Allies Growing Closer: Japan-Europe Security Ties in the Age of Strategic
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C O R P O R A T I O N JEFFREY W. HORNUNG Allies Growing Closer Japan–Europe Security Ties in the Age of Strategic Competition For more information on this publication, visit www.rand.org/t/RRA186-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available for this publication. ISBN: 978-1-9774-0636-1 Published by the RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. © Copyright 2020 RAND Corporation R® is a registered trademark. Cover: Adobe Stock/numax3d; railwayfx. Limited Print and Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions. The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest. RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. Support RAND Make a tax-deductible charitable contribution at www.rand.org/giving/contribute www.rand.org Preface In its 2018 National Defense Strategy, the United States acknowledged the reemergence of long-term strategic competition with several rivals, including China and Russia. Some of the United States’ most powerful and trustworthy allies are Japan and its European partners. What is not always fully understood, or at least documented in great detail, are the types of cooperative activities these allies are pursuing in the security domain amid this return of stra- tegic competition. This report presents the results of a RAND Corporation study examining how allies of the United States are increasingly cooperating with each other in the security domain. With a focus on the increasing bilateral security links between Japan and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and three European states—the United Kingdom, France, and Germany—I sought to build on extensive work done by European and Japanese scholars to both understand and assess developments in these relationships and why they matter for the United States. I found that, although the discrete lines of effort by these actors are at varying levels of development, their security cooperation matters and it should be both recognized and fostered. This research was sponsored by the Sasakawa Peace Foundation and conducted within the International Security and Defense Policy Center of the RAND National Security Research Division (NSRD). NSRD conducts research and analysis for the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the U.S. Intelligence Community, U.S. State Department, allied foreign govern- ments, and foundations. For more information on the RAND International Security and Defense Policy Center, see www.rand.org/nsrd/isdp or contact the director (contact information is provided on the webpage). iii Contents Preface ........................................................................................................... iii Summary ........................................................................................................vii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................. ix Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 Organization of This Report ................................................................................... 1 Methodology ..................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER TWO The Strategic Context .......................................................................................... 5 U.S. Strategic Documents ....................................................................................... 5 Japanese Motivations ............................................................................................ 8 Conclusion .......................................................................................................18 CHAPTER THREE The United Kingdom .........................................................................................19 History ...........................................................................................................19 Defense and Strategic Dialogues ............................................................................. 22 Defense Exchanges, Defense Cooperation, and Defense-Related Industrial Cooperation ............ 24 Training and Exercises ......................................................................................... 27 Motivations ......................................................................................................31 Divergences ......................................................................................................37 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER FOUR France ............................................................................................................39 History .......................................................................................................... 40 Defense and Strategic Dialogues ............................................................................. 42 Defense Exchanges, Defense Cooperation, and Defense-Related Industrial Cooperation .............45 Training and Exercises ..........................................................................................47 Motivations ......................................................................................................49 Divergences ......................................................................................................55 Conclusion .......................................................................................................57 v vi Allies Growing Closer: Japan–Europe Security Ties in the Age of Strategic Competition CHAPTER FIVE Germany .........................................................................................................59 History ...........................................................................................................59 Defense and Strategic Dialogues ..............................................................................61 Defense Exchanges, Defense Cooperation, and Defense-Related Industrial Cooperation .............63 Training and Exercises ..........................................................................................65 Motivations ......................................................................................................67 Divergences ......................................................................................................73 Conclusion .......................................................................................................74 CHAPTER SIX The North Atlantic Treaty Organization ................................................................ 77 History .......................................................................................................... 77 Defense and Strategic Dialogues ..............................................................................81 Defense Exchanges, Defense Cooperation, and Defense-Related Industrial Cooperation .............82 Training and Exercises ......................................................................................... 86 Motivation ...................................................................................................... 87 Divergence .......................................................................................................91 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 92 CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusion ......................................................................................................93 Similarities .......................................................................................................93 Differences .......................................................................................................95 Significance for the United States ............................................................................ 96 Recommendations ............................................................................................ 100 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 102 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 103 Summary In its 2018 National Defense Strategy, the United States acknowledged the reemergence of long-term strategic competition with several rivals, including China and Russia. Some of the United States’ most powerful and trustworthy allies are Japan and its European partners. What is not always fully understood, or at least documented in great detail, are the