 to April 17.

Yang Shr Dung, carrier, cook and assistant for survey, February 17 to April 17. CHIENGRAI PROVINCE, NORTH OF MAE KOK RIVER

8 U R YMA

( Is ( MA

MAE CHAN DISTRICT, SW 1I -. " TAMBON N# AAcmAN --.,. ... -- \ ..... - . o, .....,., ~ ' ' .....-- ...... t/-II1 ! . .9...

NGgA -0.-T.

C H I STT

MILWMINI 10 Is.