THE ARUP JOURNAL

OVE ARUP'S 90th BIRTHDAY ISSUE SPRING 1985 Vol.20 No.1 Spri ng 1985 Contents Published by Ove Arup Partnership THEARUP 13 Fi tzroy St reet. London W1 P 68 0

Editor Pe ter Hoggett Art Editor: Desmond Wyeth FSIAD JOURNAL Assistant Editor· David Brown

Foreword The world of the structural engineer 2 Ove's commitment to 'Total Design' is pro­ bably his greatest contribution to our profes­ Design of piled jetties and piers 11 sion in particular and to society in general. Planning in reinforced concrete 13 Whether the totality refers to the integration of design and construction, the place of London's shelter problem 14 structure in architecture, the place of ar­ Science and world planning 16 chitecture in society or on the impact of Shell construction 17 modern technology on society, Ove brings his intellect to bear on the issues with a direct­ Modern architecture: ness and integrity which has set an example the structural fallacy 19 to us all. His quest for truth is tempered by the Coventry Cathedral: knowledge that it is elusive and many-sided how the plan took shape 22 at best - non-existent at worst. He would agree with Einstein who said that 'whoever The problem of producing undertakes to set himself up as a judge in the quality in building 23 field of truth and knowledge is shipwrecked Advances in engineering 25 by the laughter of the Gods'. It is the freshness, honesty, lack of pomposity and Architects, engineers and builders 27 above all the humanity of Ove and his writings 'Key speech' 34 which are special to us all. The built environment 37 What better way to celebrate Ove 's 90th birth­ day than to collect some of the papers and Institution of Structural Engineers lectures which he has produced over more Gold Medal Speech 45 than 60 years. This issue of the Journal is a The Building Centre 46 token of our esteem and gratitude on this marvellous celebration. Bob Hobbs Jack Zunz

Front cover: Portrait of Ove Arup by Benedict Rubbra Back cover: Kingsgate Footbridge, Durham (Drawing: Roger Rigby)

professional milieu. We 'll make him a civil and he decided to become an eng ineer. But of The world of the engineer specializing in structures, and we course: a good engineer; because he chose will make it his job to design structures in dif­ this way also in search of an opportunity for structural engineer ferent circumstances, as employee or artistic fulfilment, the satisfaction of a job employer, as contractor or consulting well done. This was not surprising, Young engineer, as principal or consultant to an people are often idealists, they believe they This paper was the Institution of Structural architect. He should also be a difficult, can do better than their elders. They may not Engineers 1968 Maitland Lecture delivered at critical sort of chap, always thinking that know exactly what they want to do, but they the Purcell Room, London, on 14 November things could be better than they are. Being a are far from being aimless. Ernest realized 1968: reprinted from The Structural Engineer, mere convention he can of course afford to be that he wouldn't solve the world's problems, January 1969, by kind permission of the outspoken. Perhaps we should make him a no matter how much science he studied; and Council of the Institution of Structural foreigner - that would after all explain a he saw engineering in terms of solving pro­ Engineers. great deal. But all the same there must be blems that could be solved , problems of some sense in what he says, for if not the designing exciting structures. Eng ineering is I am sure you all agree that the Structural whole exercise becomes pointless. We'll not a science. Science studies particular Engineer needs no introduction to this make him, also, a bit of a dreamer, a man to events to find general laws. Engineering audience. But actually it is a bit hard to define whom dreams are at least important, and not design makes use of these laws to solve par­ the term 'structural engineer'. It could be one too much a man of action; for, as it says in ticular practical problems. In this it is more who has passed certain examinations, who is Ecclesiasticus: 'The wisdom of a learned man closely related to art or craft; as in art, its pro­ a member of this institution - in which case cometh by opportunity of leisure: and he that blems are underdefined, there are many solu­ he would even be a chartered structural has little business shall become wise'. tions, good, bad and indifferent. The art is, by engineer - one who holds a certain position And while we 're at it, we really must give him a a synthesis of ends and means, to arrive at a or does a certain job. For the purpose of this name, otherwise we'll never get to know him. I good solution. This is a creative activity, in­ talk, I would prefer to define the structural think Ernest would be a good name for him; it volving imagination, intuition and deliberate engineer simply as one who is competent to is not impossible that he may turn out to be a choice, for the possible solutions often vary design stable and economical structures of bit of a prig. in ways which cannot be directly compared by quantitative methods. different kinds to meet the requirements for I imagine that even as a child Ernest had an which these structures are needed. This inquisitive sort of mind, a curiosity about But I had better let Ernest get on with his means of course that one can be more or less what's inside things, how they work, how career. He studied mathematics, physics, of a structural engineer, and that civil they're made. And this being so, he was chemistry, mechanics, and the rest, learned engineers, mechanical engineers and some naturally attracted to science. You must about materials and their properties, about who are not called engineers at all might be remember that this was a long time ago, when forces, stresses, and all the other things, so called. Science stood for Truth, and Art for Beauty, mostly theoretical; and he took his degree in But the world of the structural eng ineer can­ and when Goodness was the purpose of life. engineering, specializing in structures. not be thus defined - it would vary with each They were absolutes - to begin with. And for Designer and contractor individual - and they vary widely, as a glance him they never quite lost that aura. Especially He was particularly interested in the poten­ at this audience will show. The structural truth: he thought he would one day be able to tialities of a comparatively new material engineer can only be an abstraction, a fig­ discover the secret of Kant's 'Ding an sich', called reinforced concrete and therefore ment of the imagination. the secret of being. joined an international firm which specialized Since, therefore, we must imagine this struc­ Of course he was disillusioned. He soon in the design and construction of reinforced tural engineer of ours, let us at least imagine ceased to expect any absolute solutions. But concrete structures. This firm had come in on a man who will serve our purpose this evening truth remained important to him, and so did the ground floor, so to speak, building quay 2 - who will provide us with a critique of his beauty - or rather, art. Still, he was no artist, walls, jetties, bridges, silos, water towers, coal bunkers and so on, in competition with were based on continental rates for output firm would get the job or that it would be built firms using established structural materials per man-hour; and reinforced concrete was if he did. Sometimes the client sent the - mostly steel, timber and stone. It seemed a looked on with the greatest suspicion by the design to all his competitors, so that they wonderful opportunity for anyone wanting to majority of potential clients. But Ernest could quote on this idea as well. Sometimes use his imagination and creative power. learned, and we will suppose that he present· an appreciative but just a little too greedy He got a bit of a shock when he first visited a ly became chief designer in the London head office abroad, to which all important building site and realized how far reality is at branch of his firm, responsible for designs tenders had to be submitted, clapped on an variance with theoretical assumptions about and tenders. He soon realized that his chief extra 10 or 20 %, thinking to cash in on an the placing of bars, the density of concrete, headache was not to design the structures, opportunity which was thereby lost. and dimensional tolerances. (These were but to get the chance to design them. The firm I am afraid that Ernest is given, in some early days, remember - concrete looks dif· tendered for jobs designed by consulting moods, to complaining that all his best ideas ferent now.) And he soon realized the futility engineers, city engineers, railway engineers, came to nothing. No one takes him too of pressing calculations to an exactitude etc., in order to get enough work; and much seriously; he had his frustrations - who which exceeds that of the basic assump· that Ernest saw appalled him. He frequently hasn't? - but he achieved a good deal, and lions. saw marvellous opportunities for suggesting most people would consider him lucky. But I It also very soon dawned on him that what he much more economical solutions. But he must say I can sympathize, for I sometimes had learnt at school didn't get him very far discovered the naivete of assuming that feel the same way myself. I have rather sur· when it came to actually designing, for engineers would be interested in his ideas, prisingly reached a position where I am - for instance, marine structures. If you are faced even if they led to better solutions to their pro· instance - honoured with this invitation to with building a breakwater in deep sea, with blems: they very rarely were. A contractor give the Maitland Lecture; and if only certain huge waves rolling in, what on earth do you who dared to offer an opinion on the design of designs I produced as a younger man had do? You know there are various possibilities, a consulting engineer might find his firm been carried out, I might not feel quite such a blocks, caissons, piling; and you can at a excluded from tendering at all. fraud. pinch decide which will stand up when it is To begin with he put his foot in it good and A minor annoyance was caused by the grow· built - although it proves difficult to get proper, and was several times shown the ing practice of extending quantity surveying anyone to commit himself about the force of door. as known from the building trade to steel and waves. But how do you get it there? Won't it It would be too much to say that Ernest learnt reinforced concrete structures. When his firm be smashed to bits before it is built? And tact from such experiences; but he learnt received a bill of quantities - a thick volume, above all, how much does it cost? Because so some caution, and scored some successes. beautifully printed, which had taken months far as his firm was concerned, the whole point There was a design for a wharf put out to to prepare - they had laboriously to pick out was to find a solution which they could offer tender by a railway company, which proved to all the items of concrete, steel, etc., from hun· at a lower cost than that of competitive be a mechanism that would collapse as soon dreds of different entries describing different schemes, so securing a job and making a as the backfill was placed. Ernest managed members of different sizes; collect them all profit. to get an interview with the chief engineer, together; and prepare an estimate on their Fortunately older members of his firm were and indicated delicately that his firm was own model, perhaps two or three pages long, well versed in the practical business of worried about taking responsibility for the giving the amount of concrete in different building in difficult circumstances, and he design because of so-an-so: would the chief mixes in cubic yards, the different kinds of accepted their guidance with gratitude. After engineer perhaps be good enough to explain, formwork in square yards, the reinforcing a couple of years he grew quite good at or would it be in order to put forward an alter· bars in tons, plus whatever excavation and designing plus estimating. He found out native solution? The chief engineer saw the extra items like pipes, bolts, and whatnot had about the costs of materials from the buyer, light, and whilst not admitting that anything to be provided. Then plant, staging, sheds, and about the labour expenses involved in was wrong, refrained from kicking Ernest foremen's time, and so on were added, after it each type of operation from the firm's weekly downstairs, and agreed that he could put in had been decided how to lay out and organize cost sheets. So far he had nothing to do with an alternative solution provided that every· the job. And then came the tedious business deciding about overheads and profits, deal· one else was allowed to tender on it as well. of distributing the tender price over the ing with customers or visiting sites. But he Of course there would be no question of pay· thousands of items in the bill - including did learn one useful lesson that he was never ing for the design commandeered in this thinks like 'extra over for rounded edges', to forget: namely that a designer must have a fashion; Ernest was none too happy about it; though no one has ever put in a rounded edge clear idea of what he wants to achieve; and and when the OS was called in and estimated without placing the concrete at the same must know the means of execution available that it would take him six weeks to prepare time. The trouble was that there could be no to him and how to evaluate their effec· the bill of quantities for the alternative design correspondence whatever between the items tiveness, both theoretically and practically. - which would not therefore be ready until in the bill and the information the contractor There was no difficulty so far about the first long after the date of tendering - things received from his weekly cost sheets - and part: he simply had to fulfil the client's looked black indeed, and Ernest wondered that, after all , was where he got his costs. requirements for less money than his corn· whether the chief engineer had really under· Of course the idea was to make the bill a legal petitors could, while satisfying the building stood the situation. But a bargain was finally document defining the job, so that the con· authorities and providing a stable structure struck. Ernest would quote on the unwork· suiting engineer or architect could obtain a with no obvious defects. With whatever able original scheme in competition with the price without having to finish the drawings. A imagination and ingenuity he could summon other firms, and only if his firm submitted the thoroughly bad excuse for a bad practice, he had to battle with the facts and possibil· lowest tender would his alternative scheme thought Ernest. The whole method breaks ities, and try out alternative solutions, be considered, and probably accepted if the down if you are faced with an original design costing every step to make sure he was not price were lower still. Other firms would after introducing new methods - which was what taking a wrong or expensive turn. It required all not have to quote on it. Ernest was always trying to achieve. And he an effort on his part if the result was to be The rest was easy, because the alternative couldn't share the OS's faith in these rates as good. A sudden inspiration could help, of was indeed cheaper, even with a good profit; cost indicators, since he well knew that the course; but it very seldom came without prior and Ernest could safely put in too low a price way the total price was distributed over the intense absorption of the relevant facts. for the official scheme, knowing that it would different items was guided by political Let us now imagine that one day Ernest, this not be built. And so it came to pass. motives rather than by devotion to accurate accountancy. Ernest used to claim that in the structural eng ineer of ours, was posted to I am sure Ernest could tell you many such London. He arrived in mid-winter in the early time it took his staff to deal with all this interesting stories, if there were time for clerical work they could have designed the 'twenties in a real old-fashioned pea-souper; them, and if we could rely on the accuracy of policemen in white nightgowns armed with job, taken out their kind of quantities, and his memory. But we must return to his career. priced it. But then he wasn't very fond of flares or white sheets walking carefully in He began to feel that as a contractor he was front of whole rows of red two-decker buses. clerical work. And besides, the business of rather frustrated. He remained a novice in the multiplying a quantity of steel expressed in There were coal fires in stations, even in subtle art of cultivating clients, and at that drawing offices, cosy and dirty, roasting one tons, hundredweights, quarters and pounds, time people were just not interested in ideas. by a rate expressed in pounds, shillings and side, freezing the other. Surveying in gum· He had many such; but he couldr't get boots on the mud banks of the Solent, staying pence, using a ready reckoner, seemed to him manufacturers, crane-makers, or brickworks faintly ludicrous. at a little pub, darts, warm beer, kippers, joint to collaborate in evolving new handling plant and two veg ; a hot humid December, tea with or new facing materials for concrete unless The Modern Movement crumpets, lovely old Christmas carols - he he had bulk orders ready. He couldn't try out At this time still before the war, he happened was enchanted with it all. I don't suppose he new methods, for nobody would take any risk; to meet some of the pioneers of the Modern was actually asked whether he thought our he couldn't even get the firm's own foremen Movement in architecture, because some of London policemen were wonderful - but of to make really good concrete with a decent them approached his firm asking them to course that's what he did think. surface, since it cost more, and profit tender for some buildings in reinforced con· After a while he grew more used to the ways margins were narrow. And when he did suc· crete. of the natives. His firm had lost heavily on two ceed in getting out a design that ought to beat Here he met a number of young people who major contracts because their estimates all competition, it still didn't mean that his really were interested in new ideas, who in 3 1 Bungalow for Berthold Lubetkin, Chiltern Hills (1933-4) Architects: Lubetkin and Tecton (Photo: Dell & Wainwright; copyright Architectural Review)

2 Penguin Pool, London Zoo, Regents Park (1934) Architects: Lubetkin and Tecton (Photo: John Donat)

3 Bear Ravine, Dudley Zoo, Worcs. (1936-7) Architects: Lubetkin and Tecton (Photo: Herbert Felton; copyright Architectural Review)

4 Entrance foyer, Highpoint 1, Highgate (1933-5) Architects: Lubetkin and Tecton (Photo: John Donat)

5 Whale pierhead fenders, Mulberry Harbour (1944) Designed by Arup & Arup (Photo: Reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London) fact had plenty themselves, and were very of structures, in the first instance to help dramatic cost-saving through inventive fond of discussing them. It was stimulating, modern architects mostly wanting to use design; and he was sorry to lose the life-giving amusing, and also puzzling. The puzzling part concrete as a structural material. connection with actual construction; but a was that these architects professed enthus­ To the outsider (and Ernest remained consulting engineer cannot choose his work. iasm for engineering, for the functional use of something of an outsider) the proposed com­ And he was determined to join in the adven­ structural materials, for the ideals of the bination looked fairly sensible; but it was in a ture of helping to create a new and better Bauhaus, and all that; but that this didn't way an act of defiance. He was perfectly architecture. He first had to try to learn what mean quite what you might suppose. They aware that it would meet with resistance and architecture was about. were in love with an architectural style, with suspicion; but he hoped to overcome it by He soon realized that architecture is a very the aesthetic feel of the kind of building they sticking strictly to the rule of not involving his personal thing. Architects are certainly admired; and so they were prepared and contracting firm if he was chosen as consul­ influenced by theories - some, indeed, have indeed determined to design their buildings tant. He wanted of course to give up carrying to find theoretical justifications for almost in reinforced concrete - a material they out other people's designs as soon as he every decision; the theories can't produce knew next to nothing about - even if it meant could afford it, because it was design he was good architecture. Only good architects can using the concrete to do things that could be interested in, and he only wanted a link with do that. Ernest's job would be to help the done better and more cheaply in another construction in order to improve design. It architects in their task. Of course it would material. worked for a time, but war intervened. This have to be left to the architect to decide what But here was a group that both welcomed and put an end to architecture, other problems constituted good architecture; for he was the needed Ernest's ideas. He joined the MARS loomed ahead. principal who had to interpret the client's Group and the Architectural Association, and I think we must skim over Ernest's exper­ wishes. The architect might certainly exper­ started to help architects with their rein­ iences during the war. There were satisfying ience a conflict of loyalties, loyalty to his art, forced concrete schemes - mostly on paper moments, and there were frustrations; and in to the client who commissioned him, to the only. He also helped some architects to win a situation where the nation needed more people who would use his building. Since some competitions, and they celebrated than ever before to husband its resources, the visual or sculptural art - delight, for short - together with a trip to Paris to look at modern frustrations could be hard to bear. Ernest is what an architect's reputation depends on, architecture. Corbusier's Swiss Pavilion served on a number of quasi-political commit­ and what he is most praised for producing, it made a deep impression on him. This was tees, and discovered something of the pro­ was not surprising that architects were something. But what was it? Why did it have cess whereby planning decisions are arrived generally most excited about their loyalty to that effect? He shared the enthusiasm of the at: his experiences here could be counted art, sometimes at the expense of function or architects, but not perhaps their reasoning. among the frustrating ones. The problem of economy. This might make it difficult for He suspected that what mattered was not deciding correctly what to build, and how to Ernest, too, to see where his duty lay; but in that the building was 'modern', but that it was relate different social priorities, is enor­ general he saw it as his task to side with the great architecture, architecture produced mously important; but let us tackle that ques­ architect in his battle for good architecture by an artist. tion in a different context. Suffice it to say against the prejudices of clients and He joined a new firm in order to have the that at the end of the war Ernest took the authorities. opportunity of working with architects; and plunge and set up as a consultant. He brought to this task his experience in he was busy designing, tendering for, and handling reinforced concrete, and in using its obtaining contracts for jetties, silos, cooling Two reasons impelled him. The first was that this seemed the only way in which he cou ld plastic qualities; and he was often able to sur­ towers and other structures, including rein­ prise the architect himself, showing him forced concrete frames for buildings in imita­ really concentrate on design. Construction was useful both as a stimulus to and as a test possibilities he had not dreamt of. He tion of the more usual steel frames. Ernest therefore fulfilled a need, his help was deplored this method of using concrete, and of design; but in itself the exacting task of organizing all this complicated activity with appreciated and his practice grew. He found in the building carcasses which the firm plenty of enthusiasm for new ideas - his its trivial setbacks and conflicts did not designed for modern architects he adopted battles were not with the architects, but with appeal to him - which in no way diminished what he at that time cal led slab construction. the authorities. But very often his task was his admiration for professional and ded­ one of debunking, of putting a brake on ideas This attracted the attention of at least the icated building contractors. And the second that were too advanced or fantastic, of architectural profession, for and against. But reason was that for him all the excitement fighting for sound construction. his position as designer of the reinforced con­ had gone out of contracting during the war. crete carcass, when he was at the same time The sporting element, the adventure of get­ He accepted of course that the aim of design­ employed by a contractor who tendered for ting an idea, the thrill of beating your com­ ing a structure that would convey the forces the building, was really quite untenable. The petitor on merit, the risk of offering a lump to the ground in the simplest, most direct, and architects wanted Ernest's firm to get the job, sum price for the job, all that buccaneering economical manner would have to be because they wanted him as designer; and he spirit had gone. You were paid for so many modified by the additional demand that it had to persuade his firm to quote a low price, quantities at controlled prices, with con­ should form an acceptable - perhaps a vital so that the architects could in turn persuade trolled labour, extra for canteen, bus - part of the architect's composition. This the client that the job would be cheaper than transport, and what not, all registered and might mean that the structure should as far traditional building. Whereas it really should counted up, and whether or not you made a as possible remain hidden; or that its arrange­ have been more expensive, if it were to be profit depended entirely on whether you were ment, the size and form of its members, might done properly, in view of all the innovations it able to persuade the client's quantity be determined by other than structural and contained. Ernest was far from happy about surveyor to allow extras for difficulties economic considerations, so long as stability the whole position, and realized that if he encountered. Bad weather, increased was not endangered. But sometimes he could were to help architects to design buildings, it haulage, too little or too much rock­ not help thinking that equally good architec­ would have to be as a consulting engineer. excavation, supply of too little or the wrong ture might have been achieved without loss of And in any case, he had had enough of this kind of labour by the Ministry of Labour, acts structural efficiency by a little extra effort. political game, of the pressure to temper truth of God - it was quite unbelievable what Sometimes even some of the best architects with expediency, and the assumption that he could be done. He found contracting at that made demands leading to structural contor­ had done so whatever he did. time a thoroughly uninspiring, even degrad· tions which could have given Ernest the ing business. satisfaction of difficulties surmounted, had Contracting and consulting he not suspected these difficulties of having The period after the war started with great Nevertheless, when he was offered help to been artificially created. But the architect expectations and also a good deal of set up as a contractor himself, he did so, would be pleased and appreciative, and his apprehension. The brave new world might be planning at the same time to act as a con­ faith in the omnipotence of reinforced con­ round the corner, but large parts of Europe sulting engineer independent of the contrac­ crete was confirmed: not necessarily a good were in ruins, and austerity reigned unabated. ting firm, and to use any surplus profit to init­ thing. The firm even got a reputation for mak­ iate new methods of construction by design­ Yet there was a new spirit abroad. In the con­ ing complicated structures - which was research combined with practical tests. For tracting world, and among architects and hardly what they aimed to do. he was still convinced that the designer engineers, the atmosphere was certainly dif­ should be able to choose and control the ferent . New ideas were actually welcomed, or Basic anomalies in the building industry method of construction, to achieve the proper at least considered. Prestressed concrete Nevertheless his collaboration with integration of the two. He had seen enough of swept the country with unprecedented rap­ architects was on the whole very happy and impractical designs produced by con· idity. Contractors and engineers undertook in satisfying. The jobs involved were of course sultants. This was before the war, of course. scores and hundreds the pilgrimage to limited in scope: single buildings or groups of He was in fact trying to ride three horses at Freyssinet in Paris and Magnel in Ghent. buildings, designed to a brief, inside a given the same time: budget, and making use of the existing Structural consultant resources and organization of the building (1) As plain contractor - to make a living At first he worked almost exclusively as struc­ industry. Within this framework it was possi­ (2) As designer-contractor, carrying out tural consultant to architects. He was sorry to ble for a good architect to make buildings of structural work to his own design leave marine work, which (compared to architectural merit. But from a technical point (3) As consulting engineer for the design only building) offers so much more scope for of view, the framework was too narrow for 5 more than variations and minor improve­ pened in these years, technology has advan­ instance, extra thermal insulation, longer life, ments of routine solutions. It was difficult to ced in leaps and bounds. The building more flexibility, etc. make effective use of the new techniques and industry for a long time lagged behind, but we In connection with the recent Ronan Point materials which were being developed by the are now all aware that great changes are block disaster the excess commodity of building industry at a rate impressive by pre­ upon us. relative safety against progressive collapse war standards. Such things as the increased The situation today due to an internal explosion was not included use of factory production and site mechan­ I should now like to review the situation as it in the basic requirements and therefore not ization, new and improved materials, new exists today, not statistically, for I have not provided, which is likely to happen when cost methods of jointing, scientific thinking got the figures, but intrinsically, as I perceive is the major consideration. As a result of the applied to organization and communication it to be from my undoubtedly somewhat accident, it may now be included, as are fire - they could all enable him to build better restricted viewpoint. regulations against fairly unlikely contingen­ and more with less; but only if they were For most of the work designed by architects cies. It is a normal thing that excess com­ backed by the right designs. And the need with the help of consultants, the situation has modity becomes basic commodity as stan­ was pressing. He could not meet his targets not changed much since Ernest's days. More dards are raised. - desirable projects were being cut down precasting, more factory production, more Of course commodity, delight and costs are and postponed. But as structural adviser to mechanization has been squeezed into the interrelated in all sorts of ways. I mentioned the architect there was not much he could do existing organization of the building industry. that an ingenious and simple solution of the about it. The barriers between authorities, profes­ structural and functional problems can itself On the one hand basic design decisions sions, private interests with fingers in the produce delight without incurring extra cost, belonged to the architect. Any alteration in same design pie are still difficult to surmount, and that therein lies the art of designing. It the technique of building would affect the causing frustrations to progressive desig­ may even be produced at less cost. But way in which the architect built up his artistic ners wanting to break with routine. The best unless drastic measures are taken to pull the concept from familiar structural elements, he architecture has improved partly at least whole design together in this way and provide might have to change his intuitive thinking, because architects have now become more a balanced and total design, embodying all follow the lead of the new technology and famil iar with the new materials and techni­ the available knowledge, wherever it resides, familiarize himself with its details instead of ques, but quantitatively the urban scene is and knitting it together in an artistically con­ dictating to it - which was both distasteful dominated by bulky building blocks, brutally trolled pattern, it cannot be achieved. and troublesome. Architects were not master disposed as dictated by financial and politi­ Without it, art tends to be expensive. builders any more, cut off, as they were, from cal pressures, and to this must be added the The trouble is not lack of talent, enthusiasm the grass roots of practical building and devastations caused by the motor car, indis­ and idealism. There is plenty to be found in building costs by the interposition of quantity criminate proliferations of street furniture, the architectural profession, mostly amongst surveyors and technical advisers. In this and the vulgarity of much private display. younger architects, who will work day and Ernest saw a danger to the renewal of Uniform mediocrity tends to destroy the iden­ night to produce quality. The best human architecture. tity of our cities. endeavour, that which produces outstanding On the other hand, there could be no proper Good architecture has always been produced quality, delight, the great works of art, the integration of design and construction, by good artists, and it is the same today. The really human and satisfying environment, owing to the complete segregation between impact of an architectural composition is pro­ that which lifts humanity above the soulless the two, which is such an odd characteristic duced somehow by the creation of spaces, efficiency of an ant-heap - with due apology of the building industry. As long as Ernest sculptural relationships, light and shade, col­ for a possible injustice to ants - this cannot stuck to routine designs, all was well; and ours and textures and not least by the clarity be bought. The driving force behind it is a pas­ that was what he had to do in the majority of or ingenuity with which its functional and sion for perfection, a dream of a better world, cases. But where he saw an opportunity for structural problems are solved. Exactly how, an artistic urge or something equally absurd introducing new or improved methods, he we do not know - and we cannot know to the proverbial hard-boiled business man - needed the collaboration of the contractor, beforehand. There is no infallible recipe. apologies again - but naturally mixed in and he needed cost-information before his Were it otherwise, we could do it by computer. various proportions with ambition, dreams of designs were finalized . With the growing It is the artist's sensitivity, his humanity or fame, recognition, applause. variety of available methods, this information personality which speaks to us, if we are But the odds against such endeavours was increasingly essential for choosing the receptive to it. But artists differ even more suceeding are formidable. The bulk of what right design, and increasingly difficult to get than structural engineers, and there are many we build is subject to severe financial restric­ hold of. Contractors were reluctant to plunge ways of producing good architecture. And tions. Rightly or wrongly, private and public into the unknown, departures from normal this is how we wish it to be - we would soon finance is not prepared to put a high value on would be discouraged by high rates, and in get tired of uniformity. excess commodity and delight. In most cases case costs were guarded as a secret. Value for money those who control the money have no strong Understandable, perhaps, in a competitive But we don't build to produce art. We produce feeling for architecture, certainly their ideas world. But Ernest felt that there was useful hardware to fulfil various functions. of delight are likely to differ from those of the something wrong with a system that allows And we want to get it with the least effort, the architects who naturally have given the sub­ costs to be withheld from the designer. least expense. We want value for money, and ject much more attention. It is difficult to Engineering design is creative accountancy. we can therefore measure efficiency by the break through this crust of indifference. The And architects, too, design buildings that simple formula fact is that if art is expensive, it can only sur­ have to be built. If the hard facts of building vive as a kind of luxury for the few. do not form part of the artistic vision, archi­ E = Commodity Technology will then take over, and it is tecture is brought into disrepute. Cost happening now. But Ernest realized early on that the real fault where Commodity stands for what we want to lay neither with the architect nor the contrac­ achieve. Technological demands What can we do about it? To get what we tor, but with the whole way in which the In 1945, in the first number of the Architects' want and not just have to want what we get, building industry was organized, and geared Yearbook, I proposed a modification of this we must control technology, and therefore to an out-dated technology. The new formula to: technology required assured markets to we must first understand its needs. E = BC plus EC plus D allow mass production, larger contract units, What are its needs? Cost discarding of old habits and professional and Technology achieves economy in three ways: other barriers, multi-disciplinary teams given where BC stands for basic commodity, EC by invention; by repetition or mass produc­ steady employment, standardization, time tion; and by specialization. and capital for research, testing of proto­ stands for excess commodity, and D stands for delight, recognizing the fact that what we types, and other things which taken together Invention requires freedom from convention, are getting as a result of a particular design is would amount to a drastic change in the an ability to look at a problem with fresh eyes. not only the basic commodity defined by the whole social order. This would take time, it Accepted ideas are not easy to escape from. brief, but many other qualities or features In the very first motor cars, the driver's seat could not be forced through by government peculiar to this design, and that these have a remained high up, so that he could see what action without unacceptable dictatorial commodity value, positive or negative, which his non-existent horses were up to; and he measures, and it lay in any case outside the we must take into consideration when com­ sphere of structural engineering. Only con­ had a little tube fixed to the board in front of paring different designs. Likewise, the him, in which he could deposit the whip. certed action by the building industry might 'delight' produced, which stands for all the Similarly, when reinforced concrete replaced have speeded things up, and this was effec­ intangible values associated with good structural steel as the structural material in tively prevented by its fragmentation. architecture, should certainly also be con­ buildings, the familiar three-dimensional On this somewhat pessimistic note we will sidered, even if it is impossible to put a money orthogonal frame was retained, with its abandon our account of Ernest's career. He value on it. This may apply to the more secondary and tertiary beams of different has served his purpose, his grumbling has material excess commodity as well , for if you sizes. The first LCC codes were based on this highlighted some problems which, more than haven't asked for something you may not be conception; concrete panels had to be sup­ 6 20 years later, are still with us. Much has hap- prepared to pay for it, even if it is useful - for ported by this frame, in spite of the fact that

they formed the stiffest members of the variety. They wouldn't be human any more; mind and reconsidering the decisions made. whole assembly. And panels in coal-bunkers, but think of the money we'd save. And already Naturally this is in many cases not possible, reservoirs, bridge-parapets, etc., were set we sacrifice functional and aesthetic amenity but this does not alter the fact that the result back from the frame, sometimes in several in thousands of ways for the sake of stand­ is patchwork. steps - an architectural anachronism add­ ardization and economy. The only question This judgment may be considered too harsh. I ing unnecessarily to the cost of formwork. Or is: where should we draw the line? Tech­ admit that I am measuring against an ideal again: when extruded aluminium sections nological megalomania is evident in th e which is unattainable, that much excellent were introduced as a replacement for steel expanding size of building operations. Whole work is in fact being done today, and that you under certain conditions, the industry issued towns, town centres, residential or industrial could criticize any design, however good, catalogues showing angles, channels, and I areas, new universities, are designed by one from some or all of these points of view. Ar­ sections similar to those made in structural team. Or in industrialized building, one chitectural design is by its very nature a com­ steel. They had failed to grasp the basic fact system is used to build identical high-rise promise. I am only trying to pinpoint some of that this was a different material, which could flats, for example, in many different districts. the defects wh,ch could be remedied by bet· be extruded, and which could therefore be Under such conditions, we may ultimately ter organization, a freer exchange of know· manufactured in quite different shapes. It save money and labour; but we won't even do ledge, less divided responsibility. Th ese was only by exploiting this potential, so sav­ that unless we get the design right , and defects are not so noticeable in 'closed" ing material and supplying sections to serve unless we solve the total design before opera­ designs or limited design objects. It is when dual purposes, that extruded aluminium sec­ tions begin. Standardization is, I think, an evil we move towards comprehen sive design, tions could be made competitive. per se, though it is so powerful a tool that we large-scale planning, that these barriers have There is a German tag I have often found cannot afford to neglec t it. But at least let us a crippling effect. But more of that later. I will useful: 'Umgekehrt ist auch was wert' - or in refrain from making standardization an end in first deal shortly with some of the attempts itself. On the other hand we cannot expect English: 'The other way round may be equally which are being made on a smaller scale to the benefits of standardization unless we are sound'. Invention comes from forgetting how overcome th em. a thing was done before, so that apparently willing to create the conditions which are The multi-disciplinary team insoluble problems cease to be problems at needed to bring them about. Which brings me That multi-disciplinary team work is necess­ all when they are seen from a new viewpoint. to the third ingredient of successful technology: Specialization. This is not ary is now generally accepted, and everybody And equally, of course - 'Umgekehrt ist auch peculiar to technology, of course, it is a is eagerly climbing on to the bandwagon. A was wert' again - each new invention characteristic of all progressive human activ­ number of multi-disciplinary group practices creates a whole row of redundancies, posing ity. Concentration on a narrow field makes it have been formed, most of them led by archi­ problems of change and resistance to possible to achieve the mastery, the penetra­ tects or at any rate endeavouring to promote change. Every solution to a problem is made tion in depth, upon which progress depends. good and efficient architecture, total archi­ possible because other solutions to other The need for specialization is obvious tecture. problems have been made previously; and it enough. But whereas invention and repetition Some large contractors, on the other hand, in turn affects solutions toquitedifferent prob­ must disregard boundaries and demolish bar­ point out that large jobs nowadays demand lems, without regard to boundaries. riers in order to be effective, specialization above all efficient organization and coordina­ This lntegrality of Technology is matched by, creates barriers. tion, using the latest scientific techniques, and partly identical with, the network of We are all familiar with the proliferation of which necessity has taught them to perfect; means and ends. A structure may be made to learned societies and institutions clamouring that construction and design belong stabilize a building, a building to shelter for their Royal Charter, of congresses dis­ together, and that the most natural solution human activities - the education of children cussing their esoteric mysteries in terms would be to let them handle the whole matter or the manufacture of tools - to make other unintelligible to outsiders, of administrative from A to Z, and let them deal directly with the things to serve other ends. And you can't bodies on ministerial and local levels client - the so-called 'package deal'. solve a problem in a really new way without cherishing their particular authority and Lately the quantity surveyor, who has been first knowing why you want the problem jealous of outside interference, of specialist busy acquiring a new look, has also put in a solved: you must be able to see the problem occupations, industrial lobbies, trade tentative claim for the leadership. It has been from a distance of at least one step along the associations, and private firms. Each has its pointed out that their position as dis­ network. In this way technology is a radical special axe to grind. interested go-between, acting in a quasi­ force, demanding fluidity of outlook and There are good reasons for all th is. Like so judicial capacity in disputes between client freedom from preconceptions. much else. it is understandable, justifiable, and contractor, fits them excellently for this The second important ingredient in economic beneficial - and harmful. It breeds narrow­ role, provided they acquire a little extra production, Repetition or Mass Production, is mindedness, it hinders the effective use of understanding of the points of view of archi­ of course made possible by invention. If you our resources. tects and engineers. Their familiarity with can repeat the same process, use the same Design deficiencies money matters would endear them to the component or the same detailed solution The situation today is that most designs are client, who would feel that his affairs would over and over again, you can automate pro­ either: be in the hands of practical men who would duction and carry out complex processes not be led astray by artistic aspirations and Starved designs cheaply; and in particular, you can save skil­ would know how to deal with dubious claims Deprived of the benefit of technical led creative labour, which is suspect because knowledge which could have improved it , had for extras. it is fickle, unreliable, slow and expensive. In it been considered. As when engineers are As far as I know no engineers have so far its demand for standardization, technology called in too late to an already 'frozen ' design, claimed the leadership of mixed design has a built-in tendency to megalomania. or when the designers simply do not know teams - except where the job falls into the A friend of mine with a very large farm wished their jobs or do not take the trouble to consult category of civil engineering. But that to rationalize the milking of his herd of those who do. engineers must play a prominent part in the several hundred cows. Cows are creatures of creation of total design follows from the fact habit; and he trained his cows to come every Forced or lopsided designs that all modern and progressive design must evening, in a long file, always in the same When put into a strait-jacket of architectural make use of technology based on scientific order, to the milking shed. Here they climbed, formalism or structural acrobatics or client's knowledge and method, and this is the pro­ one at a time, onto a huge circular revolving prejudice, disturbing the balance of priorities. vince of the engineer. platform. One man or girl put on the milking Loose designs The situation reminds me a little of a group of machine as each cow arrived; and another When no proper synthesis is achieved for lack children clustered round a box which one of took it off again when the platform had com­ of effort or collaboration, hardening into: them is trying to open. All want to have a go - pleted a round. The speed was adjusted so Split designs Let me try, let me, let met Grown ups, if they that one round corresponded to the milking are active and creative, never lose this urge, it time for an average cow. When the design is being handled by different authorities who barely communicate with is something elementary in human nature. It The only snag was that the cows varied. Cows each other. can, however, be an impediment to success­ with exceptionally high yields were an expen­ ful collaboration, especially between col­ sive nuisance. They could not stay on the Pinched designs leagues - two architects, or two engineers, milking platform for a whole second round; Due to economic stringency, when the ship is for instance. It would tempt a consulting they had to be disconnected, and milked dry spoilt for a ha'p'orth of tar. engineer to insist on solving a problem his by hand. So very good cows - like very bad Patched up designs way, rather than asking advice from a more ones - had to be replaced; the whole herd When the brief is altered or added to by experienced colleague. And it could make had to be normalized. clients, or the architect has c> better idea or collaboration between two architects quite It would obviously be a great advantage if additional information comes to hand which impossible, because art is personal and dif­ human beings could be standardized in the is somehow tacked on to the design without ferent points of view can rarely be resolved by same way, so that they were all of the same taking the only course which can assure a hard facts or logic. size, weight, and shape, had the same proper digestion of the new data: that of start­ But apart from that, any of the suggested 8 preferences and tastes, and never asked for ing all over again with the new information in arrangements could work successfully, depending on who was involved. But if we accepted architectural idiom and a settled decision should be the responsibility of the want to find the best arrangement we should way of life; it is the responsibility of the designers. Clients should understand that not make the accidental division into profes­ designer or the designers to create harmony good design takes time - and will speed up sions, etc., our starting point, we should look out of a chaotic material. Their control must and cheapen construction. If speed is of the at what we want to achieve, and then decide therefore extend over the whole area of essence of the whole undertaking, this must what training the participants should have to design, from the smallest detail to the posi­ be understood from the beginning. It will fulfil their roles. tion of the whole in relation to adjoining affect design decisions and it must be Requirements for integrated design areas. accepted that it will increase cost or reduce Don 't forget we are talking about a design Another essential requirement is that the quality - but the opposite can also happen in team, and we want them to produce a total, designers should be dedicated to the interest certain circumstances. Naturally this puts a balanced, efficient design which can help to of the clients and society as a whole. They great responsibility and extra work on to the produce a better environment than the one should not have a financial interest in using design team, which will have to be supported which seems to emerge from our efforts at certain materials, plant or methods, they by experts in soil mechanics, and foundation the moment. should be unfettered in their choice. They methods, costing and communication techni­ The first condition is that all members of the may use proprietary methods but only if it is ques, computers, analytical research, for­ team subscribe to this aim, that they all want the best choice in the given situation. mulation of contracts and so on, servicing the to help to produce good architecture, archi­ This was the position when Brunel, Te lford, several design teams. These must be kept tecture in depth, so to speak - not just artifi­ Paxton and others created their master­ fairly small to retain their intimate character. cially imposed formalism or applied make up pieces. They even controlled the labour to a Quantity surveyors would not be idle in this - as well as efficient function and economy. large extent, they certainly invented the plant new set-up, but their work would be different. Each of these demands imposes its own and and tools to be used in the operations. 40 There is, for instance, a great need for quite distinct discipline, this must be years ago designers had largely lost this 'buyers' - to use a term from contracting - understood by all, and this takes time. close connection with execution, but they who would find out where to obtain the dif­ The concern of the leader would then be to still exercised firm control over what was ferent materials and items needed by the create the overall balance, to assess built. Today the large contractors have a designer most favourably, or where to get priorities; he must be a creative designer who much greater influence on the design, simply new items manufactured, find out about new can fuse the different parts together. The because they may be the only people who equipment and its efficiency, immerse them­ architect would be the natural choice pro­ really know how to build practically and selves thoroughly in the true cost aspect of vided he respects the need for technical effic­ economically. But that leads to a fatal split in building operations and take an active and iency, without which his art cannot survive. the control over design decisions, which will useful part in discussions leading to design decisions. But where quantities formed part But in a closely knit group subscribing to this lead to loose, patched up and uneconomical designs. So either the contractor must take of the information issued to contractors, they philosophy - to use, or misuse a now should be simplified to correspond to the popular word - the leadership tends to be over the whole multi-disciplinary team, which for many reasons is undesirable, or the labour costs obtained from weekly cost shared by the group, or changes according to sheets. The contractor must of course have the subject being debated. designers must in their organization embrace the knowledge needed to make practical exact information about what he is expected But it takes time to reach this stage, as we designs. The latter is by far the easier to to do, but that is better given by drawings and have found out in Arup Associates, which achieve, for it is not so difficult for engineers specifications. consists of several such multi-disciplinary to understand the principles and the practice These are dreams and idle speculations, and teams. This is because all the members have of economical design. highly controversial as well. If anybody to forget part of their training and acquire It follows that the designers should organize should get upset about them, they can draw new understanding and skills. Barriers - comfort from the fact that they most likely which are astoundingly solid and high - the job, in fact should take over this role from the general contractor, and contractors will have no effect whatsoever. And in any must be broken down. The engineers must case, even I do not think that there is only one understand that there are other things bet­ should become specialists in different types of construction or assembly techniques, answer. Think of how many different ways of ween heaven and earth than their rigorous organizing these things co-exist today. calculations. There are values which cannot working more on a professional basis. Building would, according to the nature of the Whether they work well, depends more on the be measured. And they must learn to under­ people involved than on the methods used. stand the practical craft and technology of job, be divided into: building, to organize the production of the job (1) Site works, i.e. excavation, roads, drains, I am suggesting this line of attack because I as they are designing it - or the team must foundations, etc., which would be mechan­ am concerned about retaining an artistic con­ include engineers experienced in the ized and organized to provide continuity of trol over what we build, and also because our methods of contractors, and able to assess employment of labour and equipment experience with Arup Associates encourages their real cost, helped by the quantity (2) The main structural carcass, executed by us to think that this is the right way to com­ surveyors, whose function is drastically specialists in concrete or structural steel con­ bine quality and economy in building. My sug­ gestion would enable a closely knit design changed, and should change much more. struction What is needed are costs to help in the mak­ team to obtain the experience, the 'feel' for (3) All the 'infilling' - walls, partitions, main the practical problems of building, and the ing of design decisions. Costs are of three ducts or spaces for services, stairs, lift­ kinds: control, which would enable them to integ­ shafts, etc., if not included in the main struc­ rate all the relevant facts. If led or advised by (1) The rates quoted by contractors which are ture. These should be mainly factory­ good architects - and sociologists as well both unnecessarily detailed and a mixture of produced, brought finished to the job and - there would be a good chance of produc­ labour, plant, overheads, profit, etc., and do inserted in the spaces allotted to them, ing viable masterpieces, and not just white not apply to new ways of doing things independent of each other. elephants. (2) The contractor's actual costs, which are (4) Services and equipment divided into their difficult to obtain respective kinds - air-conditioning, elec­ What to build (3) The intrinsic cost of the operation if tack­ tricity, etc. However, so far we are still only dealing with closed designs, where the brief is given. led in a rational manner as intended by the The important thing is that all these items Today the design of single buildings, or even designer, and at reasonable rates for labour should not interfere with each other, and this and profit - which can to some extent be condition can be met if the designers have groups of buildings, is less important than the artistic organization of much larger units estimated by planning the operation in detail, visualized and drawn up the way it should be with the appropriate plant, labour gangs, etc. built before the design is frozen . Structural - which must then deal with transport, loca­ tion of industry and dozens of other problems All three are of some interest, but for the grids, partition grids, and service grids should as well. Town and country planning, in fact. designer breaking new ground it is the last by-pass each other. The critical path studies Our efforts in this direction have not been which measures the fundamental soundness must be woven into the design, and should outstandingly successful. There are plenty of of the proposition. However, as long as the follow logically from it. It is too late if they plans, but little action. We put all our best usual bill of quantity is retained the quantity show up deficiencies in the design after the brains in a committee or Royal Commission, surveyor must master its complications. But I contract is let. or we ask an eminent architect to produce a must admit that I think a better way would be The designers should have adequate infor­ plan for London or Oxford or replan the area to let the designers organize the job through mation at their disposal about the relevant round St. Paul's or Parliament Square, or the the design, which would make taking out structural methods and manufacturers' pro­ British Museum or Piccadilly Circus - and quantities a simple matter. ducts, and should deal directly with these then forget about it. Mainly, I suppose, For it is a fact that today the artistic, func­ firms so that they can together develop new because we don't know how to pay for it. We tional and technical unity must be created by methods or new products to suit a particular rightly do not want to dictate to people, and the design. The design records the construc­ large-scale job, and place orders early we cannot get the various bodies concerned tive forethought which must precede any enough for inclusion in the construction pro­ to look much beyond their own narrower inter­ action in a complex situation. Nothing can be gramme. ests. And also because we don't really know left to chance. We cannot rely on creative The construction should not begin before the what we want. This is by far the most difficult craftsmanship guided by a universally design was sufficiently advanced and the problem of all. 9 Engineers have not had to worry much about aims at 'providing a scientific basis for The other thing which worries me about that, they nearly always work to a well­ management decisions' and of course: 'The system engineering is the complete reliance defined brief. Architects are not so lucky. systems approach stands squarely upon a on the profit motive. Of course the sponsors Their briefs have always been less well­ quantitative description of the proposed and the politicians and others who get the defined and their criteria for excellence the system .. . this quantitative description is necessary legislation passed are partly subject of controversy. And the Modern reduced to a set of relationships, which fre­ moved by a wish to improve their cities, etc. Movement brought a change in outlook, quently are represented by mathematical And I must admit that it is a realistic which made the architects concern them­ equations.' Th ese can then be solved by approach, and I know of no very realistic selves with the needs of society, with pro­ computers substitute. But I must confess that I distrust viding a worthy setting in which people could Of course 11 operates through the existing the dominance of money over man's mind. live, work and play. The right setting would, it private enterprise system. The idea is that 'do Think of the lobbying and the bargaining was hoped, improve the quality of their life. goodism' is made to pay by introducing which will precede legislation. What price will But the setting must in turn be a reflection of legislation which provides the necessary society have to pay? the way people live. This has always been so, incentives in the form of tax rebates, equity It is interesting that in both cases the role of and it has happened mostly without the inter­ investment, et c. the engineer is stressed. Engineering has of vention of a conscious design. Can we now So in a way it does solve the whole problem of course always been value engineering for reverse the process and shape it by deliberate how to get it done. No sticks, just carrots. Pro­ that matter, and system engineering is much planning? This seems doubtful. What is hap­ fit for everybody. the same as what I and others have called pening now can hardly be so called. The Total Architecture. I think both these A somewhat similar development in England economic and technological forces which developments show the way things are mov­ is called Value Engineering. A journal of that now shape our environment - are they con­ ing, but the difference in wording may be name was launched last April, and also trolled by man, or man by them? significant. The word 'architecture' somehow stresses the need for teamwork, and a Technology has a habit of creating its own suggests a concern about the brief, about rational scientific approach to design. ends. We do things simply because we are what we should build, about function and able to do them. We glory in our power. And System engineering is an interesting and delight, whereas 'engineering' suggests effi­ having created the machinery we must keep it significant development. To me it is also ciency in fulfilling the brief. Both are needed, going, and think of more things we can do slightly alarming. There are two things I am for whatever we build. Civil engineering is of with it. And, like the sorcerer's apprentice, we worried about: first, the quantity syndrome: course also architecture in this sense. But the can't stop the process. The idea that everything can be measured, need for efficiency is accepted by everybody multiplied with a unit rate to arrive at a value But if we want to curb the excesses of - the need for artistic control over what we in dollars. This is the so-called scientific technology we must play the game according build is not. Not until there is a public feeling method, and it is invading territories where it to its rules, for we can't do without it. We must against leaving litter about will we be suc­ simply does not apply. Jacques Barzun is do it with better technology. And in any large­ cessful in cleaning up our environment - quite right in claiming that we do not live in a scale planning the barriers must go, human therefore I prefer the words Total Architec­ world of Snow's 'Two cultures' - there is boundaries - even eventually those between ture where they apply. only one, the universal acceptance of science countries - must be surmounted. We all know the fairy tale about somebody - even in such unlikely places as literary having been granted three wishes and the System engineering criticism. I think it was Galileo who first for­ disastrous consequences of that. In the USA, where so many trends are set, this mulated the scientific principles: is beginning to be accepted. The whole March To wish sensibly, to dream the right dreams, 1968 issue of Consulting Engineer, a weighty (1) Measure everything which can be is important. We have today the ability to volume, is devoted to something called measured. make our wishes come true. But as soon as 'System Engineering'. Senator Robert F. (2) Make measurable what cannot be some of us have reached this point - we step Kennedy contributed an inspiring article to it. measured. up our wishes. It could be dangerous. The method is applied to five major problems We are taking this too literally. The area of But I am afraid I am getting out of my depth - of our time: what can be measured is being extended all and I am sure that you are looking forward as Saving our cities the time, but it doesn't mean that we can much as I am to an end to this ordeal. Urban revival ignore that which can't be measured. It may But what is the moral of all this. I am afraid Untangling urban transportation even prove to be more important. that my talk may have confused you more Water supply To me it is surprising that so many people than it has enlightened you. I can offer you no have no difficulty in ignoring the fact which solution to the problems facing mankind, but Air pollution. stares us in the face, and which has been I think engineers have an important contribu­ Its basis is: 'A recognition by society that its stressed by poets, saints and thinkers tion to make, and I think this contribution will major social problems cannot be solved by throughout the ages, that what has most be improved if we look beyond the narrow looking at each problem separately, they are value for man cannot be measured, bought, confines of our metier, if we understand that in fact " systems" of interacting problems'. or obtained by force, but must be given freely. we are part of a team, each contributing his System engineering has developed from And that whether our manmade environment special knowledge to a common aim, which 'Operational research' analysis as practised pleases us or not, depends on unmeasurable must ultimately be to help to improve the lot for years by Federal Defence Establishments. qualities which can only be created by artistic of mankind. Only loyalty to this aim can make It operates with multi-disciplinary teams, it inspiration and dedication. our contribution meaningful.

Sydney Opera House (completed 1973) Architects: Jii!rn Utzon (Stages I & II), Hall, Todd & Littlemore (Stage Ill) (Photo: Harry Sowden) Design of piled jetties and piers

This extract is taken from the first of five articles published in Concrete and Construe· tional Engineering in 1934 and 1935. There is no doubt that these papers were a major con· tribution on the subject. I suppose that one should not be surprised by the clarity of Ove 's thinking, particularly when you remember that Professor Asger Ostenfeld was one of his mentors and Ostenfeld's textbook, Teknisk Statik, was a landmark on the subject of structural analysis and the way in which engineers should think about such problems. What follows here is Ove 's introductory paper. I recommend all five papers to anyone who cares about the conception and analysis of structural systems in general and piled jet­ ties and piers in particular. Peter Dunican

When reinforced concrete was first employed for the construction of jetties and piers the Fig.1 designs were close copies of traditional designs for timber jetties, with the deck sup­ ported on groups of vertical piles braced and strutted together in all directions as low as the tide would allow. It was realized later that reinforced concrete required a different treat­ ment and bracings were largely discarded in favour of raking piles, thus increasing the strength and lowering the cost of the structure. A jetty has to resist two sets of forces, namely, vertical loads from cranes, lorries, etc., and horizontal forces from waves, ten­ sion in mooring ropes and impact of vessels. The latter are by far the most difficult to deal with, and inadequate provision to resist them may result in total or partial failure of the structure either by a sudden collapse due to an excessive impact or by the sum of the ef­ fects of overstressing due to a number of smaller blows. Nevertheless it is probably safe to say that timber jetties are mostly designed without attempting to calculate the effect of these forces on the structure. Cross braces are provided in accordance with com­ mon practice or the experience of the designer but the problem of designing a jetty to a given specification for horizontal loading that is able safely to withstand a blow of a certain predetermined magnitude is general­ ly left untouched. There are good reasons for this, principally because it would be almost impossible to put forward a calculation which could lay claim Fig. 2 to any degree of accuracy in the case of the ordinary timber jetty. It may be possible to estimate approximately the amount of energy which could safely be absorbed by a single pile driven into the ground, although the elasticity of the reactions at the bottom introduces a certain amount of guesswork in the calculations: but when it is a question of a group of piles braced together in all direc­ tions and with joints which allow a certain unknown amount of 'give' before becoming effective, and when these are connected at the top by a deck which also consists of a large number of pieces imperfectly joined together. the amount of guesswork required to complete the calculations is sufficient to make the value of the result questionable. There are also other reasons. It is, for instance, doubtful whether much would be gained if one were able to design a timber jetty to absorb a specified amount of kinetic energy without suffering any permanent deflection. It would perhaps, in many cases result in the construction of stronger jetties, because at the moment most jetties are not so designed as to emerge unscathed from an Fig. 3 encounter with a vessel out of control, but it is 11 doubtful whether the extra capital outlay repairs become necessary, and it may pay to In the case of concrete jetties the position is ·Nould be justified. Most timber jetties, unless increase the amount which has to be spent somewhat different. First, the depreciation of constructed of greenheart or similar timber, annually on repairs rather than increase the a properly designed and constructed con­ are of a semi-temporary nature: after a time initial cost. crete structure should not be as heavy as that of a timber jetty: second, the damage which may be caused to a concrete jetty by vessels .. ~1.f~, r-~,---, ,--v--, r-,_,,---1? berthing alongside, if it is not so constructed . h r--· ~t ----· 1• ----· JJ ---, ~F is likely to be considerable and it is not so .. "' \ l ( ~ ~ ... ,' ,_,.., ~1 ' ' ~.. r .f '- J , ; L l easily repaired; third, it is much easier in the I ' ...', I I I I I ,',' I I I ' ' I I I I I , ; I I case of concrete jetties to estimate the amount of kinetic energy which can be absorbed without damage. In other words. with reinforced concrete jetties it is more essential that a calculation of the shock­ absorbing qualities of the structure should be made, and it is easier to do it on account of their monolithic character. There is no uncer­ tainty about the joints between the piles and the bracing or deck beams, and the deck forms a very strong horizontal beam which can be relied upon to transfer a blow to prac­ tically all the piles in the structure. Deck beam This horizontal deck beam is a prominent feature of reinforced concrete jetties and is the main reason for their superiority in resisting impacts, since in most cases it prevents a ship which hits the jetty from doing more than local damage. Fig. 1 illus­ trates the point in question: it shows a jetty in the River Thames which was severely ram­ med by a ship below deck level; three fender piles and three or four concrete piles were broken, but although several supports gave way the deck was left intact and effectively Fig. 4 prevented further damage. The repair of this jetty was carried out by driving new piles Fig. 5 through holes cut in the deck. Figs. 2 to 6 illustrate another accident to a jetty in the Thames, but this time the strong deck was of no avail. As will be seen from Fig. 2 the design was of the traditional type with vertical piles and heavy bracing. In plan the jetty was T-shaped, with the approach and a small central portion, forming the ,le 5 original jetty, constructed in steel, and two wings of reinforced concrete. While the ship seen in Fig. 5 was lying alongside it was ram­ med by another ship and pressed against one wing of the jetty. with the result that all the piles in this half of the jetty broke at the bot­ tom and at the underside of the bracing: the jetty collapsed as a whole, leaving the deck and the system of braces absolutely intact but moved to another position. Just after the impact the jetty remained for a while in the position shown in Fig. 3 and sup­ ported by the ship, which had been pushed Fig. 6 under the top waling. Later it collapsed to the position shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 is a photograph taken soon after the accident. and Fig. 6 was taken at a later stage when the demolition of the jetty had been started. According to eyewitnesses the blow did not appear to be very severe; this is also borne out by the fact that the ships sustained very slight damage. Horizontal forces This accident brings home in a striking fashion the necessity for considering the horizontal forces in design. as otherwise the advantage of the strong deck may disappear or even become a disadvantage. It also illus­ trates how useless it is to provide extensive and expensive low-water braces if nothing is done to strengthen the structure below the bracing level. In the following pages the capacity of various types of piled concrete jetties to resist horizontal impacts is investigated with the object of finding general rules which may usefully be applied to the design of these structures .. ..

12 ately square. Its main advantage lies in the (5) Generally speaking, the system of the Planning fact that the slabs can be cross reinforced, structural grid (Fig. 6a) gives much less and a saving obtained through the fact that freedom of planning than the system with in reinforced only two-thirds of the total load need be taken parallel beams (Fig. 6b). There is no point in into account when calculating the moments. using the grid system unless a column can be concrete According to the new code not yet become placed at each point of intersection between law, and Continental and American practice, the beams. This means that the position of This extract is taken from a two-part article the moment in each direction of a fairly the columns is very rigidly fixed, and this which appeared in Architectural Design & square cross reinforced slab is about one· imposes a severe restriction on the lay-out of Construction in 1935. A question of historical third of the moment in a simple slab of the the rooms, unless one is prepared to let the interest arises in this paper where Ove Arup same span if the corners are adequately fixed columns appear anywhere they like in the describes the box-frame or cross-wall system in position. As the moments are propor­ middle of the rooms. Corbusier does that (Fig. 7f), suggesting that it is only suitable in tionate to the square of the span, it follows occasionally, and he can do it; but if others very special cases. But this was the system that with the same thickness of slab we can tried the same, the result might not be so that, 15 years later, would be providing an span about v 3 or 1.73 times as far if the slab good. It would also be very difficult to arrange important part of our firm 's work. is cross reinforced. (Actually the figure is a lit· the partitions to follow the very rigid system John Blanchard tie smaller, about 1.65, if we make an adjust­ of beams, and we would get the beams cross­ ment owing to the loss of efficient depth due ing the rooms in odd places. This system is, to the crossing of the reinforcement). But, on therefore, only suitable in very special cases: Structural grid or parallel beams the other hand, the reinforcement is, of it may, for instance, suit a factory or an office If we disregard the mushroom type of floor course, nearly doubled in this case. But if the building. The system with parallel beams is construction, which is generally not suitable advantage of cross reinforcing the slabs is much more flexible, because the columns for residential flats, we can say that the floors not made use of, if the slabs only span in one need not, in this instance, be placed opposite consist of a series of reinforced concrete direction, there is certainly no point in having each other; they can be moved as required slabs spanning between lines of support beams in two directions. The old LCC regula­ along the lines of the beams. There are also formed by beams or walls. These lines of sup­ tions demanded it for the sake of tying in the fewer beams, and the system is much more port can either be arranged in one direction columns, but the columns are sufficiently suited to the principle of the structural wall. only, or they can be arranged crossways with held in position by the slab. It is a detail bor­ This system will, therefore, in most cases be the slabs between them cross reinforced and rowed from structural steel. found to be the best. spanning both ways, as shown diagram­ matically in Figs. 6a and 6b. It is difficult to say beforehand which system .------1'y-- is th e more economical. So much depends on the spans of slabs and beams. It is important to get the maximum regularity, and it will, therefore, mainly depend on which scheme can best be combined with the architectural requirements without too many adjustments. Generally, we can say this: (1) It is important from an economical point of view that the slab spans are as small as possible. The floor slab is by far the biggest item in such a construction, and if the quan­ ~ ~ ' tities of steel and concrete in the floor go up by, for instance, 50 %, the saving in beams and columns would not be sufficient to counter-balance this increase, and the cost must go up. Spans of 8 ft. to 12 ft. are very economical; the floors can then be made 4 in . thick, the amount of reinforcement varying with the span. Spans up to 15 ft . or 16 ft., are still reasonable, although the floor thickness goes up, and it will probably pay to use hollow tiles or similar special floors to keep the weight down. Above that, the increase in cost (a) (b) (c) soon becomes noticeable. (2) It is also important that the span of the beams should be kept down, if possible. The columns do not cost so much, and it pays, therefore, to have many columns and short beams. (3) Slabs and beams should if possible be made continuous over several supports. The direction of the span should, therefore, preferably not be changed. (4) The grid system of beams as in Fig. 6a may be economical if the spans are reason­ able and if the slabs can be made approxim- . +·- +·-+-·+ I I I I t + ,- t +- + - +--+-·-+ I i I I I I i I I i +· t t t +-+-+-+ I I i I I I I I I +-+-+-·+ + + 4- + ~ (a) ( b) ( d) ( e) ( f)

Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Diagram showing the structural Diagrams showing alternative grid and parallel beam system dispositions for columns and beams of construct ion in the construct ion of blocks of flats 13 Let us, for instance, take the case of a block ference. In Fig. 7a the columns are absolutely them as the outer lines of support for the floor of flats. With modern standards of planning, fi xed; it would be difficult to arrange the slabs? They will, of course require heavier the width would seldom exceed 30 to 35 ft. , rooms to fit this scheme. Fig.7b is already reinforcement, but in most cases th e extra and would preferably be smaller than that in better, the columns can be moved in the lines cost is more than balanced by the saving in order to ensure sufficient light and cross of the cross-beams, but longitudinally it is beams and columns (see Fig. 7e). Th e system ventilation. According to how the floor is very rigid, and it would perhaps be very dif­ in Fig. 7b can, of course, also be varied by divided up by the beams, three main systems ficult to arrange the windows of rooms of replacing the cross-beams with structural are possible: varying size to suit the regular bays formed by walls, but this is only suitable in very special (1) The system indicated by Fig. 7a with the cross-beams. This system may, however, cases (see Fig. 7f). beams spanning both crosswise and longi­ be the right one, where it is desired to have There remains then only one longitudinal tudinally and the floor area divided up in long horizontal windows, with only narrow beam in the centre or near the centre, and this approximately square cross reinforced slabs; columns between the windows, or where the is really the best place for a beam if there are windows are to form continuous horizontal (2) Th e system in Fig. 7b with cross-beams to be beams at all , because in many cases it bands, in which case the columns can be on ly, and continuous slabs spanning will be natural to arrange partitions along this pushed back from the face and the cross­ longitudinally over the cross-beams; and, line, dividing the rooms facing one way from beams cantilevered to carry the wall, as in finally, the rooms facing the other way. The centre Fig. 7d . columns can be arranged anywhere in this (3) The system in Fig. 7c with only The best system line, but it should be remembered that it is th e longitudinal beams, the slabs spanning In most cases, however, the system in Fig. 7c most economical to have small beam spans. crosswise, continuous over the middle sup­ will be found to be the best, as regards port (or supports, if more than three In order not to protrude from the partitions, economy, freedom of planning and simp­ the ce ntre wall can be made narrow and deep longitudinal beams are provided). licity. It is in most cases economical, because - although the depth is limited by the door As far as economy of floor construction is in this case about two-thirds of the necessary openings - and the columnns flush with the concerned, there is not much to choose bet­ beams and columns can be provided by the beam, but wide in the direction of th e wall; in ween the three systems; it would depend outer walls, at very little extra cost. These other words, we can use the principle of the mainly on the spans chosen, and this again walls have to be at least 4 in. thick in any structural wall, with portions cut out and on the width of the block. But as regards case; so why not make them 4 1/, in., 5 in. or filled in with cheaper materials, for the sake freedom of planning there is an enormous dif- 6 in . thick, as the case may require, and utilize of economy ... .

four months after the September crisis in A battle raged in the Press, at public meetings London's 1938, when everybody realized that war was and even in the Houses of Parliament about coming. An exhibition, sponsored by The the merits of deep shelters, the battle being shelter problem Finsbury Borough Council, was held in the conducted with great ferocity on the part of Town Hall of Finsbury showing with the aid of most of the Press, and with true parliamen­ These three extracts are taken from Ove diagrams, slogans and cartoons the results tary - or is it departmental? - dignity on the Arup's book of this title, published in 1940. of an investigation into the problem of pro­ part of Sir John Anderson and the Home viding shelters for the population of this Office. borough. The authors of this investigation After an interval - the length of which Introduct ion finally recommended a scheme providing for presumably was a measure of the care with As a result of the recent experience of night 15 large multi-storeyed shelters. The idea of which the scheme had been investigated - it raiding, the demand for deep bombproof deep bombproof shelters caught the imag­ was duly turned down by the Home Office, shelters has again come to the fore in the ination of the public - or the reporters, not reinforced for the occasion by three eminent press and amongst the public. without some gentle, but of course, quite engineers, on grounds which were partly As will be remembered, this demand was first legitimate assistance from the sponsors of reasonable, partly irrelevant and even absurd, widely raised by the daily Press some three or the scheme. and, no doubt, partly not mentioned at all. Sir

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Proposed method of construction illustrating for the fi rst time the principle of the top-down method (Arup Designs Ltd., November 1938). The necessary support to the sides of the deep excavation is provided by the floors with a minimum of temporary strutting. Temporary centering an d propping to construct t he floors themselves are also largely eliminated. 14 CALSHOT STREET

HI TRAN '- C. roR 1,680 PE R SONS STAIJIC A$(S TO 2nd I. hd FLO ORS

Fig. L Cross-section of bombproof shelter, Busaco Street

tract for this shelter was actually let to Messrs. Peter Lind and Company, and the construction started. Strangely enough it was stopped because the war put difficulties in the way of the financial arrangements. The shelter provides for 6,200 people on the basis of 6 ft.2 per person. If they all had to have sleeping accommodation the capacity would probably have to be reduced to 4,500 people or so. The cost was £85,450 including '°'/ ventilation and filtration plant, sanitary . equipment, I ighting, emergency motors, pumps, etc. Of this money £4 ,500 was to be paid to expedite construction, the time pro­ mised being 20 weeks. The floor of the shelter @' is constructed so that it can be used as a car park in peace time. The top protection con­ sists of 10 ft. of reinforced concrete - twice as much as that prescribed for the various municipal control centres which are sup­ posed to be proof against 500 lb. bombs. It is to be regretted that the Home Office prevented the construction of at least some of these shelters in Central London, where car parks were urgently needed. They were CUM M ING STR EET not expensive for the protection given, and p a, <1.,., c t ro" 1680 ~o,~o .. $ considering the possible peace time use. The main objection against them, that it took too long to fill them, has partly been removed by Fig. M Fig. N providing more staircases to comply with Bombproof shelter, third floor plan Bombproof shelter, fifth floor plan government regulations, but is in any case superseded by events .... John Anderson emerged victorious, the Press wards, so as not to obstruct the open spaces Conclusion was unconvinced but subsided, the war broke for which they were planned. They had to be It is now clear which policy I should have out and people lost interest in shelters. Later multi-storeyed for reasons of economy of recommended for a city like London: Anderson shelters and brick surface shelters space and money. It is obvious that if it is Night shelters had an excellent Press, the impression was decided to provide such an expensive roof (a) A few large heavily protected shelters in created that they were safe against ·anything protection, as 10 ft. , of reinforced concrete, suitable squares or open spaces, where car but a direct hit" and Sir John Anderson's then it would be highly extravagant to use it parks are needed. stock rose accordingly. Now there is trouble for the protection of only one storey, when it (b) Wall shelters of the Finsbury type again, perhaps because people have been can just as well protect several storeys. It suitably spaced, to be constructed on open expecting too much, at any rate because it comes to this, the heavily protected shelters spaces, squares, yards, and where necessary has been brought forcibly home to them that are not bombproof because they are deep, on the sites of derelict buildings com­ shelters giving a greater degree of safety and but they have to be deep because they are mandeered for the purpose. a greater degree of comfort would be bombproof .... (c) Adequate strengthening of existing large desirable. And then they seek refuge in the Bombproof shelters office basements. Tubes, and remember the deep bombproof Bombproof shelters are shelters which are (d) Use of tunnels where trains are not run­ shelters. What can be done about it? designed to withstand a direct hit from a ning (if any) and construction of new tunnels First of all I should like to correct a popular specified bomb, the term 'direct hit' to be or Tubes and Post Office tunnels if required misunderstanding about these deep bomb­ taken literally. It would, of course, in itself be for peace time. proof shelters. If we, as I suggest we should, desirable to have bombproof shelters for the Day shelters: define a deep shelter as a shelter which is whole population; the trouble is that it is so More basements and surface shelters in con­ situated deep in the ground and derives its expensive that it probably is outside practical junction with night shelters. protection mainly from the natural soil above, politics. The exceptions are: natural caves, then the Finsbury shelters were not deep existing tunnels or chalk cliffs in which new (At a still earlier time I should probably have shelters at all. They were bombproof - that tunnels can easily be constructed. To con­ recommended tunnels in the roads to take all is against GP bombs of a certain weight, in struct new tunnels in London for use as services, as they have in Paris, but it is no use this case 'h -ton to possibly 1-ton bombs. I shelters can only be an economically correct talking about that now). should prefer to call them heavily protected solution if the tunnels are required anyhow The programme outlined above would have shelters - the protection at the top con­ for peace time. Otherwise large multi­ been expensive, but if it had been tackled in sisting of a 10 ft. thick reinforced concrete storeyed shelters offer the cheapest solution. an orderly fashion two years ago, it would no slab. They were multi-storeyed shelters - Figs. L, M and N show a shelter of this type doubt have produced less strain than will be and in that sense 'deep', because they were designed by Messrs. Tecton and myself for caused now by the necessary alterations and to be constructed downwards and not up- the Busaco Street site in Finsbury. The con- additions to existing shelters. 15 (3) he must seek advice from a firm of struc­ increased profit rather than benefit to the Science and tural engineers and contractors who will offer consumer. this advice possibly from purely altruistic Then again, no group covers a wide enough world planning motives, but possibly also in order to improve field. The client therefore still needs expert their chance of obtaining the contract by advice to enable him to choose between the This paper was given at the Conference on putting the architect under some sort of bewildering variety of possibilities, and when Science and World Planning held on 27 July obligation to them. large-scale planning is undertaken, the work 1942, by the British Association for the This sort of semi-collaboration does not pro­ of the various groups should again be co­ Advancement of Science. duce the best results. Similar remarks apply ordinated, for which there exists no to the collaboration with other specialists. machinery. The development of modern science and One remedy, as mentioned, which is already Team planning of this kind does not solve the technique enables us to construct buildings being applied in some cases, especially in the difficulty of discriminating between many which are satisfactory in every respect: warm, USA, is the formation of larger planning units new materials and patent processes, infor­ soundproof, well ventilated, with all the consisting of firms or companies who have mation about which is only available in the amenities and labour-saving devices which on their staff experts on the various aspects form of biased trade publications. one could wish for. Modern buildings as of the work to be planned. The organization We therefore turn to the other remedy - the actually constructed, however, are not nearly may be on more or less democratic lines, but creation of a fund of unbiased information as wonderful. They are often badly planned, the importance lies in the fact that the various available to all. This would mean the setting badly ventilated, badly heated, etc. In other experts are in constant close co-operation up of institutions working for the benefit of words, only limited use is made of all the and learn to understand each other's points society as a whole, which would therefore existing technical knowledge. One reason for of view, so that each can see his work as part probably have to be financed by the State. I this is simply that this technical information of a whole plan, and make the adjustments enumerate at random some of the services is not available to the designer of the required for smooth dovetailing. The value of which should be rendered. One would be the building. This may be because he has not got such close co-operation can be seen in every proper scientific testing of all new, and for the knowledge he ought to have, but even if he sphere of planning. that matter old, building materials. No new were a very able architect with the best possi­ Of special importance is the close connec­ materials should be generally released ble technical education, he could not hope to tion between design and execution. A without having passed such tests, and the be familiar with the complete range of thorough knowledge of building costs and results should be available to the general modern technical possibilities. He is, building processes is essential to the public. This sounds reasonable and innocent therefore, unable by himself to arrive at the designers, and this knowledge is best enough, but it would have far-reaching conse­ right solution, and is a prey to the various obtained if he, or his team, directly controls quences. The authorized testing institutions commercial interests advocating their own building operations on the site, thus taking would require permanently, powers that are particular products. over the function here carried out by the contrary to the interests of some commercial The problem is the same here as in other general contractor. firms, which are therefore rarely given, and spheres of human activity - a wealth of new Such larger planning groups are also in a bet­ then only for a limited purpose and period, knowledge, new materials, new processes ter position to cope with the modern trend namely, those of a governmental commission has so widened the field of possibilities, that towards prefabrication in building. Prefab­ of inquiry. To publish unbiased information, it cannot be adequately surveyed by a single rication obviously means studying factory however, should logically be followed by a mind. Corresponding to this increase of production, and calls for team work. In fact restriction of production to useful products, means there are increased or entirely new the spread of prefabrication will in itself tend and would therefore interfere considerably requirements to be satisfied. Our needs to eliminate the private architect. His place with the present organization of industry. To increase with the means. Standards are will be in the factory, or inside the public or have this unbiased testing extended to raised , new services introduced. private planning group. building processes, tools and plant, would obviously also be very useful and result in This produces the specialist or expert, and The trend towards the formation of larger enormous savings, but it would call for large the usual problem arises, how to create the planning groups on a commercial basis research stations with ample staff and organization, the 'composite mind' so to which is already apparent has, however, resources. speak, which can achieve a well-balanced serious drawbacks. One of the major pur­ synthesis from the wealth of available detail. poses of each group is to be successful, to Another would be to eliminate some of the This is, I suppose, one of the central problems make profit. This may fit in with the interests unnecessary repetition of detail planning of our time. How then can we overcome this of society as a whole, but often it does not. which goes on in thousands of offices. difficulty? The group will try to keep its experiences Everywhere the same or almost the same Apart from the obvious way of improving the secret, it may be financially interested in cer­ problems crop up, and are painfully solved technical education of the architect, which, tain materials or certain processes, and may over and over again, sometimes reasonably however desirable, would I am afraid not want to push them even if this does not make well , often not so well. If the best possible carry us very far in this connection, there are for the best possible scheme. It may even buy solutions were found to these problems and two main remedies. up and suppress new inventions, and will embodied in a series of standards, the task of (1) One is to have the planning carried out by tend to turn any gain of efficiency into the designer dealing with a particular job, and a team of experts whose combined know­ ledge covers a substantial part of the relevant technical information. Finsbury Health Centre (1935-8) Architects: Lubetkin and Tecton (2) Another is to have all the technical infor­ (Photo: Dell & Wainwright; copyright Architectural Review) mation which may have a bearing on the prob­ lem checked up, classified, standardized and made easily available. Both these methods are being employed, but not sufficiently. The architect does, of course, invoke the assistance of various specialists, but mostly at too late a stage to affect the main concep­ tion. Take for instance the case of the structural engineer; his work has a fundamental bearing on the planning, and architectural harmony can only be achieved if architect and engineer collaborate intimately right from the start. At the moment, there is however no recognized machinery for such collaboration. The appointment of an architect does not as a rule carry with it the appointment of a con­ sulting engineer. The architect must there­ fore either: (1) confine himself to employing a more or less established structural system of which he has sufficient knowledge himself; or (2) he must entice a consulting engineer to 16 collaborate with him 'on spec'; or also production generally, would be to direct or influence production. The centre same time supply an abundance of electric simplified immensely. Standardization has, of gravity must be shifted from private enter­ power which could be used for heating in of course, been carried out to a great extent prise to public service. The best brains should outlying districts. It would also affect the already, but the process could be extended be attracted to this service, and it would be design, and reduce the cost of new buildings, much further, provided there was a reasonable and profitable to combine these and would improve housing conditions where reasonable choice of alternatives, and the planning and research centres with the improvement is most sorely needed. Again, possibility of revision was safe-guarded. technical education of students. however, such schemes could only be tackled Such a systematic standardization of the Once the principle is accepted, that the on a national scale. elements of industrial planning should public has a right to expect the elimination of Conclusion logically embrace international agreements the obstacles which prevent the application It becomes more and more clear, therefore, on the fundamental standards, such as of scientific and technical progress, it is not the more one delves into the question how the measurements. To be forced to translate easy to stop half way. Organization of benefits of modern technique can be made kg./cm2 into lbs. per in.2 etc., is wasteful, and industry and communications, the planning real , that this is not a technical problem at all. hinders international exchange of ideas. of towns and agriculture, the extension of It is not even mainly a problem of organiza­ Hand in hand with the standardization of social services are all problems which, as far tion. The organization could no doubt be those units from which planning proceeds, as I can see, cannot possibly be left to private worked out if everyone really wanted to should go the standardization of human initiative, but which everybody now realizes benefit humanity. The difficulty is rather one needs. Minimum housing standards, work­ ought to be tackled in the interest of of getting agreement as to what benefit to shop standards, etc., should be laid down and humanity. humanity means, and also of overcoming the applied universally, and from these should To take an example, the proper heating of fact that people are more concerned with spring building regulations, etc., which houses and workshops in the winter, and the benefiting themselves than humanity. It should safeguard the interest of society as a supply of hot water on tap, could be made a becomes therefore a moral or social or whole, but should not be drafted so rigidly as public service by the introduction of district political problem. It should be obvious to to be a drag on progress. The service must be heating supplied from a number of central scientists and technicians that the value of run on democratic lines to allow revisions and heat-electric stations which would combine their work depends on the solution of this additions to penetrate from below, from local the generation of electricity with the supply social problem, and they should therefore, as to central bodies, to avoid over-centralization, of heat in the form of superheated water. citizens with a social conscience, do and bureaucracy, and allow for regional dif­ Such a system would considerably reduce everything in their power to contribute to its ferences. But there must somehow be power the total coal consumption, and would at the solution.

it should rightly be considered and calculated shell structures, gives the modern elasticity Shell as such. basis of design in a form suitable for practical The calculation of reinforced concrete is thus application. construction complicated, but designs are consequently In order not to make the calculation too dif­ produced which differ essentially from the ficult, it is still desirable to confine the use of This article first appeared in Architectural traditional beam and slab structure. curved shells to spheres, cylinders of dif­ Design, 17 (11) 1947. ferent kinds, paraboloids, hyperboloids, We have for the first time a material which cones and other surfaces, which have simple Architecture is concerned with the enclosure can be formed into comparatively thin plates geometric properties. That does not mean or division of space. Space is confined by or shells for enclosing space - or, in that other shapes cannot be attempted. I was curved or plane surfaces, just as a surface is engineering structures, for retaining earth, told that a team of four engineers worked for confined by curves or lines. A study of sur­ containing water, coal, grain, and so on - over half a year on the calculation of a shell faces, their arrangement and intersection, is, which can at the same time be made to resist roof with an irregular base, covering the main therefore, of the essence of architecture. This the forces acting on the structure with only fundamental fact is obscured by the dif­ limited recourse to external structural concert hall of the new Broadcasting House in Copenhagen. Obviously, it is only rarely ficulties obstructing the physical embodi­ members. possible to go to that amount of trouble. ment of our ideas. We cannot simply plan There are, of course, limitations to our according to our fancy, considering only the freedom of design, and they are mainly of two In the new approach to reinforced concrete need of man. We must consider the stability kinds. One is imposed by the formwork; the design, the basic element is the compar­ of the structure against the forces of gravity, other by difficulties of calculation. atively thin slab, plate or shell, extending in of wind, and so on. And we can only go so far two dimensions. Slabs have, of course, as our limited knowledge of these materials The temporary formwork is responsible for a always been a feature of reinforced concrete and their behaviour under load will allow us. very large proportion of the cost of reinforced design, but they have almost exclusively been concrete structures. If we were to ask for a considered as members resisting forces Until recently, the available sheeting or clad­ double curved shell, needing shuttering on ding materials could not fulfil their function perpendicular to their own plane and both sides, the cost might far exceed that of therefore, mainly subject to bending. The fact of dividing space, without being held in posi­ the concrete and reinforcement, and such a tion by other purely structural members. that a slab is much stronger when resisting structure would, in many cases, be ruled out forces in its own plane has been surprisingly Gravity walls, domes and vaults were an for financial reasons. To reduce costs, forms exception to this general rule, but their inabi­ neglected. should be simple and should be re-used In the British Codes of Practice and Regula­ lity to resist tension or bending put a severe often. Further, it is naturally an advantage if limit on the forms which they could assume. tions, for instance, there are no design regula­ the slope of the surface allows concrete to be tions for thin load-bearing walls; a vertical We, therefore, think in terms of columns, deposited without top shuttering. piers, architraves, beams, trusses, rafters, as slab is always considered as a panel to be the elements of architecture - all members From this point of view, plane surfaces are to held in position by a frame - a wrong way of necessitated by structural and not by func­ be preferred to curved, single curved surfaces looking at it, leading to clumsy and faulty tional requirements. to doubly curved, and flat slopes or curves to designs. The new approach takes great note steep ones. More important still is repetition But new materials and increased engineering of the strength of slabs and shells in their through standardization of lay-out. knowledge enable us more and more to free own plane: it can almost be said to be based ourselves from the old limitations. The use of The difficulty of calculating shells of various on it. steel in building made an enormous change shapes, subjected to varying loads, is con­ Perhaps the most spectacular results of this - it largely freed the architectural plan from siderable and it is only lately that theories approach are the concrete shell roofs, where the tyranny of load-bearing walls and piers - have been developed which enable us to deal large spans up to 200 feet or more are and reinforced concrete, properly used, can with some of the surfaces which can be achieved with shells only a few inches thick. take us a step further. mathematically defined. But these are only special examples of a In the beginning, the potentialities of re in­ Lame and Clapeyron laid the foundations for general tendency, permeating modern con­ forced concrete were only partly realized and, the membrane theory as early as 1825, and a crete design, where the structure is conceiv­ to a large extent, that is still the position general theory for dealing with shells was ed as a spatial monolithic whole. It is easy today. Reinforced concrete was used as a arrived at by A.E.H. Love, towards the end of enough to gain a rough idea of how concrete substitute for timber and steel, and assumed the last century. But it is only since 1910 that shells act. the forms characteristic of these materials. these general theories have been further Fig. 1 (overleaf) represents a simply sup­ The column, the beam and the slab were developed and made applicable to large span ported slab, uniformly loaded. It is subjected thought of as separate members. This atti­ roofs. Germany led the way in this develop­ to bending only. tude does not do justice to the salient feature ment, although France also contributed Fig. 2 shows the slab replaced by two inclined of reinforced concrete, which is its plastic some original work. Lately, however, con­ slabs. Each of the slabs is still subjected to and monolithic character. It can be moulded tributions have come from many different bending, but the span is smaller, and the and built up to any shape, after which the countries. A recent British publication, R.S. deflections are therefore smaller. But in addi­ whole structure forms one jointless unit, and Jenkins' The theory and design of cylindrical tion, the system is subjected to compressive 17 forces in the plane of each slab, transferring the resultant force at the top to the bearings. These forces can, however, easily be taken by the slab, and the total result is a lighter con­ struction, provided the bearings can with­ stand the outward thrust exerted on them.

In Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, the two slabs are replaced 2 3 by three or four slabs, resulting in still smaller moments, without increasing the thrust, and in Fig. 5, the arched slab, the moments disap­ pear altogether, provided the thrust-line coin­ cides with the arch. This can, however, only happen for one particular set of loads - as soon as the load varies, moments are introduced.

The moments, mostly caused by wind and 6 snow, are very much smaller than they would • • • be for a slab of the same span (Fig. 1), where 4 5 also the dead load contributes to the moments, but for large spans they are never­ theless considerable and the slab must be fairly solid and well-reinforced to withstand them. If the arch slab cannot be taken right down to the foundations at each side, but has (' 'i to spring from the level of the eaves, it will, in 7 8 9 most cases, be necessary to provide frequent ties at this level. This plain, tied, arch slab has been used fre­ quently in the past for medium spans. It is not what is generally understood by a shell con­ struction, because it can only resist un­ balanced forces by bending moments in the slab, whereas a proper shell is mainly sup­ posed to be subjected to normal and shear 10 12 13 stresses in its own plane. But if we introduce arched ribs, as in Fig. 6, then the singly­ curved slab can transfer the unbalanced forces to the ribs through direct stresses in the slab, provided the latter is sufficiently stiff and the curvature is not too small. This means that the arched slab can be con­ structed as a comparatively thin shell. Constructions similar to that shown in Fig. 6 14 15 have, of course, been used for many years, 17 but before modern analysis showed the way, the orthodox method of treating them was to let the ribs take all the moments - and possibly even the whole of the thrust - and to span the slab between the ribs, disregard­ ing its curvature. To illustrate the action of the shell, let us look at another set of figures. 18 19 20 Fig. 7 is a cross-section through a structure, consisting of four slabs, joined together as shown. If this structure is supported at the two gable ends by a stiff wall or frame, which prevents any relative movements of the four slabs at these points, then it will be able to span freely between the two gables, if suitably reinforced. Each slab will act in two ways, as a slab transferring dead weight, 21 22 23 wind loads, etc., crosswise to the corners, and as a beam, transferring the resultant forces in their own plane to the gable ends. It is obvious that at the junction line of two Figs. 1-23 slabs, no movement can take place without Shell structures moving one or both slabs in their own plane, and such movement will be resisted by the slab spanning as a very deep beam from end ture, and as a result, we shall find that the books and papers have been written about to end. lower part of the combined structure - up to their calculation, but the principle is obvious and has been used widely, without giving it a The matter does not end here, however. We a so-called neutral axis - is in tension, and name, for industrial structures. An example is must take into account that the four slab­ the upper part in compression, as shown in the shed root in Fig. 10, used by the writer beams are joined at the corners and therefore Fig. 8. before the war tor spans up to 70 ft. react on each other. In tact, if the structure is We find, in tact, that the whole structure will mainly subjected to vertical forces, the ten­ act approximately as a beam, but we must If we increase the number of slabs in Fig. 7, sion zones of the two inclined slabs are joined ensure against distortion of the cross­ tor instance, as shown in Fig. 12, we reduce to the cof1'1pression zones of the two lower section. If, in Figs. 7 or 8, the two lower the transverse moments in each slab ele­ slabs. Obviously the corner cannot both be in flanges were left out, as in Fig 9, the free ends ment, but we complicate the calculation and compression and in tension, and this is an ex­ of the two slabs would probably sag in the are still more dependent on the shape of the ample of the absurdities sometimes resulting middle. The shape of the cross-section is cross-section, to avoid distortion. If we go the from the artificial splitting up of the structure therefore important if we want to reduce the whole hog and change the section into a into simple elements. The structure acts as a moments acting in the plane of the cross­ smooth curve, as in Fig. 13, we can reduce the whole, and the various parts act on each section. bending moments to a minimum. other. In order to assess the magnitude of Structures such as the one shown in Fig. 7, these internal forces, we must resort to rather consisting of plane slabs joined at the edges, This form of construction, a barrel vault shell more complicated calculations, taking into are called Faltwerke, in German. We might of approximately elliptic cross-section, 18 account the elastic deformations of the struc- call them 'slab-frame' structures and various spanning 'the wrong way' was first developed in the 1920s by the firm of Dyckerhoff and rect, as the shells must be given certain tilevering 20 ft., although the thickness is only Widmann in Germany, in conjunction with the thickness and the moments cannot legit· 2'h in. (Fig. 22). If a corrugated section is Zeiss optical concern, and patented under imately be disregarded, however thin the arched at the same time, as in Fig. 21, the the name of 'Zeiss Dywydag Gewoelbe.' The shell. This throws us back on the general effect is further increased. patents covered the method of calculation as theory of elasticity, applied to a spatial struc­ Shell construction is the most important well as the practical application. An explana­ ture, and to an isotropic material with a cer· development in reinforced concrete in recent tion, with calculations, is given in Handbuch tain stress-strain relationship and a certain years and will undoubtedly contribute to the des Eisenbetonbau by Dr. Franz Dischinger of value for Poisson's ratio. We must consider character of the coming architecture. It Dyckerhoff and Widmann. In the beginning, the equilibrium of each small element and of places at the architect's disposal a new form great care was taken to give the shells the the system as a whole, and make the bound· of construction, which serves the dual role of correct mathematical shape and to make ary conditions conform to the physical facts. cladding and structure, and gives him greater them very thin, so as to correspond to the In short cylinders of large radius it may be freedom of planning and elevational treat· theory, which assumed that all forces acted necessary to introduce stiffening ring beams ment to meet both functional and architec­ in the plane of the shell and were evenly to deal with the bending moments. tural requirements. distributed over the thickness, but later When we come to doubly curved shells, it is At the same time, it should be noted that its analytical and practical research showed actually easier and more correct to apply the proper design calls for more intricate calcula­ that other forms were possible. Now these membrane theory with a correction in regions tions on the part of the engineer, to deal with shells are mostly given the shape shown in near the edges. The construction of domes a statically indeterminate three-dimensional Fig. 14. and double-barrelled vaults is possible even structure. Early collaboration between This has the advantage that the slope of the in a material which will not resist tension, as architect and engineer becomes very curved section is such that no top shuttering has been known for hundreds or thousands of necessary. is required, only the straight vertical ribs years. Sometimes, the dome was prevented Conclu sion requiring double shuttering. Top lighting can from spreading out by a tension ring or chain Perhaps the future development of shell con· be provided, as shown in Fig. 15. at the springing (Fig. 16). Actually, the whole struction will depend largely on the way in While it is easy to see that sections such as lower zone of the dome is subject to circular which the contractor approaches the con· Figs. 7, 10, 12, 13 and 14, must be able to span tension, and we may, therefore, have cracks structional problems involved, as these differ some distances, the actual calculations are in the lower part, as in Fig. 17. In a reinforced considerably from those encountered in nor· rather involved, and some simplifying concrete shell, the reinforcement can be mal construction. Standardization of shutter­ assumptions must be made. One method is placed where it is needed, and the dome can ing and a large number of uses are essential to treat the structure according to the usual be made much flatter and thinner, as we are for economy, and this is a point which should beam theory, assuming that plane cross­ not dependent on gravity to bring the thrust be borne in mind when general layouts are be· sections remain plane after loading. Th is is line down. ing considered. Methods of depositing con­ not very exact, and the method used by We can also make use of many other double· crete in large areas of thin slab, while still Dischinger is the so-called membrane theory, curved or single-curved surfaces. Figs. 18 to improving the quality of work, require con­ which makes the assumption that the mem­ 23 illustrate some of the possibilities. Any sideration, and the general planning of brane is infinitely thin (mathematically speak· kind of corrugation can be used to increase sequence of construction, stage by stage, is ing), and that all stresses must be parallel to the stiffness of a slab - which does not essential. As these and other problems are the surface. mean that they are all equally effective. In the mastered, there is little reason to doubt that The difficulty is to balance the system of new bus terminus, now being built at Store shel l construction will compare favourably forces with the existing boundary conditions, Street, Dublin, a canopy made of corrugated with more orthodox forms of construction for and in any case the assumptions are not cor· reinforced concrete has been designed, can- covering large uninterrupted spaces.

Modern architecture. It set out, he said, to be ally we are still in a state of flux, and that is 'entirely freed from subjection to any perhaps not a bad thing. We see the roman· architecture: style; its only criteria being: carefully ticism of a Frank Lloyd Wright side by side analyzed function, honestly expressed with the classicism of a Mies van der Rohe. structure and the demands of applied We see the beginnings of a great many dif· the structural sociology·. ferent fashions, with cliches origi:,ated by the great going their round in architectural fallacy It is significant that this definition contained magazines, and being copied with glee all no mention of aesthetic principles, or of over the world; but they do not seem to stick, architecture as an art. Indeed the pioneers of they have not congealed into a new This article was published in The Listener, the movement, or some of them, thought that 7 July 1955. academicism. The nearest approach I can if only they attended to the function of a build· find to a common ideology is the frequently ing, and - to quote again from Maxwell Fry expressed conviction that a regeneration of I want to discuss here the rather complicated - 'adopted a structure arising from engineer· architecture in our new technical age must relationship between the structure of build· ing, and clearly expressing, instead of hiding, come through the truthful expression of ings and their architecture. There is now a its structural function', then beauty would structure. This sounds attractive enough - wide range of new structural possibilities automatical ly arise, and the result would be especially to an engineer - but what in fact through the use of structural steel. of rein· architecture. does it mean? forced concrete, prestressed concrete, of The aesthetic programme of the modern In an ordinary brick building, the walls have a aluminium alloys, and other materials 1n all movement is hidden away in an excessive number of things to do - they enclose space, their varying forms. This, together with the admiration for all things technical, for new and keep out the weather, they retain heat, advance in engineering knowledge, has structural forms and materials, for making insulate against cold and sound, and they enabled us to create structures of an incredi· full use of all the latest technical innovations also carry the loads from the floors and roof. ble lightness and strength. compared with long before they are economically justified, But in this latter capacity they are only par­ the old gravity structures. We can soar into and for the 'honest expression· - whatever tially employed, and without opening up the the sky and span if not the oceans at least that may mean - of the structure. So much floors and finding out which way the timber long distances with the greatest of ease; in enthusiasm for the means of building is joists are spanning it is difficult to see which fact , we can do most things we want to do, if suspicious, it shows that there is more in it of the walls or parts of them are structurally we want them badly enough. than meets the eye. And so there is. There has active. Expression of structure hardly comes Side by side with this extension of the range been a revolution - we all know it - in into the picture, and yet some very good of structural possibilities, a gradual change aesthetic sensibility. It started 50 years ago in architecture - Georgian, for instance - has in the processes of production has taken painting and thereafter permeated all the been produced with brick. When the walls are place. Work on the site has been largely visual arts; it derived inspiration from pierced by large window openings, and when mechanized, and more and more building primitive art, from the new patterns and they also have to act as buttresses for vault· components are being mass-produced in fac­ images brought to light by scientific investi· ing or to ensure stability, as in the case of the tories. The former aspect of modern building gation and made accessible by modern Gothic cathedrals, we can begin to talk about technique has given the architect greater photography and reproduction techniques; it structural forms and possibly also of the freedom to do what he likes, the latter tends derived a further impetus from the new struc­ expression of structure: if structural to restrict this freedom in the interests of tural forms developed by engineers. Through economy is to be achieved, the enlarged standardization. How are architects respond· the opening up of these new worlds, we have scale and the magnitude of the gravitational ing to this twofold new situation? And how learnt to see beauty where it did not occur to forces impose a certain discipline of their does it affect architecture? us to look before. own. Maxwell Fry, in a talk entitled "The Architect"s But modern architecture has still not prod· Carried to its logical conclusion, Gothic Dilemma' printed in The Listener of February uced a new architectural language which is architecture does represent a structural idea: 17, went back to the beginnings of modern universally accepted by our time. Aesthetic· the gravity structure soaring upwards, but 19 pared down to the minimum thickness that will ensure stability. Its forms may approach what I have called the 'organic structure'; in a structure of this type the material is disposed so as to take care of the flow of forces in the most advantageous way. The ideal Gothic forms flow solidly from the ground, where the heaviest loads occur and are attenuated towards the top. The rounded arch, vault, or dome, of masonry or brick, represents a slightly different structural idea, with the emphasis on spanning horizontally rather than soaring upwards. But here we can distinguish between two different approaches. The 'organic structure' of this type would be given the structurally correct form - somewhat approaching a parabola - which would reduce the bending moments and therefore the mass to a minimum, and the thickness of material would at every point be adjusted to the force. Architects have, however, often preferred a simple geometric form; they have turned the arch into a half cir­ cle - in former times this was partly due to ignorance, but also because in classical architecture, and in modern architecture with a classical flavour, it is considered an aesthetically more satisfactory form. This kind of disciplined structure we might call 'geometric structure', to indicate that it is modified or purified to fit into a geometric These structural forms are mostly developed Above: Hallfield Estate, Paddington (1949-53) pattern. by engineers for utilitarian or economic Architects: Drake and Lasdun Modern structural materials, such as steel reasons, but they exert a strong fascination (Photo: de Burgh Galwey; and reinforced concrete, have given archi­ on architects, who are apt to react to them in copyright Architectural Review) tects the possibility, with the help of an emotional or intuitive way, seeing them as engineers, of creating a number of new struc­ spacial forms or patterns which are capable Right: Coventry Cathedral (1955-62) tural ideas or archetypes, so to speak. There of being organized artistically. This can be Architect: Sir Basil Spence is, for instance, the three-dimensional struc· done either with a bias towards organic, so to (Photo: Copyright John Laing & Sons Ltd.) tural steel grid or frame. Steel, being a purely speak romantic, forms, or on strictly con­ structural material, cannot be used econom­ trolled geometrical and classical lines. Below: Lake Shore Drive Apartments (1948-51) ically to form floors or walls; in a bu ilding it Sometimes architects seize on a character­ Architect: Mies van der Rohe provides only the framework on which the istic structural feature and use it for purely (Photo: Courtesy Architectural Press Ltd.) other materials are hung. Being produced by aesthetic ends where it is neither econom­ rolling it is available in uniform sections; for ically nor structurally justified. This has hap­ this and other reasons it does not lend itself pened throughout the history of architecture, to the creation of an organic structural pat­ and there is nothing wrong in that, as long as tern in the way of a tree, with tapering the aesthetic purpose is acknowledged and branches, but it is very suited to the im­ achieved. Take, for instance, the hinge, which position of geometric discipline. Modern impels all the forces to meet in a single point. architects have seized this opportunity to In nature, hinges or joints are used to allow create the idea of the ideal structural grid - a movement, as in the case of an elbow joint. three-dimensional rectangular system of Plants which are stationary have no joints; it lines evenly disposed, of even and as small as would mean an unnecessary weakening of possible section throughout, and with no the structure. In structural engineering disturbing excrescences at the joints, a con­ hinges are introduced for two reasons: to ception of pure geometry. facil itate calculations by making the struc­ Mies van der Rohe especially has struggled tural system statically determined, as in the hard to give effect to this idea, and that three-hinged arch, and, as in nature, to allow implies of course expressing or showing the movement - for instance, a settlement of structure, otherwise there would be no point foundations or temperature expansion of a in the attempt. In his Lake Shore Apartments bridge. in Chicago and some private houses the walls But architects love hinges for their own sake. are therefore made of glass, so that the grid itself can be clearly perceived and nothing In the new Coventry Cathedral, Basil Spence shall mar the purity of the conception. Then makes the columns carrying the internal there is reinforced concrete, which can canopy taper downwards ending in a kind of enclose space and - with a little help - keep ball-bearing; and Saarinen's spectacular, material is produced. This does not out the weather, besides providing structural triangular , concrete shell at the necessarily imply the most economical use of support. The structural carcass of a building Massachusetts Institute of Technology rests material as in the concept of an 'organic in this material may be thought of as a series on three points, formed as steel hinges. There structure·, although in large-scale structures of horizontal slabs - the floors supported by is no structural or economic reason for this - that concept may be approached. It is not a regular grid of columns. The box-frame or it is a purely aesthetic device conveying a always the aesthetically most satisfactory egg-crate is another very simple geometric feeling of crispness and also of a purified approach either. Nevertheless it is in the structural idea, which may be aesthetically idea characteristic of reinforced concrete quest for economic ways of solving difficult justified in spite of being slightly bogus. construction; it consists of a regular system structural problems that the new and exciting Incidentally, the appeal of the hinge or focal of vertical and horizontal slabs. Reinforced structural forms have been evolved. They point is strikingly revealed in the architectural concrete has also given birth to other struc­ generally need a little trimming, a deviation drawings of Steinberg, when he shows enor­ tural forms - the cantilever, for instance - from the strictly most economical solution, to mous arches and suspension bridges ultim­ like a branch of a tree, strong at its base and bring out their inherent beauty, which may be ately supported on needle points. As an artist tapering outwards; and thin concrete shells, of an organic or geometric type in accord­ he catches the essence, the aesthetic spirit which can take on a great number of shapes ance with the materials and methods used. of engineering structures. and architects and now replace gravity vaulting. Then there But the point is, that whereas in large-scale are all the various forms of frames, arches, have often a similar approach. and difficult engineering structures, such as trusses, and girders and there are tent-like The engineer, in accordance with his training bridges, dams, and long spanning roofs, constructions based on suspension cables, and purpose in life, is trying to find the most economy and beauty often coincide - or and the so-called space-frames: three­ economical structure. I mean economical in nearly so - if a clear and simple structural dimensional triangulated grids, which at pre­ the means of production. He takes into idea is logically pursued; it is not at all easy to sent have a vogue in architectural schools far account available resources and the charac­ cash in on this fact in architecture, as archit­ 20 in excess of their importance. teristic manner in which each structural ects would dearly love to do. In our normal multicellular buildings the Pennsylvania, and especially at the Il linois The expression of structure makes more structure, besides being ot an elementary Institute of Technology where Mies van der sense in buildings providing large spaces - and unexciting kind, is cluttered up with Rohe is in charge, were very scathing in their factories, exhibitions halls, and so on. Here walls, stairs, flues, service-ducts, lilt-shafts, condemnation ot this aimless doodling, the structural members are often bound to be and so on, and to submit it to a strict which they considered dishonest, fortuitous, prominent and have to be organized. aesthetic discipline and then to expose it suf­ and futile. They insisted that the box-frame But there should be no moral compulsion fi ciently tor it to be understood as a whole, behind the tacade should have been expres­ about it. Acoustic ceilings, water-proofing would in most cases require great sacrifices sed on the outside. insulation and service ducts may make it in money and the disregard ot other neces­ It is difficult to analyze this attitude - it is a impractical to reveal the structure, especially sary functions. In our climate buildings must mixture ot sense and nonsense. As so often it it is of the economical but ordinary, rather have an overcoat and a raincoat, and there is happens, means become aims; the expres­ than the inspiring, variety. The engineer is no particular reason why the structure should sion ot the structure, which may admittedly probably as keen as the architect to evolve an be let! out in the cold. And, internally, we do be a means of creating architectural unity exciting structural solution but it is his duty not want to be reminded ot it; it only gets in (although sometimes an expensive and un­ to point out to the architect that the beautiful the way. natural way ot doing it), becomes an end in structure is rarely the same as the Recently, on a tour in the United States ot itself. This moral streak, which was certainly economical structure, although in some America, I had occasion to show some slides present in Victorian architecture before it per­ inspired solutions the two may almost coin­ ot the new Halltield Estate in Paddington, by vaded functionalism, leads to the naive cide. Yet, in spite of all this, I would count that Drake and Lasdun. In this scheme the access assumption that straightforward, unadorned, there is something va luable and right in this balconies and other elements ot the tacade economic building will somehow display the architectural approach to structure, and are used to make a formal pattern; this pat­ quality which is so admired in engineering many engineers might do with a dose ot it. tern, however, bears no relation - or at least structures. The tact is, ot course, that it Architecture is concerned with 'organizing does not truthfully ex press - the structure requires a major tour de force to impose this the functional elements so as to create behind, which is a simple bo x- frame ot re in­ quality on ordinary buildings, as Mies' Lake something aesthetically coherent and with a forced concrete. At Harvard, Chermayett Shore Apartments show. Ordinary buildings personality of its own', as J.M. Richards put it thought that this was by tar the best piece ot are much more influenced by building techni­ in a talk entitled 'Architecture Dehumanised' architecture wh ich had come out England ot que proper: by standardization, mass­ printed in The Listener of January 6. It is a alter the war. But others, at the University ot production ot building elements, and so on. matter ot giving the proper weight to various conflicting claims and creating harmony and order out of chaos. Organizing the available material in space means imposing on it some easily recognizable pattern or main motif, creating a simple, it subtle, balance ot masses and spaces, tying it together with lines and planes, creating unity by consist­ ency, by limiting the means ot expression to a chosen few. Subordinate to the main pattern there may be other patterns, elaboration ot detail, but they must not obscure the clarity of the main conception, which acts as a frame ot reference, making the whole thing intelligible and obvious at a glance. A certain simplicity, a sense ot the unavoidable, ot essential rightness is, I think, common to all great art. A clear, simple and well-proportioned struc­ tural system can be em inently suited to the role ot providing this general pattern, this orderly frame of reference. The wish to express it is therefore a very natural one, as long as ethics are not mi xed up with it and as long as it is realized that this 'organization of the functional elements' can just as well, or just as legitimately, be achieved by other means. The importance ot having a simple guiding idea to help in the solution ot an architectural problem was brought home to me when in 1946 Cl ive Entwhistle was working on his scheme tor the Crystal Palace competition in my office. It contained, as a central feature, a very large pyramid covered entirely in glass­ bricks. Le Corbusier, who took a friendly inter­ est in the work of his pupil and worked on the scheme for several days, suggested that the inside of the pyramid should be treated in an organic manner, so to speak, with ceiling heights getting smaller towards the top, and everything else in proportion. He was at the time very lull ot his modular system of propor­ tions, and he drew a kind of tapering Christmas tree to indicate his conception. Clive disagreed with this: for him this bui lding was a crystal, where every part was like every other part, and floors equidistant throughout, and he stuck, I think rightly, to his conception. The problem could have been approached from a purely functional and structural angle, but both architects tell the need to subor­ dinate this approach to a general principle. This has a bearing on ideologies and theories in general; although it could be argued, as I have done, that they matter less than the amount ot artistic effort expended, or the degree ot synthesis achieved, they may nevertheless be a help to the creative artist. It so, well and good, but it is the result that matters. 21 Coventry Cathedral: how the plan took shape

This appeared in The Times Supplement on Coventry Cathedral, 25 May 1962 .

Architectural and structural design are really two aspects of the same thing, but because our knowledge of ways and means of building has been so vastly increased, one designer can rarely cope with both, hence the design of an important building must result from a col­ laboration between architect and engineer. The latter looks after the structure - which could be defined as that part of the building which ensures its stability and permanence - but as this forms an integral part of the building fabric and may embrace the major p_art of it, it inevitably impinges on the pro­ vince of the architect. In fact the merit of the structure is not judged by its fulfilment of its main purpose - which is taken for granted - but by its economy and by its contribution to the solution of the architect's own functional and aesthetic problems. Special problems In Coventry Cathedral the emphasis is very much on aesthetic quality, and this has posed rather special problems for the engineer. There have been , of course, many quite ordinary matters to attend to: the foun­ dations - which in the end were designed to consist of 671 bored piles, 17 in. in diameter and of varying length, to carry the loads down to the sandstone - the loadbearing walls, the floors, the crypt, the ducts, the thermal insulation and waterproofing and other such mundane matters. But when we come to the parts where the structure is visible, the roofs, the canopy, the screen or the fleche, then the structure cannot be considered separately from the architecture; it must be subservient to it. This must not be misunderstood: were the architect to make complete nonsense of the structure, the architecture itself would suffer. A certain structural clarity and crispness is desirable, and therefore a very intimate collaboration between architect and engineer is necessary. Abstract scu lpture B_ut the problem is not just to design an effi­ were left out and the positions of the two then lifted into position. Later, when the ribs cient and economical roof spanning 80 ft. It is rows of centre columns which converge were cast, the prestressing in the columns to create a visual impact, to create abstract towards the altar were determined by a was reduced on the inside and increased on sculpture, if you like. If it were not for the system of diagonal gridlines based on a the outside to improve the moment distribu· demands imposed by aesthetic or symbolic mathematical relationship which also deter· tion between columns and ribs thus making requirements, there would hardly be any mined the whole plan of the cathedral and it possible to increase the sl~nderness of structural problems at all. To span a roof fixed the position of a series of ribs in the both. 80 ft. can be done in a hundred different ways. canopy. For aesthetic effect and for acoustic If an acoustic false ceiling is needed under reasons the spaces between the ribs were Design of roof the roof, it can be slung from it. The columns filled with concrete panels forming shallow The most interesting structure from an which in the old cathedrals used to support pyramids, which effectively concealed the engineering point of view is probably the roof the roof, are not at all necessary in this case. ribs from underneath, making the whole above the canopy, and especially the roof But that is not a fault in the design. It would appear as a kind of concrete shell. Later, the over the baptistry. The latter covers an area of be absurd to contend, as some architectural 100 by 90 ft. and consists of a 4 in. reinforced pyramids were pierced then the ribs were critics are apt to do, that the design of a concrete slab slightly folded, but with a very partly shown underneath the canopy in the cathedral should grow out of structural low pitch, strengthened by ribs and held interest of structural honesty and finally the ~ecessity. The structure of the canopy, for together by strong prestressed concrete ties concrete panels were replaced by timber instance, should be crisp and elegant and concealed in the walls. This roof supports the articulated, the details should be controlled slats, spaced apart to admit light. The canopy now appears as what it was all the time: a 78 ft. fliiche - a manganese bronze space but whether the canopy with its column~ frame - and also part of the large bronze and should be there at all, or some other way free-standing spatial framework of ribs and columns, complicated by the fact that the glass screen. The latter is hung from the roof found to create the atmosphere the architect in ten 31. in. inclined rods, prestressed to give is striving for, is not a matter to be settled by ribs pursue a somewhat angular course up and down, which never goes from column to the required stability against wind. By this criteria of structural economy. column, but, proceeding diagonally from a arrangement the screen could be made much The design of the canopy has gone through column, always ends up on the other side bet· lighter, which improved its appearance and many stages as the architect - aided and ween two columns. However, statically the saved a lot of money at the same time which abetted by the engineers - worked untiringly structural system is clear enough in spite of is exactly the sort of thing the engi~eer is for some years to find the form that would its complication. always trying - and sometimes managing - satisfy him. To begin with, there were four to achieve, especially if the architect and rows of columns supporting a kind of con- The columns were precast, in three pieces, engineer pull together as they have done in 22 crete vault. Then the two rows near the wal ls glued together on the floor and prestressed. this case. stuff about with their hands or with the help compromise between the three kinds of The problem of machines, those who tell them what to excellence, and the problem is to strike the move, those who think out what the second right balance, the balance appropriate to the of producing lot should tell the first lot, and those who tell task in hand. quality the last lot what to think out, and so on, in an How we get it is another matter. intricate maze of activity - all these people I am afraid there is no general solution to this in building are not really collaborating in a spontaneous problem but I should like to illustrate it by desire to create new and better buildings, reference to the design of engineering struc­ what they are doing is to make their living tures, where I feel most at home. This talk was given to Westminster Chamber according to some complicated rules which The problem here is the same: the same of Commerce on 27 April 1965. have been evolved and fought over for cen­ turies. What they are thinking of, what drives threefold design discipline is needed, but the artistic organization does not play such a big I thank you for the honour you show me in them on, is probably how to improve their role here - in fact it is generally neglected inviting me to speak to you today. I can only status and their share of the common cake. altogether - and the function, although it hope that your confidence will not prove to be Anybody who would try to eliminate want by determines the form of the structure, is entirely misplaced. The title of my talk, The organizing the necessary collaboration of generally pretty clear and uncontroversial. problem of producing quality in building, many people on a more rational basis is at One knows exactly what is required of a grain sounds pretty formidable, obviously you do once up against old customs, established silo, retaining wall, jetty or bridge. The not expect me to solve this problem in 20 trades and professions and vested interests, designer therefore starts with a clear idea of minutes. All I can do is to talk round the sub­ and the whole thing moves into a sphere of what the purpose of the whole undertaking is ject and to make one or two observations social organization and politics. I cannot - which is the first requisite for producing a based on personal experience, observations even attempt to deal with all that here. I must design. The second is that the designer has which I am sure you are perfectly aware of confine my remarks to the design of certain facts at his command. I am thinking of already, old stuff which I have been bringing buildings, to the problem of getting the best the engineering knowledge and experience to market for the last 20 years or more, but possible design - which happens to be the which still has got some wear left in it. way I make my living. This leaves out the which make him a qualified engineer, aug­ important questions of politics, how to in­ mented for the occasion by reference to Building itiate or instigate action, town and county books or papers or by asking o!her people's I need not tell you that building is a very planning and how to organize the execution advice. And this knowledge must of course important activity in our society, because it of the design, once it is established. It leaves include awareness of all the available con­ provides the shell which houses most of our all this out, I say but it can't quite leave it out, structional techniques and their cost. And activities and makes our kind of life possible. because everything is intertwined. Design then there are all the data peculiar to the par­ We are in dire need of buildings - must take account of purpose - and purpose ticular job: the site, and subsoil, local throughout the world. We cannot get enough is politics if you like. And design must most resources, in short everything which may of them fast enough, our resources are certainly take account of execution - in fact have a bearing on the design and the method overstrained. This imposes an obligation on it is nothing else than indicating a sensible of construction. us to use our limited resources wisely, to get way of building. So both client and contractor Design the most out of them, but in discussing this are involved in the design. As I use this word The design then emerges as a result of a men­ problem we must not forget that all this here, it is a vital link in the chain that leads to tal process, a kind of synthesis of (1) and (2). building activity is constantly changing our the realization of a project, in fact it is the key The engineer, knowing his stuff, knowing environment, for better or worse, but much to the building. It includes all drawings, spec­ what has to be achieved and having gathered too often for worse, in spite of the fact that we ifications, descriptions and detailed instruc­ the local information, sets to work on the have it in our power to make our environment tions about what should be built and how it better, if only we would use that power. I think should be built. Some of these instructions problem .... . that our environment has an enormous may emanate from the client or the contrac­ I am of course talking about creative design, influence on us, it is a constant source of hap­ tor - but they must be absorbed by the not about ordinary routine design where not piness or misery, and to get the environment designer and made part of the design. If we much effort is applied. Excellence follows we would like to have instead of one which is get the right design therefore we will get the from intelligent application, you don't get it forced on us by expediency, or by economic right building - provided the design is for nothing. And progress in engineering has forces which we fail to control, is surely a very executed as intended. always depended on ingenuity and invention, worthy object to which we all subscribe, even What we want, then, is designs of quality - it is a creative thing which cannot be arrived if we do not always agree on what we would to produce buildings of quality. Perhaps at by statistical methods or any of the latest like to have. But that is just part of the quality is not the right word - I have used it rational design techniques. This is a fact challenge, we do not want uniformity but because the word quality implies something which is often forgotten by some people: variety, variety to express different per­ of value, something we prize. It is also related clients, public servants, financiers, lawyers sonalities, different modes of life. to a purpose, it is the result of a discipline and others who have no knowledge of design. This complicates the matter. It would be so imposed by man, the result of something well And there is another thing I would like to much easier if we could just get on with done or well organized, as opposed to shoddy stress. Nearly all this invention is concerned organizing our building activity efficiently for work and lack of organization. with how to do things, finding new, simpler maximum output and minimum cost, without bothering about artistic effects, the Architecture psychological impact of space, colours, tex­ In architecture - and architecture in this tures, light and shade - all these matters connection covers every kind of man-made which long-haired artists spend all their structure which forms part of our environ­ energies talking about without ever agreeing ment - it is useful to distinguish between about what they really want, and which would three kinds of quality, according to the three drive sober and practical men of affairs up the things we require of a building or structure, pole if they were ever to take any notice of it. It namely: is a complication, but it is a complication we (1) That it should fulfil its function in the best must face. and to which I think we ought to possible way. give very high priority. There is no need to (2) That it should not tax our resources more stress functional and technological effic­ than necessary. iency; needs are needs, and will assert them­ (3) That it should enhance our environment selves, and money we know, talks; but rather than spoil it. beauty, character, poetry or environment - This means that the designer must organize what shall I call it - is something which has the design from three different points of view to be fought for. It is highly prized where it - that of the client, the builder, and the artist, exists, especially when people have got used and, reversing the order, we can call them the to it - then they will pay fantastic sums for a A, B, and C discipline of design. Each is house in a favoured locality - but they are important, but in varying degrees, according not so eager to make any sacrifice or to exert to the kind of job we are dealing with. The themselves unduly to create it , if it should ideal is to combine all three kinds of quality, happen to conflict with maximum letting but unfortunately they nearly always clash - space, for instance, or with the convenience how often do we not see function sacrificed of the almighty car. for some aesthetic preference, or cost soar­ There is a fourth and confusing issue which ing for the same reason, or because the ideal raises its ugly head in a discussion of functional arrangement poses difficult struc­ building activity. All those people who move tural problems? Every design is therefore a 23 and better ways of carrying out the work. And necessary to produce a work of art. You can't same way as a pudding - in the eating - therefore, as I have said so often, design can­ blame them, but the result is that the work which may apply to artistic quality too, but it not flourish without knowledge about suffers from a deficiency of A-vitamins. does yield to research and scientific analysis methods of construction. Designing is indic­ Now this is bad. And, in fairness I must say which artistic quality, or 'delight', does not. ating a sensible way of building. Any contrac­ that it is being recognized more and more that 'Delight' can be compared to a coy maiden tor who has suffered from impractical con­ this is a bad thing, and engineers are increas­ who will shrink from direct pursuit but pre­ sulting engineers' designs knows this. ingly concerned about adding some kind of tend to ignore her and get on with your work I have not said anything about the artistic artistic education to their curriculum. This is and she may come running after you. My organization of the design - except that it is not easy. Artistic discipline is a very personal advice to engineers is to be good engineers generally neglected, and I am afraid that is thing. Art can only be judged by acquirin g first of all. A bril liant engineering solution is only too true. In industrial design - coal understanding of artistic culture in general quite likely to be praised for artistic qualities bunkers, gantries, purifiers and that kind of and of the personality of the artist in par­ where an attempt to force the design into a thing, any attempt at artistic control would be ticular. Art can be criticized, perhaps, but it preconceived artistic form would fail laughed out of court. And where it is con­ cannot really be taught. There are no rules - miserably. sidered desirable to add some artistic touch the artist makes his own rules. In this respect If we now turn to architectural design - with at the end this probably makes matters it differs from technological or functional an architect in charge of the design team, we worse. This is simply because engineers as a quality. The first can be measured in L.s.d. will find that it correspondingly suffers from a 24 rule lack that artistic sensibility which is The second can perhaps only be proved in the lack of B discipline or to put it another way, it does not realize the technological potential. of course - but as arbiter of taste he really more about how things are put together. This is naturally because the architect­ thinks that he should dictate to the client Delight is produced by imposing some kind of designer, who has to effect the synthesis bet­ what he is allowed to have. And as for organization on the building structure, and ween the relevant facts is himself less of a technology - well, there are people who can you cannot organize something you don't technician; he must therefore rely on work that out, and thank God for the quantity know anything about. A sculptor must know technical advisers. Many of the technical and surveyor who can keep him at a suitable his material. Bricks and mortar are the stuff constructional considerations which rightly distance from such mundane matters. His that dreams are made on. You cannot pro­ ought to influence the design are never given attitude to technology is that of a husband duce delight in a vacuum. the attention they deserve because they when it comes to sewing on buttons. But generally speaking the answer is team­ never surface in the brain of the designer. He Arrogance will not do work. The data, the knowledge required, can thinks it is better to concentrate on A and C - Such arrogance may well produce works of be found not in one person, but in a number of C because that is his main duty, the purpose art which are praised in the technical papers persons. But how do we then contrive to pro­ of the whole undertaking, which he is the only and excite architectural students all over the duce the synthesis, the artistic or human one to take care of, and A, because he is or world. One may even contend that a certain unity which alone will ensure quality. That is fancies himself as an artist and his whole amount of arrogance is necessary for an the question, and it is much more difficult ambition is bound up with the wish to make artist, although some seem to make do with than most people realize. an architectural - which in this connection humility instead. But it will not do for the I have spoken to you about the threefold means an artistic - statement. great bulk of building which is so urgently discipline which has to be imposed on a There is a good excuse for this and there is required. If the architect does not knuckle design to get what we ought to have. also a great danger. down to trying to understand and guide technical development, the system-boys will Let us imagine that we accordingly chose a Buildings cater for people team consisting of a sociologist to define the The excuse is that architectural design take over. There is nothing wrong with industrial building and systems of building human requirements, a builder cum engineer and I can only talk about the average in both to design the body of the building, and an cases, because there are all kinds of architec­ for mass production, it is our kind of techni­ que, and the renewal of architecture must artist, a sculptor for instance, to impose artis­ ture - is generally much more complicated tic control. It would be hopeless. They would than structural design - or at least there are come from a study of man's needs and from invention and organization of building techni­ not speak each other's language, and the many more facts to consider. This is mainly builder would prevail in the end because it is because engineering structures cater for the que. But building technique has its own economic logic. It imposes its own discipline he who puts up the building. force of gravity and other natural phen­ Teamwork omena, whereas buildings cater for people. which, left to itself, will take no account of art or true amenity. That is the danger. This No. Successful teamwork requires that each And people are complicated. The engineer member of the team understands what the need not bother about the purpose of the discipline must be guided, it must be fused with artistic and functional discipline. This others are doing and respects them, and that design - he is told what is required. The they are united in a common purpose: to pro­ architect bothers very much, he must study can only be done if the designer or the leader of the design team understands all three duce good architecture. Two heads are better human needs, human reactions to environ­ than one, but too may cooks spoil the broth. ment, human ways of life, humans at work forms of discipline, and if he is supported by and play, their need for privacy and social the powers that be in insisting on certain And, as it would be next to impossible that contacts. This is both a complicated and con­ standards of excellence. It is too much to they should all agree on relative priorities, troversial subject. And because he caters for hope, however, that such support will extend they must have a leader who gathers all the human beings, the artistic organization also to providing much extra finance. You can only threads together and makes the decisions. In becomes so much more important. And the put across delight if it doesn't cost anything. fact, I don't mind his being a 'prima donna' technical data which have to be considered Therefore you have to study building architect in the best sense, being a true tend to be more numerous and varied. So methods and see whether you cannot work leader, shaping the design annd giving naturally the synthesis of aims and means is with your material rather than against it. orders, but on the basis of acquaintance with more complicated. One mind simply cannot Those who are on the side of the angels must and understanding of the fundamental prin­ absorb all the relevant data. The synthesis join the battle where it is fought: on the ciples of the various disciplines, so that they then becomes a synthesis of only those facts economic front. The architects must stop can understand the advice given, and can which are uppermost in the architect's mind shielding behind quantity surveyors to avoid assess its relevance to the design. contact with the mundane world of building, - it is incomplete. Or if all relevant facts How difficult it is to realize these conditions. I should be brought to the designer's notice, he building costs and building invention. Their could spend hours in telling you about the spatial imagination must be put to use in the is unable to effect a true synthesis - the various frustrations occasioned by the pre­ service of practical building. result is patchwork, which is worse. The sent organization of the building industry, situation is sometimes aggravated by an That is all very well, you may say, but how can about the impossibility - almost - of ensur­ attitude of mind which is frequently found the architect possibly manage more than he ing proper integration of the various technical amongst architects. He is a superior being, is doing already. His curriculum is full. It can­ disciplines - let alone the artistic and func­ his main concern is to keep alive the flame of not be increased - perhaps it can be tional. And that is perhaps where my talk true art, and the objects of his attention changed? ought to have started. receive a kind of reflected glory and are raised Yes , perhaps. I think it is absolutely I have not begun to suggest a solution to the to a higher category, that of works of art. He is necessary that architects, if they aspire to be problem - but I am afraid that would take in charge of function or commodity, as well, the leaders of a design team, should think another 20 minutes.

But this does not mean that there has been no Fickle material Advances progress since then. On the contrary - one It is the same with concrete. It is not enough may even call the progress spectacular if one to show theoretically how various combina­ in engineering compares it with the slow progress before the tions of steel and concrete can result in a war, and if one accepts the fact that progress building material of excellent properties, it is This article appeared in a special Financial is always much slower than it theoretically necessary to create the technology which Times supplement on cement and concrete need be. can transform a primitive and fickle material on 11 July 1967. This especially applies to a material like con­ like the original handmade mass-concrete crete, which depends on so many factors for into a precise, controlled product with Assuming that we are talking about advances its success, and which for that reason can be predictable qualities, dimensional stability inside the last 10 years or so, or at any rate a very primitive or a highly sophisticated and acceptable appearance, worthy to enter since the war, there is nothing radically new material. It is like the girl with the curl - when into union with steel, the structural material to report. Concrete is still the same old it's good it's very very good, and when it's bad par excellence, on which the whole of our material produced by mixing cement with it's horrid. Improving concrete construction is industrial revolution is based. sand, stone or other aggregates, adding in a way like improving agriculture - it is not It has long been clear that if this could be water and stirring the mixture into a porridge enough to improve the quality of grain or the achieved, if the valuable properties of steel and pouring it into forms. It will then harden milk yield of cattle - you have to pay atten­ and concrete could be combined and the into a stone-like material of a shape deter­ tion to soil, weather, pests, weeds and shortcomings eliminated, we would be on to a mined by the formwork. This has been known especially to the whole complicated very good thing, because the two materials since Roman times. And the two main inven­ economic proposition of increasing yields complement each other. The main weakness tions which have laid the foundations for the with limited and expensive man-power of concrete is its unreliability in tension, the use of concrete as a modern structural necessitating mechanization, rationaliza­ second, its dependence on good workman­ material by overcoming its weakness in ten­ tion, larger units, etc., and you have to square ship. The first can be completely cured by sion, reinforced concrete and prestressed this need with human factors, with ingrained adding steel in one form or another, the concrete, were both made before the war. habits and existing social organizations. second by strict control and mechanization. 25 Steel on the other hand is liable to rust and to attitude to new ideas shown by contractors cement, and makes the use of limit state weaken under fire, and these faults can be before the war. design a practical proposition. Improvements eliminated by encasing in concrete. This interest in prestressed concrete set off a in cements, the development of special The composite material has great strength chain reaction which far exceeded the impor­ cements for special purposes (phosphor­ which can be varied and concentrated tance of the new material itself - at least in resistant, water-repelling, expanding, etc.), exactly where needed. It has the necessary its first stages. Because now it became new and more reliable lightweight aggreg­ body to form walls, floors, ducts, containers necessary and profitable to study and to ates and the methodical study of the nature and any other desired shape, and its raw practise the making of high quality concrete, of concrete and its behaviour during curing materials are readily available in bulk. This and to develop still stronger high tension and maturing are, of course, directly relevant makes it an exceedingly versatile material. steels, cables and strands and improved to this development, but so is the develop­ Before the war all this was known; it was also anchorages. ment of special steels, of epoxy resins and known how to make high quality concrete Monolithic ch aracter other jointing and waterproofing materials, of where required, and with experience stretch­ The new invention also stimulated the prac­ phosphor bronze for sliding joints and ing back over 40 years there had been an tice of precasting concrete elements away especially of all the different kinds of impressive development in the design and from the site under more favourable condi­ machinery for use on the building site and in construction of reinforced concrete struc­ tions. This had often been advocated, the factory, from the largest tower crane and tures by engineers, specialist firms and especially by architects, as a means of complete industrial plants to the hundreds of engineering contractors, whereas the ordin­ improving the quality or appearance of con­ small gadgets which contribute to the ary builders were hardly involved. But un­ crete, but it had generally foundered on the economy of the various processes. sightly cracks, rusting reinforcement due to hard fact that the method could not compete Economic methods insufficient cover, an unpleasant surface, with in situ concrete, and because it It would be hopeless to enumerate all these etc., were so common that it brought the destroyed the monolithic character or con­ advances here. It is of course not primarily a material into disrepute. It didn't pay to make tinuity which was one of the valuable features question of producing better quality concrete really good concrete, because in ordinary of r.c. structures cast in situ. However, - that can be done if we pay for it - it is reinforced concrete it was not possible to prestressing can overcome this latter defi­ really a search for economic methods of make use of the greater crushing strength ciency, in fact, with a continuous structure building, which incidentally, through which could be obtained by improved formed by stressing together a number of mechanization and control, lead to better cements and more scientific mix-design, orof precast units, the designer has a much quality, at least on the technical level. The the greater tensile strength of the latest high greater control over the stresses induced in most spectacular advances are therefore the tension steels. The ordinary run-of-the-mill the structure. The two processes, precasting new construction methods or production concrete was quite adequate for its purpose and prestressing, complement each other, techniques - I am thinking of the diaphragm even if it didn't look so good. and they also fit in with the general trend wall cast in a bentonite-filled trench which has supplanted steel sheet piling for base­ New development towards replacing quantity by quality, labour ment excavations down to 75 ft. and more in The invention of prestressed concrete by machinery, craftsmanship by automatic control - in short: rationalization, or the city centres where noise and vibration are changed all that. Now every additional ounce rational use of our resources. problems: or the improved sliding formwork of strength in the constituent materials could for tower block cores with door openings, In fact, advances in concrete construction be exploited, and when after the war the tradi­ etc., or the many other forms of moving form­ form only a part of a general technological tional building methods could no longer meet work - the free cantilever construction for advance and they are dependent on and our needs, engineers and contractors rushed bridges and the development, already men­ greatly helped by advances on other fronts. over to Paris or Brussels to learn about this tioned, of precasting larger and larger units new development. It was quite amazing to see That is why it is so difficult to discuss con­ and of the factory production of complete how strongly contractors were represented at crete in isolation. The advances could not housing sections such as bathrooms and kit­ the various congresses. Many of them equip­ have happened without, for instance, the chens with all fittings and finishings done in ped themselves to meet this new challenge digital computer which allows more accurate the factory. even before the economic implications were analysis of structures, statistical analysis of Most of these methods have been used even known, a we lcome change from the cautious concrete strength leading to economies in before the war on a smaller scale and in a more primitive form. What brings them to the fore now is not only advances in technology, but the different economic circumstances - the higher cost of labour, the greater demands for housing and all kinds of engineering structures. the greater emphasis on large-scale planning, leading to bigger jobs and to bigger design offices and contracting firms to deal with them, and the fact that these bigger units make it possible to introduce a greater amount of repetitive processes or units, which again is the basis for any rationalization of building. What has hindered this development and what is still one of the principal obstacles in the way of rational building, is the fragmenta­ tion of the building and construction industry, which has its roots in history, but which ill accords with modern technology. In no other industry is design completely divor­ ced from production, or are design decisions taken by so many different authorities, pro­ fessions or firms, who are each a law unto themselves. In times of traditional building - when building methods remain stationary over a period and are known to everybody - this is a possible way of dealing with things, but it is totally unsuited to a state of flux, where new materials, new inventions, new methods of building tumble over each other. The slipformed Best use core of Barclays The design must then be firmly anchored to the method of construction, and the implica­ Bank Chief tions of a given choice must be understood by Foreign Branch, the legal, financial and political authorities if London EC3 the best use is to be made of our technol­ (1969-72) ogical potential. There is no easy way to Architect: achieve this, but the progress which has been City of London achieved lately, is I believe. largely due to the Real Property Co. Ltd. fact that the interdependence of the different (Photo: W. H.R. professions and institutions dealing with Goodman) 26 building is better understood. We could start from one of the entities or tial designs, ranging from a mere recording of Architects, structures produced by the building industry, a tentative idea to what almost amounts to a as for instance a bridge, a water reservoir, a total design which only needs to be sup­ engineers harbour, or a factory, school, town hall or plemented by the dealing of certain parts or other building, and consider how such an site arrangements carried out by manufac­ and builders entity is planned, designed and finally built. turers, contractors or specialists. Such We know it can be done in many ways, some definitions are always somewhat arbitrary or This paper was the Alfred Bossom Lecture of good, some bad, and some indifferent, blurred at the edges, but the idea of total the Royal Society of Arts and was delivered measured by the result. If we can find out design implies that sufficient decisions have on 11 March 1970. what is needed to produce a good result, the been made and recorded to enable others best possible result, an entity of quality we skilled in organizing such work to carry it out. The title of my talk doesn't sound promising. might say, then what aplies to one entity 'What, again! ' would be a natural reaction. It As mentioned, most things are parts of other might well apply to most, and might also give larger things and consist in turn of many was suggested in order to make the title us a clue as to how the organization of the suitable for a Bossom Lecture, it being implied smaller things, and their designs are there­ building industry could be improved to fore also organized in a kind of chain or that as long as the title was correct, what facilitate the production of such entities of followed didn't matter. But somehow this way hierarchy of part and whole. The designs of quality. We have to realize, of course, that we part and whole are always interdependent, out doesn't appeal to me, so we are stuck don't necessarily get the best total environ­ with the title and I had better consider what but in varying degrees. Some entities are ment, the best town, for instance, by ensuring fairly self-contained, and are thought of can usefully be said about this much­ that each of its constituent parts is a perfect laboured theme. mainly as wholes - for instance a building or example of its kind. These parts must also be water-tower. Others have only meaning as The trouble is that the terms Architect, integrated and priorities assessed, to pro­ parts - a concrete beam, for instance. But Engineer and Builder are beset with associa­ duce the right environment. But it would cer­ the designer or designers of one thing can't tions, from a bygone age, when building was tainly be an improvement if the parts taken also design all the other wholes or parts in the something very much more primitive than it is separately were satisfactory. And as the need chain, he must stop somewhere; the stopping now; and they are inadequate to describe or for proper integration of parts is a feature of is done by giving him a brief. The designer of a discuss the contemporary scene. The build­ all design - whatever sized entity we are bridge need not bother about the larger con­ ing and construction industry, to which they dealing with - the experience we gain on a text, the road-net etc., if he is given a brief tell­ all belong, is in a state of flu x. If I delve into smaller scale may help us to tackle the larger. ing him where the bridge is to be built, what this chaotic conglomeration, I will find myself To treat such an entity as an independent traffic it will carry, etc. The design is then a overwhelmed by its complexity, and can cer­ whole is of course a device to limit the area of closed design - upwards. Downwards he tainly do very little justice to the theme in one attention, it is the only way by which the must know all relevant details - for instance lecture. human mind can deal with the chaotic he may have to know the quality of cement - What then is useful? The word only has a material presented to it. The danger is, that but not necessarily how that quality is meaning in relation to an aim, and the aim in we forget to switch the mind back to the con­ obtained in the factory. He must simply know this case would naturally be to suggest ways nections which we have so ruthlessly everything which would or could affect his in which the building industry, which term I severed. design, including of course the cost of dif­ shall use this evening to include the construc­ Everything in nature hangs together in ferent possible methods of construction. tion industry, could do whatever it has to do various ways, and the same applies to the The hierarchy of ends and means sometimes more effectively than at present. artificial world of human creation. The con­ coincides with that of whole and part - for To do this one would have to define what the nection may be a matter of proximity in instance the foundation is part of a building building industry should do, how this could space, of generations supplanting one and also a means of enabling it to be built on best be done, and what reforms this suggests another or of different species that feed on that spot; but generally the path diverges: a - indeed a tough proposition. one another. crane is a means of building a tower, but not If you look at the building industry in a global Relationships part of it, a building is a part of a village but a sort of way it embraces all the activities In our building activity we are mainly inter­ means of educating children or manufactur­ which shape our physical environment. But ested in three such relationships: ing shoes. Obviously the ends and means the environment is the product of our way of (1) The relation of part and whole relationship affects the design very much, life, and it again influences our way of life. In (2) That of means and ends and if this is closed upwards it too must be the past the environment, the landscape in all defined by the brief, which must specify (3) What I might call the spiritual relationship exactly what the entity is going to be used for. its natural and urban forms just happened, it between inanimate objects, usually thought was never before deliberately created by of as aesthetic, though I don't think this word The chain of means and ends generally ends man, except in small patches. The technol­ covers it entirely. up in some spiritual sphere implying value ogical revolution is changing all that. Man's judgements. We build a school for the educa­ This last is a very difficult relationship or battle with nature has been won. Whether we tion of children - for what? Value judge­ like it or not, we are now burdened with the quality to define, describe or manipulate - ments, whether in the sphere of art, ethics, administration of the conquered territory. but is of the greatest importance. The words religion or politics tend to be controversial. Nature reserves, landscape, townscape; they ·art' or 'artistic' are vague enough to cover it, Therefore the further we go along the line to perhaps. I will return to it later. will all be wantonly destroyed, to the ultimate search for the ultimate ends, the more dif­ ruin of man, or they must be deliberately plan­ In the total building activity relating to an ficult it is to reach agreement on what these ned to serve his need. Much has been entity or a job, it is usual and indeed useful to ends are. distinguish between two stages, design and destroyed already and more will be Paradox execution. destroyed, but the alarm has sounded. Pollu­ We are laced with the paradox that the pur­ tion, population explosion, etc., are news. Design can be simply defined as ·construc­ suit of value of some kind or other is un­ The battle is on, and it is a crucial battle for tive forethought'. Designing is a mental doubtedly the mainspring of action, and yet if mankind. Those who long to return to the activity devoted to 'figuring out' and deciding people rea lly went about thinking about the good old days must be told firmly that that how to make or build a thing or an entity, what ultimate purpose of all they did nothing would road is now closed. it should be made of, what it should look like, ever get done, there would only be a glorious Logically, we would now have to define man's how it should be made, etc. fight about what ought to be done. needs to enable us to discuss the means to A design is the sum of all these decisions This kind of thing is not unknown in human provide them. recorded in the form of drawings, sketches, affairs, but fortunately it is not what people This, I am afraid, is beyond the wit of man. models, prototypes, instructions, specifica­ normally do. In most cases they don't think at How we want to live is a matter of values, and tions, etc., covering all the facts which must all - and that is perhaps going a bit far in the values are under debate. Even if a vague ideal be known and the processes which must be other direction. They are quite happy to pur­ way of life could be agreed on - and it could gone through to realize the project. sue means without bothering about the end only be vague - the way to achieve it would Defined in this way, the design is obviously - let alone anything so remote as an be equally debatable. Any hope of defining the key to what is built. The actual building or ultimate end. In fact means have a habit of the task of the building industry on the basis execution is equally important, or more becoming ends in themselves. This saves of some such ultimate aim must, I am afraid, important if you like, but it does not add thinking, and encourages action. But, seen in be abandoned, at least as far as this lecture is anything to the concept of the thing, if it is a wider context, it could be the wrong action. concerned. carried out as visualized in the design. The artistic relationship of things may also The purpose of life is like that of a work of art, What I will call 'the total design ' defines the affect the design - the whole in relation to its it emerges only during the making. entity completely. surroundings and its parts - but is of course This doesn't mean that we can do nothing. I I use the words 'total design' to distinguish it also often controversial. think we can give a push in the right direction, from what usually goes under the name of A part design is either a part of a total design and if enough join in , it may even have some design, or is called a sketch, scheme, blue­ or a total design of a part, in relation to a given effect. print or plan - which are generally only par- entity. 27 Mining and Metallurgy Laboratories, Birmingham 1966 Arup Associates

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In theory the total design includes all its part I described designing as a mental activity. It (3) The effort, devotion and enthusiasm designs, but in practice the obligation to is set in motion by the challenge of a par­ applied to the problem. define all its constituent parts is mostly ticular practical problem. that of satisfying a This is not exactly surprising. It means that discharged by making use of already de­ brief with means which are available, or can the best designs are produced by good signed and mass produced parts and partly be made available. designers with plenty of knowledge and processed materials readily available. We are To meet this challenge the designer's mind experience and plenty of imagination, moving strongly in that direction; it simplifies must be stocked with a great deal of ingenuity and inventive capacity, who take design, encourages mass-production of stan­ knowledge about available materials, their the trouble to gather all the relevant informa­ dard components, thereby lowering cost, and behaviour under various conditions, their tion and keep on worrying about the design if coupled with such practices as using stan­ cost, their durability and the manner in which until they are completely satisfied with the dard computer programs for statistical they can be used, about processes and con­ result. And perhaps we should throw in a bit calculations it can speed up everything - but struct ion techniques and a host of other of luck and an interesting problem to solve. it also reduces the freedom of the designer things which are far too numerous to mention What the designer is trying to do is to produce and the possibility of matching the parts to here. He must have the ability to supplement a structure of building which the whole - so necessary tor artistic ex­ this knowledge and experience with new data (1) Functions well cellence. A proper integration may therefore relevant to the particular problem - for (2) Looks well require a needed part like a window or parti­ instance site conditions, local resources, etc. tion to be specially designed by the design - and if his own resources are insufficient, (3) Lasts well team in collaboration with the producers of he must get advice elsewhere. Lack of expert (4) Costs little, the article. As manufacturers are often knowledge is not conducive to excellence. He but if we survey the whole field of possible backward in applying rigorous functional or must have a thorough look at the brief, absorb structures, the emphasis placed on these aesthetic criteria to their products, the result it in his mind, question it and criticize it and four demands differs widely. can be a great improvement in the design of have it supplemented if necessary. Having this part, thus both lowering costs and rais­ All structures must fulfil their particular func­ marshalled sufficient data to start with, he tion, for that is the reason for building them. ing standards. But it can only be done for sets to work on the problem. His imagination large repetitive jobs. juggles with the data, hauls out for inspection But the functions vary, from those which are Since the start of the Modern Movement various combinations and possibilities, easi ly defined but difficult to fulfil (such as architects have toyed with the idea of a stan­ discards them, tries again - intuition, inven­ bridging a gorge), to others which wou ld be dard, prefabricated kit of parts which could tion, ingenuity spring into action, tentative easy enough to fulfil if only we could manage be assembled into different types of building: solutions emerge, are developed, analyzed, to define them (such as those of teaching strangely enough, for it would kill what is adopted as working hypotheses, new rele­ hospitals, involving several authorities and a generally understood by architecture, and vant data collected, partial decisions made, large number of doctors all with their dif­ anyhow it is, and has always been, nonsense. etc. It is difficult to describe this process in ferent and often conflicting demands which are, moreover, likely to change before the You can design a system of limited flexibility detail, and I think it is quite impossible to building is finished). with a limited number of standard parts, but replace it with some computerized technique, the parts can then only be used for that as has been suggested. The result will All structures should also look right - they system. depend on three th ings: create our man-made environment which is of We started this inquiry by considering a par­ concern to us all. But the importance of this (1) The completeness of the data on which varies widely - between, tor instance, a jetty ticular entity, its position in the chain of the design is based things, and its design, by which it is defined. and a cathedral. How then is a design of excellence or quality (2) The quality of the brain in which the All structures must also last well - that is, 28 produced? design process takes place they must be stable and able to withstand Factory, IBM Havant 1970 Arup Associates

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wear and tear by natural forces or imposed built on quite different principles and did not The difference between builders and civil loads. This again may be a simple matter, or have anything to do with architecture. Ordin· engineering contractors is also disappearing. in the case of daring engineering structures, ary houses were, and are still to some extent, Buildings are just as much constructed as are a very complicated one. the province of builders. bridges or radio-masts. If we add to this that And finally, all structures should cost as little The traditional differences persist in the dif· technological advance has produced a host of new experts and specialists, and corn· as possible, but again, the need for economy ferences in background, training and outlook puterized techniques for dealing with all this varies. Economy is a matter of devising a sen­ of the two professions. 50 years ago they sible way of building the structure. It didn't even speak the same language. Each bewildering detail, it is clear that in large com­ therefore depends on engineering design and profession lacked understanding of the plex jobs we cannot manage with one des­ construction - not on costing, which is a values the other profession stood for, which igner on each job, we need dozens. means of guessing more or less accurately naturally led to a neglect of those values in This brings us to the very topical subject of what the cost will be. Even the richest client their own designs. The natural tendency of a teamwork. doesn't want to spend more than necessary. designer to care for the appearance of what I have earlier emphasized the need to integ­ he creates was actually thwarted rather than rate all design decisions relating to a job. The Corresponding to this difference in emphasis encouraged in the education of engineers, we are wont to divide structures into two growing specialization makes that very dif· with predictable results. And the emphasis ficult, but it also makes it more necessary categories, architectural and engineering on the spiritual quality and preoccupation structures. than ever if we are to produce the perfect job with architectural theories in architectural - or let us say a job which is as good as we Roughly speaking, engineering structures schools sometimes made pupils forget about can make it. I am quite convinced that lack of are those which have an easily defined and how their beautiful drawings were to be proper integration of design decisions is undisputed function but which present struc­ transformed into real buildings. largely responsible for the mediocrity of tural problems of some intricacy, whereas Even the firms which carried out the work - much of what is built today. What we build architectural structures are those where the split between designers and constructors should always be a whole, an entity, and the aesthetic and functional problems dominate. having occurred centuries before - were job of designing it is very much the job of giv­ And of course architectural structures are divided into builders, working for architects, ing it the wholeness of a work of art, and the supposed to be designed by architects and and engineering contractors, working for inevitability of the perfect tool. If you split the engineering structures by engineers. engineers. design up amongst a number of specialist This division has done a great deal of harm, Architecture designers each acting more or less indepen· because it has diverted attention from the The Modern Movement changed all that in dently, plus various clients and authorities fact that all structures must be submitted to theory. It was discovered that the work of who do not even realize that they are making the threefold discipline of functional, bygone engineers was in fact architecture. It design decisions which may affect the design aesthetic and structural or technological is now accepted that bridges and factories adversely, you won't get a whole but a hotch· organization. But it has its roots deep in and all that are architecture. So is housing, in potch. You don't get quality that way, history. Architecture, building as a 'fine' art, fact everything built is architecture. And the anyhow. can trace its origin back to antiquity. It con­ same spirit which is supposed to be moving I come back to what I said before, that the cerned itself with the design of mansions and architects is behind town-planning and land· quality of a design depends on three things: important public buildings according to vary­ scaping as well as interior design and furnish­ (1) The completeness of the relevant data ing principles or theories which had more to ing. Everything made by man for man's use do with forms, spaces and proportions than now has to be designed. And in all these (2) The quality of the brain of the designer with strains and stresses. Engineering struc­ spheres dedicated engineers are trying to (3) The effort, devotion and enthusiasm tures - bridges, tunnels, harbours, etc., - conjure forth that mystical spiritual quality applied, except that now we are not dealing were classed as utility structures. They were which is the essence of art. with one brain but with many. 29 7, 500

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As it is the design which, apart from fluc­ the more money he makes, and the worse the That the public as a whole does not under­ tuating factors, determines the cost of the design will be, probably without the client stand that design is a creative activity which job, costing, which of course is very being any the wiser. This is perhaps not quite determines the quality of the job is shown by necessary, must be an integral part of design­ so serious as may appear, because firms the attitude of clients and government ing, and the quantity surveyor - and that depend for their commissions on their reputa­ departments, of lawyers and adminis­ incidentally is a bad name, for the taking out tion and standing in the profession, which is trators. Of course there is a good deal of of quantities is in itself a very simple job if it is built up gradually through their performance. routine design, which is just a repetition of not unnecessarily complicated to impress But the client, as an outsider, can easily be previous designs, according to given rules. the layman - must immerse himself in the taken in by experienced client-charmers. But quality can only be produced by per­ prime cost of various site and factory opera­ The professional institutions exist to: sonal effort, and that takes time. That time is tions, etc., to become a useful member of the (1) Protect the public by ensuring that seldom available. The difference between a good and a bad design can be tremendous design team. everybody entitled to practise has the That individual quantity surveyors can be very necessary qualifications and obeys ct1rtain - but the client pays the same for both, and as cash is the only acknowledged yardstick useful indeed in the present situation is rules of conduct for value, they are assumed to be equally ac­ another matter altogether. I have always (2) Advance the disciplines and skills on maintained that character and intelligence ceptable. A great mistake. The cost of the which the profession is based and enhance fee is actually insignificant compared with are more important than letters after the the reputation and social status of the profes­ name. the cost of the job and the effect of the sion design on the job. But unfortunately one It is quite impossible for me to deal with all (3) Prevent competition by unscrupulous or cannot be sure of getting a better job by pay­ the other factors which inhibit integrated undignified means likely to mislead the design - private property rights, the ing a higher fee - as might be the case with public, or by unqualified persons, and one fragmentation of public authority, the restric­ sculptors or opera singers. The effort must could perhaps add tions too freely imposed in the form of bye­ be given freely from an inner compulsion. laws and regulations, etc. I will just say a few (4) Thus fix a scale of fees and conditions of But the extra cost involved for the designers words about the dichotomies between design employment from a position of strength. may of course be inhibiting. In fact, fee and building, and between professional and As you see, this is a mixture of public and scales are much too low to allow for the ef­ fort to produce a masterpiece; it's a luxury commercial. private benefits - the only way a thing like that can be made to work at all - and it has one indulges in for one's own pleasure. They Design on the whole worked well. It encourages pro­ are too high for the far too frequently Over a large area of the building industry fessional pride - which is both good and mediocre design: they are too low for small design is undertaken by professional firms bad. It is good because it embraces pride in jobs, too high for large. They are too low for for a fee, and building by commercial firms for you r work, the essential quest for quality. But service engineers to do their job as they what they can get in the market. This dif­ when the pride leads to pomposity and should, which they as a consequence ference in remuneration widens the gulf bet­ sectarianism it is bad. Specialization is seldom do - they get the contractor to do ween them and inhibits collaboration, necessary, the practice of 'apartheid' bet­ the detailing. And they are too high for quan­ because a free and frank discussion about ween professions is absurd and harmful. tity surveyors. But as you can't measure quality or the real value of the service to the design and construction methods and costs I should like to see the various institutions is bedevilled by the reluctance of the builder client, there is not much you can do about it. pulling together more to fufil their role as All this is of course my personal opinion, and to put the cards on the table for fear of the guardians of quality. And it seems to me that financial implications. In any case both I have said enough already to get my neck the organization of construction or building wrung. methods of remuneration are highly unsatis­ ought to be a profession, and should grad­ factory - but it is not easy to suggest any ually be merged with the activity of designing. Conclusion better. To award the contract to the lowest Then nothing would hinder the free exchange I have dealt rather perfunctorily with the tenderer in open competition is a very risky of information. This would in my opinion be a obstacles to a good design - I have no time undertaking for the client, as has been shown better way than making design a commercial to look at the other side of the coin. It would over and over again. It is the quality and effi· activity and merging it with building, as in the present a picture of great endeavour by ciency of the firm that matters to him. contractor's package deal. The latter gives many designers to improve the quality of And vis-a-vis the professional designer, the the public no protection - and the quest for design. The best architectural and engineer­ architect or consulting engineer, the client is quality, for artistic wholeness, would suffer a ing design is getting better all the time, and in some respects helpless; he must take him serious setback, in competition with soulless is setting an example which will have a or his firm on trust, as you must your doctor, efficiency. After all, the professional man has greater effect than mere talk. And powerful dentist or solicitor. The choice of consultant his standards of excellence, his pride in his corporations and firms who seek to increase is obviously very important for the client, yet work, for which he is usually prepared to their prestige by the way they build are is often undertaken very lightly. This method make a great effort, even if it does not pay. I realizing that vu lgar display is less convinc­ of remuneration does not call for competition expect most professional firms lose on those ing than al l-round excellence. In the end it in design, which could be stimulating, but is jobs they are most proud of. A commercial will be the general level of understanding of at the same time fraught with danger. In fact, firm's first duty on the other hand is to pay a what good bui lding could do for us, which the less the consultant spends on the design, dividend to its shareholders. wi ll decide what we get. 33 It is not the wish to expand, but the quest tor iate distribution among the members, 'Key speech' quality which has brought us to this position, whether partners or stall. So aim No. 3 con­ for we have realized that only intimate inte­ flicts to that extent with aims 1 and 2. gration of the various parts or the various Moreover, if money is made the main aim - if This talk was given on 9 July 1970 at disciplines will produce the desired result. we are more greedy than is reasonable - it Winchester during one of the meetings of the The term 'Total Architecture' implies that all will accentuate the natural conflict about Arup Organization. relevant design decisions have been con­ how the profit should be distributed between sidered together and have been integrated our members - the partners and stall or the In its pre-natal stage, this talk has been into a whole by a well-organized team different grades ot stall. honoured with the name of 'key-speech'. It is empowered to fix priorities. This is an ideal The trouble with money is that it is a dividing doubtful whether it can live up to this name. which can never - or only very rarely - be force, not a uniting force, as is the quest for What is it supposed to be the key to? The fully realized in practice, but which is well quality or a humanitarian outlook. If we let it tutu re ot the firm? The philosophy? The aims? worth striving for, for artistic wholeness or divide us, we are sunk as an organization - At the moment, sitting in my garden and excellence depends on it, and tor our own at least as a force tor good. waiting tor inspiration, I would be more sake we need the stimulation produced by So much for our aims. As aims, they are not in inclined to call it: 'Musings of an old gentle­ excellence. dispute. What is debatable, is how vigorously man in a garden' - and leave it at that. The humanitarian attitude each shall be pursued - which is the most I have written before a piece called Aims and The other general principle, the humanitarian important; how to balance long term against Means for a conference ol Senior and attitude, leads to the creation of an organi­ short term aims. Let us first see what these Executive Partners in London on 7 July 1969. zation which is human and friendly in spite of aims imply. It did not manage to deal much with means, being large and efficient. Where every however, and it is ot course difficult to Obviously, to do work of quality, we must member is treated not only as a link in a chain have people of quality. We must be experts at generalize about means, tor they must vary of command, not only as a wheel in a bureau­ with circumstances. The first part of this what we undertake to do. Again, there are cratic machine, but as a human being whose many kinds ot quality, and there are many paper was published in Newsletter 37, happiness is the concern of all, who is treated kinds of job to do, so we must have many November '69. This you may have read - but I not only as a means but as an end. kinds people, each which can do their will shortly summarize the aims of the firm as ot ot Of course it is always sound business to keep own job well . And they must be able to work I see them. your collaborators happy - just as any well together. This presupposes that they There are two ways ot looking at the work you !armer must keep his cattle in good health. agree with our aims, and that they are not do to earn a living: But there is - or should be - more in it than only technically capable but acceptable to us One is the way propounded by the late Henry that. (We know what happens to cattle.) If we from a human point ot view, so that they lit Ford: Work is a necessary evil , but modern want our work to be interesting and reward­ into our kind of organization; and that they technology will reduce it to a minimum. Your ing, then we must try to make it so tor all our are ettectively organized, so that the respon­ life is your leisure lived in your 'free' time. people - and that is obviously much more sibility of each is clearly defined and The other is: difficult, not to say impossible. It is again an accepted. In short, we must be efficient - To make your work interesting and rewarding. ideal, unattainable in full, but worth striving individually, in all our sub-divisions, and as a You enjoy both your work and your leisure. for. It leads to the wish to make everybody world organization. aware ot, and interested in , our aims and to We opt uncompromisingly tor th e second I have tried to summarize the foregoing in a make the environment and working condi· number of points. Like all classification, it is way. There are also two ways of looking at the lions as pleasant as possible within the pursuit ot happiness: arbitrary and rough - but may nevertheless available means. be useful as a help to understanding and dis­ One is to go straight for the things you fancy This attitude also dictates that we should act cussion, if its imperfections and its without restraints, that is, without consider­ honourably in our dealings with our own and incompleteness are borne in mind. ing anybody else besides yourself. other people. We should justify the trust of The main aims ot the firm are: The other is to recognize that no man is an our clients by giving their interest first priority Group A island, that our lives are inextricably mixed up in the work we do tor them. Internally, we (1) Quality ot work with those ot our fellow human beings, and should eschew nepotism or discrimination on (2) Total architecture that there can be no real happiness in isola· the basis of nationality, re ligion, race, colour (3) Humane organization tion. Which leads to an attitude which would or sex - basing such discrimination as there (4) Straight and honourable dealings accord to others the rights claimed tor must be on ability and character. oneself, which would accept certain moral or (5) Social usefulness Humanitarianism also implies a social con­ (6) Reasonable prosperity of members. humanitarian restraints. science, a wish to do socially useful work, We, again, opt tor the second way. and to join hands with others lighting tor the It these aims could be realized to a consider­ able degree, they should result in : These two general principles are not in same values. Our pursuit ot quality should in dispute. I will elaborate them a little further: itself be useful. II we in isolated cases can Group B (7) Satisfied members The first means that our work should be shown how our environment can be impro­ (8) Satisfied clients interesting and rewarding. Only a job done ved , this is likely to have a much greaterettect (9) Good reputation and influence. well, as well as we can do it - and as well as than mere propaganda. it can be done - is that. We must therefore There is a third aim besides the search tor But this will need: strive tor quality in what we do, and never be quality ot work and the right human relation­ Group C satisfied with the second-rate. There are ships, namely prosperity tor all our members. (10) A membership ot quality many kinds of quality. In our work as Most people would say that this is our main (11) Efficient organization structural engineers we had - and have - to aim, this is why we are in business. But it (12) Solvency satisfy the criteria for a sound, lasting and would be wrong to look at it as our main aim. (13) Unity and enthusiasm. economical structure. We add to that the We should rather look at it as an essential claim that it should be pleasing aesthetically, pre-requisite tor even the partial fulfilment ot 01 course there is not really any strict tor without that quality it doesn't really give any of our aims. For it is an aim which, if over­ demarcation between aims (Group A) and satisfaction to us or to others. And then we emphasized, easily gets out ol hand and means (Group C) and the results (Group B) come up against the tact that a structure is becomes very dangerous tor our harmony, flowing from the whole or partial fulfilment of generally a part ot a larger unit, and we are unity and very existence. the aims in A. And it is not absolutely certain frustrated because to strive for quality in only It costs money to produce quality, especially that these results are obtained. For instance, a part is almost useless if the whole is when we expand into fields where we have no A3 and 4 (a humane organization and straight undistinguished, unless the structure is large contractual obligations and can expect no dealings) can as well be considered as a means, and in fact all the points are to some enough to make an impact on its own. We are pay tor our ettorts. We may even antagonize extent both aims and means, because they led to seek overall quality, fitness for pur· people by poaching on their domain or by reinforce each other. And there will be pose, as well as satisfying or significant upsetting and criticizing traditional pro­ members who are dissatisfied no matter how forms and economy of construction. To this cedures. must be added harmony with the surround­ good the firm is, and the same may apply to ings and the overall plan. We are then led to It also costs money to ·coddle' the stall with clients, who may not appreciate quality at all. generosity and welfare, or to lose lucrative the ideal of 'Total Architecture', in collabora· But on the whole, what I said is true. We commissions by refusing to bribe a minister tion with other likeminded firms or, still bet­ should keep the six aims in A in view all the in a developing country, or to take our duty ter, on our own. This means expanding our time, and concentrate on the means to bring too seriously ii nobody is looking. field of activity into adjoining fields - them about. architecture, planning, ground engineering, Money spent on these 'aims' may be wisely But before I do this, I will try to explain why I environmental engineering, computer pro­ spent in the long term, and may cause the am going on about aims, ideals and moral gramming, etc. and the planning and leaders of the firm a certain satisfaction - principles and all that and don't get down to 34 organization ot the work on site. but ii so spent it is not available for immed- brass tacks. I do this simply because I think these aims are very important. I can't see the through.' That's rather more uncompromis· might with some justification be accused of point in having such a large firm with offices ing, more heroic. It springs from a different it. So I am afraid we have to fall back on all over the world unless there is something temperament. It's equally useful in the right 'philosophy'. Having dabbled in this subject which binds us together. If we were just place. But the man that bangs his head in my youth I have been averse to seeing the ordinary consulting engineers carrying on against a wall may learn a thing or two from term degraded by talk about the philosophy business just as business to make a comfort· the reed than bends in the wind. of pile-driving or hair-dressing, but it is of able living, I can't see why each office The trouble with the last maxim is that it says course useless to fight against the tide. The couldn't carry on, on its own. The idea of something about the way, but not about the word has come to stay - and in 'the phil· somebody in London ·owning· all these goal. The way must be adapted to the cir· osophy of the firm', it is not used quite so businesses and hiring people to bring in the cumstances - the goal is much more badly. So that's what I have been giving you a dough doesn't seem very inspiring. Unless we dependent on what sort of person you are. I dose of. have a 'mission' - although I don't like the admit that the last maxim also says a good I will now discuss what we have to do in order word - but something 'higher' to strive for - deal about the man who propounds it, a man to live up to our philosophy. And I will do it and I don't particularly like that expression of courage, of action, perhaps not given too under the four headings 10 to 13 in my list of either - but unless we feel that we have a much to reflection, perhaps not a very wise aims and means: special contribution to make which our very man. The wise man will consider whether this (10) Quality staff size and diversity and our whole outlook can way is possible, whether it leads to the (11) Efficiency help to achieve, I for one am not interested. I desired result. Unless of course his goal is to suppose that you feel the same, and therefore go through, not to arrive anywhere, like the (12) Solvency my words to you may seem superfluous; but it man in the sports car. But this only shows (13) Unity and enthusiasm is not enough that you feel it, everybody in the that it is the goal which is important, but it will of course be necessary to mix them firm should as far as possible be made to feel whatever it is. up to some extent. it and to believe that we, the leaders of the The star system is an attempt to soften the Quality of staff fi~m . really believe in it and mean to work for it rigidity of moral principles. But it doesn't How do we ensure that our staff is of the right and not just use it as a flag to put out on Sundays. And they won't believe that unless really solve this dilemma. It is a little more quality, or the best possible quality? flexible than moral precepts as to the way, we do. We all realize, of course, that there is a key but surely the 'stars' must be fixed - for if On the other hand, who am I to tell you and question. The whole success of our venture they can be changed ad lib the whole thing depends on our staff. But what can we do the firm what you should think and feel in the wobbles. And that in a way is what it does - I future when I am gone - or before that, for about it? We have the staff we have - we can't do anything about that. I should have must make do with them, of course (and I that matter. It wouldn't be any good my trying loved to present you with a strictly logical to lay down the law, and I haven't the slightest think we have a larger proportion of really build-up, deducing the aims for the firm from good people than any other firm of our kind). inclination to do so. That is my difficulty. I unassailable first principles. Or perhaps this dislike hard principles, ideologies and the And when we take on new people - the is an exaggeration - for I know very well that choice is limited. Again we have to take the like. They can do more harm than good, they this can't be done. All I can do is to try to make can lead to wholesale murder, as we have best we can get. We cannot pay them a much the members of the firm like the aims I have higher salary than our average scale, seen. And yet we cannot live life entirely mentioned. I would like to persuade them that without principles. But they have in some way because that would upset our solvency and they are good and reasonable and not too sink the boat. Naturally our method of selec· to be flexible, to be adaptable to changing cir· impossible aims, possessing an inner cohe· cumstances. 'Thou shall not lie', 'Thou shall lion is important, and what we can do to sion, reinforcing each other by being not only educate our staff and give th em opportunities not kill', are all very well , generally, but do not aims but means to each other's fulfilment. apply if for instance you are tortured by to develop is important, but I can't go into fanatical Nazis or Communists to reveal the 'Stars' like goodness, beauty, justice have details here. All I can say is that staff getting whereabouts of their innocent victims. Then been powerful forces in the history of man· and staff 'treating' must not degenerate into it is your duty to mislead. What these kind - but they so often are obscured by a a bureaucratic routine matter, but must be on commandments should define is an attitude. mental fog - or perhaps I should say the a personal level. When we come across a To be truthful always, wherever it does no opposite - they are created by a mental fog, really good man, grab him, even if we have no harm to other ideals more important in the and when the fog lifts, they are seen to have immediate use for him, and then see to it that context, to respect the sanctity of human life been illusions. They are man-made. I do not he stays with us. and not to destroy life wantonly. But where to rate them less for that reason - but they are The last is the really important point, which in draw the line in border cases depends on who too remote, too indefinable, to be of much the long run will be decisive. Why should a you are, what life has taught you, how strong practical use as guide-lines. They sustain or really good man, a man - or woman - who you are. are born of the longings of mankind, and can get a job anywhere or who could possibly belong to the ideal world of Plato - which is In the following 13 points, which I must have start out on his own, why should he or she fixed for ever. Rigid ideologies feed on them. choose to stay with us? If there is a convinc· jotted down some time ago - I found them in Not so practical politics. an old file - I am grappling with this ques· ing and positive answer to that, then we are tion, perhaps not very successfully. I give Our aims on the other hand are not nearly so on the right way. remote. We will never succeed in fulfilling them to you now: Presumably a good man comes to us in the them in toto, but they can be fulfilled more or first instance because he likes the work we Principles less, and the more the better. And they are not do, and shares or is converted to our (1) Some people have moral principles. grasped arbitrarily out of the sky or wilfully philosophy. If he doesn't, he is not much good (2) The essence of moral principles is that imposed, they are natural and obvious and to us anyhow. He is not mainly attracted by they should be 'lived'. will, I am sure, be recognized as desirable by the salary we can offer, although that is of all of you: so much so, in fact, that the thing to (3) But only saints and fanatics do follow course an important point - but by the be explained is not why they are desirable, moral principles always. opportunity to do interesting and rewarding but why I should waste any words on them. (4) Which is fortunate. work, where he can use his creative ability, be I do, as I pointed out at the beginning of this fully extended, can grow and be given (5) Are then moral principles no good? argument, because our aims are the only responsibility. If he finds after a while that he (6) It appears we can't do without them. thing which holds us together, and because it is frustrated by red tape or by having some· (7) It also appears we can't live up to them. is not enough to approve them, we must work one breathing down his neck, someone for (8) So what? for them - and the leaders must be prepared whom he has scant respect, if he has little (9) A practical solution is what I call the star to make sacrifices for them. Temporary influence on decisions which affect his work system. diversions there must be, we have to make do and which he may not agree with, then he will with the second best if the best is not within pack up and go. And so he should. It is up to (10) The star - or ideal - indicates the reach, we have to accept expediencies - and us, therefore, to create an organization which course. Obstacles in the way are circum· from a strict point of view all our activities can will allow gifted individuals to unfold. This is navigated but one gets back on the course be considered as expediencies, for in theory not easy, because there appears to be a fun· after the deviation. they could all be better still - but the impor· damental contradiction between organiza· (11) The system is adopted by the Catholic tan! thing is that we always get back on the lion and freedom. Strong-willed individuals church. Sins can be forgiven if repented - it course, that we never lose sight of the aims. may not take easily to directions from above. doesn't affect the definition of good or evil. Hence the name star system derived from But our work is teamwork and teamwork - (12) That this system can degenerate into comparison with old-fashioned navigation. except possibly in very small teams - needs permanent deviation is obvious. But I propose to abandon this expression, to be organized, otherwise we have chaos. (13) One needs a sense of proportion. partly because its meaning in the film And the greater the unit, the more it needs to industry may confuse, especially as it is very be organized. Most strong men, if they are Incidentally, they should not be taken as an opposed to our point of view, which is in also wise, will accept that. Somebody must encouragement to join the Catholic church! favour of teamwork rather than stardom: and have authority to take decisions, the respons· I found also another tag: also because it suggests star-gazing, which I ibility of each member must be clearly 'The way out is not the way round but the way find uncomfortably near the bone because I defined, understood and accepted by all. The 35 authority should also be spread downwards forward-looking, that it is what is needed to­ good. This is a fact of life we cannot change. as far as possible, and the whole pattern day, is in tune with the new spirit stirring in It is no good pretending that all are equal - should be flexible and open to revision. our time. But of course there are many other they aren't. There should be equality before We know all this, and we have such an and dangerous spirits about and too much the law, and as far as possible equality of organization: we have both macro, micro and growth may awaken them. Too much growth opportunity, of course. But the fact that you infra-structure. It has been developed, been may also mean too little fruit. are good at something is something you improved, and it could undoubtedly be My advice would be: should be grateful for, not something to be improved still further. We are of course trying conceited about. It doesn't mean that you are 'Stadig over de klipper', or if you prefer: to do that all the time. The organization will better as a human being. And there are pro­ naturally be related to some sort of hierarchy, Take it easy! bably many other things you are hopeless at. which should as far as possible be based on More haste less speed! No man should be despised or feel ashamed function, and there must be some way of fix­ Hatez-vous lentement! because of the work he does, as long as he ing remuneration, for to share the available does it as well as he can. What we should aim profit equally between all from senior partner Eile mit weile! at, naturally, is to put each man on to the work to office-boy would not be reasonable, nor Hastvaerk er lastvaerk! he can do. And, fortunately, there is nearly would it work. And all this is very tricky, as always something he can do well. We will It's the fruit that matters. I have a lingering you know, because, as soon as money and have square pegs in round holes, we shall doubt about trying to gain a foothold in status come into the picture, greed and envy have frustrated people, unfortunately - various exotic places. Might we not say and intrigue are not far behind. One difficulty those who are not frustrated one way or instead: Thank God that we have not been is particularly knotty, the question of owner­ another are in the minority. But fortunately invited to do a job in Timbuctoo - think of all ship, which is connected with 'partnership'. people vary, as jobs vary, and few would want the trouble we are avoiding. It's different with There is dissatisfaction amongst some of to do the job another calls interesting if they the work we do in Saudi Arabia, Tehran and those who in fact carry out the functions of a are no good at it. Kuwait. There we are invited in at the top, partner - dealing with clients, taking deci­ If we can reach a stage where each man or sions binding on the firm, etc. - because working with good architects, doing exciting work. We are not hammering at the door from women is respected for the job they do, and is they cannot legally call themselves partners doing his or her best because the atmosphere but are 'executive' partners - or have some outside. But as a rule, grab and run jobs are not so useful for our purpose. I think the is right, because they are proud of what we other title. I have discussed this problem in are and do, and share in the general enthus­ my paper. Aims and Means. If some viable Overseas Department agrees with this in prin­ ciple, if not in practice. iasm, then we are home. And each job is way could be found to make 100 partners, I important. Secretaries, for instance. They wouldn't mind, but I can't think of any. It's also different with civil engineering work, could have a tremendously civilizing In the Ove Arup Partnership we have all but provided we have control - complete control influence on our staff. They could teach them eliminated ownership - the senior partners - over the design and are not 'sharing' the to write English, for instance, a most impor­ job or having a quantity surveyor or 'agent', only act as owners during their tenure of tant and necessary job. But secretaries who office - because someone has to, according etc., imposed on it preventing us from doing can do that are of course at a premium. We the job our way. The general rule should be: if to the laws of the country. And I wish that must try to find them. It is even more impor­ we can do a job we will be proud of after­ system could be extended to all our partner­ tant than that they are good-looking - and wards, well and good - but we will do it our ships. It no doubt irks some people that the nobody could accuse me of being indifferent way. In the long run this attitude pays, as it money invested in the firm may one day (with to that. some contriving) fall into the turban of people has already done in the case of Arup Associates. And incidentally, the control of Our messengers and cleaners - how impor­ who have done nothing to earn it - but what tant it is that they are reliable and likeable, can we do? The money is needed for the such jobs should be where our expertise resides. human, with a sense of humour. A cheerful stability of the firm, it makes it possible f0r us remark can brighten the day. All our people to earn our living and to work for a good To export Arup Associates' jobs is much are part or us, part of our 'image', create the cause, so why worry? more difficult, for whilst we may be able to atmosphere we live in. build a bridge or radio tower in a foreign It may be possible to devise a different and But it doesn't alter the fact that the services better arrangement than the one we have locality, good architecture presupposes a much more intimate knowledge of the coun­ of a messenger are less valuable to the firm now, more 'democratic', more fair: it may be than those of a gifted designer or an imagina­ possible to build in some defences against try. Long distance architecture generally fails. But that does not mean that the ideal of tive mechanical engineer, a fact that even the the leaders misbehaving and developing messenger will understand. boss-complexes and pomposity - and Total Architecture is irrelevant to our purely forgetting that they are just as much servants engineering partnerships or divisions. In fact But there are of course people we cannot in a good cause as everybody else - only they have been founded on the idea of inte­ employ usefully. Masses of them, in fact. more so. This is partly a legal question grating structure with architecture and con­ Those we should not take on, obviously, depending on the laws of the country. But I struction, and in Scotland for instance they except on a strictly temporary basis. But have neither the ability nor the time to deal are trying to give architects a service which sometimes they are found inside the firm. with all that here. What I want to stress is the will unite these domains. They may have been good once, but are on obvious fact that no matter how wonderful an Coming back to my main theme, I realize that the way down. I am a case in point myself. But organization we can devise, its success when I have been talking about quality, about their loyal service, their place in the hierarchy, depends on the people working in it - and for interesting and rewarding work, about Total makes it difficult to de-grade them. To deal it. And if all our members really and sincerely Architecture, and attracting people of calibre, with them requires much tact, and is embarr­ believed in the aims which I have enumerated, you may accuse me of leaving reality behind. assing. But they should not be allowed to pre­ if they felt some enthusiasm for them, the 'As you said yourself', you may say, 'our work tend to do jobs they are no good at. They must battle would be nearly won. For they imply a is teamwork. And most of this work is pretty not prevent the good ones from functioning. dull. It is designing endless reinforced con­ humanitarian attitude, respect and con­ It's a problem all firms have, it's one of the crete floors, taking down tedious letters sideration for persons, fair dealings, and the cases where humanity and efficiency clash. about the missing bolts, changing some rest, which all tend to smooth human relation­ To resolve it tactfully may be expensive, not ships. And anyone having the same attitude details for the nth time, attending site to resolve it is fatal. who comes into an atmosphere like that, is at meetings dealing with trivialities, taking least more likely to feel at home in it. And if messages, making tea - what is exciting So far I haven't said much about solvency. the right kind of people feel at home with us, about that? You are discriminating in favour Stuart Irons can tell you something about they will bring in other people of their kind, of an elite, it's undemocratic. What about the that. I compare it to stability in engineering and this again will attract a good type of people who have to do the dull work?' structures - without it the whole thing col­ client and this will make our work more lapses but if you have much more money than interesting and rewarding and we will turn out Equality of opportunity you need the usefulness of it declines until it better work, our reputation and influence will You have certainly a point there. Of course I becomes distracting and dangerous. That grow, and the enthusiasm of our members am discriminating in favour of quality, and I danger need not worry us for the time being. would do anything to enable our bright people will grow - it is this enthusiasm which must At the moment the need for solvency is to use their talents. You cannot equate excel­ start the process in the first place. restricting, and is the most frequent cause of lence with mediocrity, you cannot pretend having to compromise. That we may have to And they all lived happily ever after? they are the same. We would be sunk if we did do - but let's not do it unnecessarily, and Yes, it sounds like a fairy tale, and perhaps it that. We need to produce works of quality, let's get back on course. is. But there is something in it. It is a kind of and we need those who can produce them. vicious circle - except that it isn't vicious, One perfect job is more important for the And Unity and Enthusiasm, the last item, is in but benevolent, a lucky circle. And I believe morale of the firm, for our reputation for pro­ a way what my talk has been about. It is a that we have made a beginning in getting ducing enthusiasm, than 10 ordinary jobs, question of giving the firm an identity. What onto this lucky circle. I believe that our fan­ and enthusiasm is like the fire that keeps the do we mean, when we speak about the firm, tastic growth has something to do with our steam-e ngine going. Likewise one outstand­ about 'we' or 'us'? Is it the whole collection of 36 philosophy. And I believe our philosophy is ing man is worth 10 men who are only half people in dozens of offices in different places? Are 'we' all of them or some of them, can they expect and demand loyalty from the grow fonder, unfortunately. There will always and which? members. This speech is too long already, be a need for a strong coordinating body - I think it is unavoidable that 'we' should mean and I have not even touched on what you which is at the moment formed by the senior different things in different contexts. Some­ perhaps expected to be the main subject of partners - which has the power to interfere if times what is said is only relevant to the my talk, the relationship between the Ove our principles are seriously betrayed. For upper layers of management, sometimes it is Arup Partnership and the Overseas Partner­ should that happen, it would be better to cut meant to include everybody. What we must ships. But from the foregoing my point of view off the offending limb, less the poison should aim at is to make 'we' include as many as should be clear. spread. Our name must not be allowed to cover practices which conflict with our possible as often as possible. To increase the The fact that we have these outposts all over philosophy. But at the moment there is no number of those who have a contribution to the world is of course an enormous source of danger of that, and we can take comfort from make, however small, who agree whole­ strength to us and to you, it helps to establish what has been achieved. Perhaps that should heartedly with our aims and want to throw in our reputation and power for good, and opens have been the gist of my talk? But you are see­ their lot with us. We might think about them up opportunities for all our members. This is ing it for yourself. I could also have dwelt on as members of our community; the others, however only because the leaders in these how far we have still to go; it would perhaps who come and go, might be called staff. Of places are our own people, bound to us by have accorded more with my star-gazing course there can never be any clear line of common aims and friendships. But as the old habits. But my time is up - my speech demarcation - it is not a question of signing leaders retire and growth takes place mainly should have been condensed to one-third - a form or bestowing a title - it is a matter of locally, the ties that bind us together may but it is too late now. I hope at any rate that I how each feels and what we feel about them. weaken. We should prevent this by forging haven't deserved the warning which the Duke For it is a two-way business. more ties, forming new friendships, and of Albany addressed to Goneril in King Lear: But what binds our membership together always being true to our principles. Improve must be loyalty to our aims. And only as long communications - the universal injunction How far your eyes may pierce I cannot tell. as the leaders of the firm are loyal to these nowadays. Absence does not make the heart Striving to better, oft we mar what's well.

I understand that you would want me to itself, but as a part of a common endeavour to The built speak at the Inaugural Meeting even if I create comprehensive, total architecture. should reach some such conclusion. But if That is what we have been trying to do inside environment you are doubtful about this I am very willing to our own firm. And therefore we know how dif­ This paper was given as the Building Services withdraw. ficult it is. And yet we are particularly for­ Engineering Society inaugural speech, at the I received a reply to this letter saying that the tunate in being able to foster such experi­ Institution of Civil Engineers on 26 October Chairman and Garth Watson were in no doubt ments - and they have gone far beyond that 1972. whatever that they wanted me to speak at the experimental stage now - inside a large meeting as the Society was a forum for engineering firm able to supply the necessary When I was asked to speak at this inaugural discussion and was not in itself taking any engineering experience and finance. But we meeting of the BSES I little knew what I would particular point of view on what were cer­ are, of course, all the time up against the be letting myself in for. I was told that the tainly controversial matters. Which I must reluctance of clients and government depart­ Society was formed by 10 sponsoring bodies say is a laudable attitude. ments to change established rules and pro­ cedures. Especially our insistence that our and seven affiliated bodies to advance and I also received a statement of 925 words on quantity surveyors must be part of the design disseminate knowledge in the field of the origins of the BSES and the actions taken team causes uneasiness. And yet it is so building services engineering and to foster by the CEI in regard to the learned society and obvious that accountancy cannot create any­ co-operation between all those involved with the qualifying role, ending up with an thing unless it guides what is being designed the total 'built environment'. But when I found announcement that I had accepted an invita­ and therefore what is built. The system of that neither the RI BA, the Institution of Struc­ tion to speak at this meeting on a subject of over-elaborate bills of quantities produced tural Engineers, the Institution of Heating my own choosing within the theme - the and Ventilating Engineers, the Institute of built environment. after the design is made, or worse still, before Builders, nor the Royal Institute of Chartered the design is made, is directly harmful in Surveyors were to be found among the spon­ This last qualification is not exactly what I many ways, among others because it erects a sors, I was puzzled. It was explained to me agreed to, but let that pass. barrier between the designer and the builder. that the RIBA was on the original Organizing In the meantime I had had other letters and One thing we ought to be able to agree on is, Committee of the Society, but was, in the messages, and I had talked with various peo­ that the designer must know how his design event, unable to become a sponsoring body ple concerned with the matter, and it was can be executed, and the approximate cost of but that it was hoped that they would come in obvious that there was a large number of peo­ it. If, instead, priced bills of quantities are before long. ple who thought that the forming of this new treated as secret documents which must not This explanation still left me puzzled, and I society was not only useless but directly be shown to the designer, as happens said I would have to investigate this matter harmful. They regard it as a clever device by sometimes, the whole thing becomes absurd. further and discuss the result of my investiga­ the big three, the Civil, Mechanical and Elec­ Designing is indicating a sensible way of tion in my speech. I confirmed this in a letter trical Engineering Institutions, to divert atten­ building, among other things. to Garth Watson which I will read to you: tion from what was really needed and what All this is by the way, but it reinforces my Following our telephone conversation today I they wanted to prevent: the granting of a opinion that more talking is not what is need­ think I ought to put on paper the conclusions charter to the IHVE. Opinions differed about ed . There are enough societies and journals we reached, so that there is no misunder­ what should be done instead, but whatever it where people can and do talk and write. The standing. was it would be very difficult to achieve Joint Building Group and the Junior Liaison because the other fellows wouldn't play ball. I said that I could only speak at the Inaugural Organization have more or less the same Meeting of the BSES if I could voice any con­ The whole situation is extremely confused, to aims. And if the institutions most intimately clusions I might reach after thinking about put it mildly, with institutions, charters, concerned with building oppose this venture, the whole matter of the Building Services, societies and other bodies proliferating, but it indicates that the most pressing need is not and discussing it with members of the never dying. Unity is extolled, apartheid the forming of this society, but to bring some various bodies connected with the building practised. order into the chaotic state of separate industry as a whole. I am telling you all this to enlist your sym­ institutions, chartered or otherwise, which have been created in a very accidental way in Whilst I concede the need for close integra­ pathy for the difficult situation I find myself response to technological development and tion of the work of all those concerned with in . specialization, or else because groups of the production of buildings, I have doubts I could, of course, confine myself to talking about the value of a society which does not about the need for collaboration between all engineers have been dissatisfied with the embrace the key professions represented by those concerned with the built environment. I conservatism of old institutions. the RIBA , the Institution of Structural seem to have done that all my working life, Now, it is obviously not very pleasant for me, Engineers and the IHVE. As you say, discus­ stretching over half a century or so, and I sup­ having been invited to speak at the inaugura­ sions can do no harm unless they are a pose I could so some more of it. But isn't it a tion of a new society sponsored by so many substitute for action, but what seems to be bit unkind to trot out this old war-horse? After worthy people, to come and tell you that the needed is an institution which can map out a all, we all agree on that. In all my years of whole venture is worthless, to put it much too better training for those concerned with campaigning I have never found anybody who bluntly. It is, to say the least, an odd way to building services of all kinds. It could most disagreed with it . But talking about it doesn't inaugurate a new society. naturally be based on the IHVE. and it might seem to have much effect. One must some­ It would make it easier, of course, if I could be wrong to deny them a Charter, provided how create the conditions which will allow also tell you what you should do. But I am not their standards are raised and provided only such collaboration to take place, and one as clever as that. When it comes to the those taking the new degrees can call must educate members of the building team unravelling of the tangled network of institu­ themselves Chartered Engineers. to see their own contribution not as an end in tions I am singularly inept, in fact. I know only 37 a few of them, most of the letters behind meet the criteria for constituent membership the calibre of Chartered Engineers, it is their names are meaningless to me. I am a bad of the CEI. job to do so, and it would be wrong to institution man. I could, perhaps success­ Unfortunately an ad hoe committee decided devaluate the designation C. Eng. in the eyes fully, put forward excuses or rationalizations that less than the required 75 % did so, so of other nations. And the alternative of for this, but it would be a waste of time, it they could not recommend the IHVE for elevating only some of the IHVE corporate wouldn't alter the fact. membership of the CEI. And as a result they members to the blessed state is politically The Royal Charter could not get a Royal Charter either. It seems unacceptable. So that's where we are stuck. When I look at the list of 15 chartered to be the case that no engineering institution When we turn to the question of the BSES, I engineering institutions forming the member­ will in future be able to obtain a charter must admit that I cannot understand why its ship of the CEI I feel tempted to scrap the lot without satisfying the CEI criteria. launching should actually delay the granting and begin afresh. Divide the whole field of Whether the BSES was launched by the Civils of a charter to the IHVE. On the other hand engineering into sections according to the as a sop to the wounded IHVE I don't know. It there are, as mentioned, other societies and nature of the work they have to do or the has really nothing to do with the charter institutions who are already now engaged in knowledge they have to have, and then business, because the BSES is supposed to such multi-disciplinary discussions, so why perhaps group neighbouring sections into a be only a talking shop, or perhaps I should should the Civils, Mechanical and Electrical number of institutions which together would say a learned society, and not a qualifying Engineers suddenly presume to lead in a cover the whole field of engineering, united body. And it was meant to include the archi­ domain in which until recently they have not by the CEI at the top. Inside each institution tects, structural engineers, heating and ven­ shown much interest? Other bodies, you would then have different grades, tilating engineers and builders, of course. especially the RISA and the IHVE, would con­ Chartered Engineers, Technician Engineers But now these last four have withdrawn from sider themselves more entitled to take the and Technicians, if you like. The Chartered sponsorship and any form of participation. lead in this sphere. And, of course, if it really Engineer would have a more broadly-based They all feel that the IHVE should have a is only a Building Services Engineering knowledge of mathematics, physical charter, that it is absurd that such a vital sec­ Society, then the IHVE would have a strong sciences and of all the various branch tion of the building team should, so to speak, claim. But that is another thing I don't under­ disciplines inside his particular institution, have a lower status than the other members stand: specializing in one of them, but able to repre­ of the team. And they believe that the forma­ Why should it have th is name? I thought it sent them all on the conceptive stage of tion of the BSES is distracting attention from was to ' foster co-operation between original design. And so on. New techniques or the much more important question of improv­ engineers and others in all the disciplines fields of operation would then originate ing the status and performance of the heating concerned with the design, operation and inside one of the institutional territories and and ventilating engineer. equipping of buildings' - or in another ver­ might ultimately warrant the creation of This seems to me to be a fatal blow to the sion 'with the total built environment '. So why separate institutions. And some old work­ not call it the Society for the Built ings might be closed down. BSES. For it would, I think, make sense to have a society which embraced architects, Environment? That is what I would be tempted to do, I said. heating and ventilating engineers, structural To sum up this part of my talk: The quarrel is But I am totally unequipped to do it and in any engineers and builders, for they are the four not about what is needed, but about who case it can't be done, and it is very doubtful if main members of the building team. But a should do what, and what labels to put on it would be desirable to do it. For when it BSES without them is nonsense. people. And that is really a sorry state of comes to dealing with human beings logic affairs. breaks down. To force them to do what they I am not claiming any great accuracy for this don't want to do is counter-productive. To rough outline of the problem, and I should not Motivation destroy their traditional links with the past be surprised if both the contending parties It stems, of course, from the schism in the would be wrong too. But to build on the pre­ were dissatisfied with my expose. But it motivation of a professional man. sent haphazardly disposed foundations is a wouldn't do any good losing myself in all the On the one hand he wants to do a good and very complicated business. The creation of pros and cons - the fact is, that this fraternal useful job. dispute is a setback to the much needed the CEI was, however, a very significant step On the other hand he wants to - and must - mutual understanding and collaboration bet­ in the right direction. Let us hope that it can make a living. These two aims tend to con­ ween the various professions engaged in gradually sort things out. But if it is intended flict, and that gives rise to no end of trouble. to limit the number of charters to 15 for all building. And the whole thing is rather silly when you consider that everybody agrees In any situation where many people possess­ eternity, as some people believe, it can only ing different skills have to produce an make sense 11 there is a re-shuffling of exist­ that: artefact - and that practically covers the ing charters or if it is a step on the way to total First: There is a great need for a professional whole of human endeavour in the building elimination of charters. building services engineer with a wider field - their work must be integrated if it is to All this is of little help. But let me try to education, who, as a member of the design produce a whole which possesses any kind of establish what we, I hope, can agree on , and team alongside the architect, structural quality. This requires unselfish collaboration, what we are up against. engineer, etc., can make a creative contribu­ and this means collaboration aimed at pro­ tion to the design at the conceptual stage, The trouble appears to be this: The In stitution ducing a good job and not hampered by con­ of Heating and Ventilating Engineers want a before the options are frozen, and that such siderations of personal glory, statu s or an engineer, by studying on a scientific basis Royal Charter and membership of the CEI. On reward. But the quest for status, profit and those subjects which would be most useful to the one hand they feel they deserve it. They the rest is a fact we have to live with, and it him in his work, should be able to become a are on the way up, their importance in the does interfere with the quality of practically Chartered Engineer, and have his profes­ building team is growing and generally every job, and with the quality of the whole of sional home in a chartered institution recognized, they are expanding over a wider our environment in fact as our pollution prob­ adapted to his needs. field and want to embrace all the building ser· lems testify. vices, and they are doing all they can to Secondly: It would be a very good thing to Of course the two aims need not conflict. improve their service. On the other hand, they have a forum, in the form of a learned society, Quality of environment is being produced in feel they need it , they find it difficult to attract where all the professions and trades who patches without endangering the livelihood the right kind of student unless they can work together to shape our environment of those taking part in its production, indeed dangle a charter in front of him. If the building could come together and exchange views. the opposite is just as likely to result. But only services engineer - or more ambitious still The difficulty in the first case is, of course, if the natural acquisitiveness, greed and per­ - the environmental design engineer - has that the I HVE seems to put the cart before the sonal ambition of man is kept under control to study another two years to join a member horse when it demands a charter before the and the quest for quality is given first priority. institution of the CEI to get charter status, majority of its corporate members have Our real problems begin, however, when we however irrelevant those studies may be to reached the required standard - if that is in realise that it is not enough to create quality his chosen career, it will have a most fact the case. But they can certainly claim in a few favoured locations, that our survival disastrous effect on recruitment, to quote that there is a precedent for such a procedure depends on our ability to create tolerable con­ Mr Pullinger. - in the case of the structural engineers, for ditions for the whole of mankind without But unfortunately it is getting more and more instance, and probably in the case of most of upsetting the balance of nature. But this is by difficult to get a Royal Charter. When the CEI the other CEI members too. So why should the way. although it is of course this danger was created in 1965 they were given eight the IHVE be penalized? And they need a ahead which ought to bring us to our senses. years in which to raise the standard of the charter now to boost morale - and on Through a long evolutionary process. civil­ Chartered Engineer. By 1973 they will have to balance it would, I think, be better to let them ized man has to a large extent learnt to keep satisfy the Privy Council that the corporate have it even if some of them were elevated his natural aggressiveness under control, at members of all the chartered engineering beyond their proper station - after all. it is least in his personal relationships. We institutions in the CEI have reached the not the presence of bad but the scarcity of associate quite amicably with our potential required standard, otherwise their charter good engineers which is the trouble, the bad rivals for jobs or promotion in our profes· may be withdrawn. And they have had a look will be found out in time, and the supply of sional institutions. In fact the common inter­ at the qualifications of the present corporate good engineers would be stimulated. But the ests form a bond between us, we feel friendly 38 members of the IHVE to find out whether they CEI is, on the other hand, right in upholding even towards unknown colleagues. We become a kind of brotherhood pursuing com­ And patience is in short supply nowadays. master the technique of building any more. mon interests, a mutual benefit society. And I grant all that. But then we should try to make And a general who doesn't know his army, an then the devil crops up again, our aggressive­ them reall y mean something. Make them artist who doesn't know his medium, and a ness is transferred to the institution, internal truthful advertising. designer who has to choose among unity is stimulated by cultivating a feeling of unfamiliar materials and processes is in an And another thing. What is even more impor­ insecure position. He cannot design with con· superiority towards lesser breeds in other tant than a C.Eng . is the reputation of an institutions. Personal ambition is camou­ fidence. And he is in danger of losing the res­ engineer among those who know him per­ flaged as concern for the status and public pect of those he commands. sonally and know his work. If I wanted some image of our profession, our officers are really useful information about a man, I would But the architect wanted to remain master at unashamedly pursuing a policy of extending try to find somebody whose opinion I valued all costs. For he had a sacred duty to perform. the size, the influence and the field of opera­ and who knew the man. But that may not be He represented the client, the user, the tions of our particular institution. It is their easy. Then the only reliable way is to try him public. It was his responsibility to see that the duty, they feel proud to do battle for what they out. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. building served its purpose, fitted into the have no doubt is a righteous cause. We move Of course reputations, status, fame can also neighbourhood, was a joy to behold and live into the sphere of politics, decisions are be misleading. The only status worth bother­ or work in , did not cost more than his client reached through a tug-of-war between rival ing about is your standing among those who could afford. All this, and more, as expect­ lobbies, not by disinterested reason. know you and whose opinion you value. And ations of comfort rose, all the multiplying Power struggle not least, your opinion of yourself - claims of the perfect architectural solution, This is a well-known phenomenon which although even that could be the opinion of a including his own dreams of artistic whole· applies to all kinds of groups able to exact fool! ness and integrity - all this had to be loyalty from their members, whether tribes, These reflections are, of course, intended as achieved with the ever-increasing technical nations, corporations, companies, religions a plea to concentrate on the essential thing: aids at his disposal. or political factions or what have you, and it to improve the value of our work to society, But the engineer didn't see it this way. He applies in a mild and comparatively inno· and that means without a shadow of doubt, could see where the architect blundered, his cuous form to professional institutions. This learning to collaborate. And improving the technical inadequacies, his squandering is what lies at the root of the present impasse, value of our work is not a bad way to improve money on architectural or aesthetic aims and this is how the affairs of the world are our status, either. This may sound smug and which the engineer did not understand. He generally conducted - by a struggle for banal - but nobody can deny that it is true. suspected that what the architect was doing power of conflicting interests - and it was simply pandering to his own ego at his To those bright boys who are supposed to appears to be the only way. But we know also client's expense. And he didn't see why he, hesitate before studying to become building that it can be a dangerous way, it can even the engineer, couldn't go it alone, with the aid service engineers because there is no lead to the destruction of mankind. Vietnam of the contractor, of course. He could get the Chartered Engineer status in sight at the end represents the ultimate in de-personalized foundations, the walls and the roof con­ of their studies, I would say that they need aggression. structed, all sound and solid and waterproof, have no fear that they can't get a good job at he cou ld put in the required services, enclose One could perhaps imagine a Utopia where the end of it all. There is, and will be for a long the required number of rooms with access affairs were managed more wisely. Loyalty to time, a crying need for them. a narrow circle of friends, compatriots or con­ and exit - the lot. Why should he need a long­ freres, which is a good thing in itself, would So relax, and concentrate on your studies. haired architect to tart it up and add to the then not be allowed to detract from our loyal­ For I hope that you haven't interpreted my expense - he knew what he liked, and if ty to a wider entity, that of this whole planet words as a disparagement of what the title necessary he could always hire a tame archi· of ours and the life it supports. We are not C.Eng. should stand for. To learn what the tectural assistant to make a nice perspective living in Utopia, however. But perhaps it is title demands you should learn is very impor­ for the client. tant, in fact I think the standard should be not too fanciful to suggest that architects, Artistic values engineers and the producers of our artefacts raised, and tha: we should demand of Chartered Engineers both more basic The client and the quantity surveyor, being could forget their interprofessional rivalries concerned with value for money, were often and concentrate on how to improve our science and more knowledge of adjoining fields. But long experience has told me that it inclined to share this view. Artistic values habitat. change, what one generation cherishes the They all profess to do so - why not do it? It is possible to pass an examination without deriving much benefit from it. Your ability to next despises. To decide in the surge of new entails in some cases a widening of their isms what is 'timeless' art is difficult. Al­ horizon and a sacrifice of cherished inessen­ learn while you are working is more impor­ tant. That an examination you passed as a though this adjective is not infequently be­ tials. stowed by critics, it is often doubtful whether Titles, letters behind your name, are these young man or boy should mark you for li fe it wi ll stick. The average client cannot be ex­ decorative features so important? Status, and put you in a certain category is a rather pected to share contemporary artistic what does it mean? Let's get this thing in absurd over-simplification. sensitivity, he likes what he is used to, so perspective. Can we not agree that it is the The architect and th e eng ineer quite apart from technical and economic con­ reality behind the facade which matters? Of The same can be said about the sharp divi­ siderations, he dislikes modern architecture. course we need some labels. It 's no good tak­ sion between the image of an architect and He expects the architect to provide cosy old· ing your shoes to the butcher to get them an engineer. The terms were coined in an world cottages with all modern conve­ repaired - one must know or must be able to earlier age, but they don't fit any more, and niences, access by car, etc., and available for find out whom to go to. Modern society this leads to misunderstandings. I am not millions of new customers. Or so one would depends on advertising, and its usefulness is suggesting that we should abandon them but think if one read some of his complaints. immensely enhanced if it is truthful. But how that we should now realize what they mean or One could not expect the architect to accept much of it is? In most cases a label tells you should mean now. very little about what you really want to know. this valuation. He still believed in his mission We are in the midst of a transformation of the That so and so is a doctor, yes. But is he a and struggled to keep aloft the banner of building industry. Arts and crafts are being good doctor? Will he kill you or cure you? Architecture with a capital A. replaced by science and technology - or Someone else is an architect. But is he a good This, I know, is a travesty of the present com­ should I say science-guided design and architect? Of all those with the same plex state of the engineer-architect mechanized production. The process was in qualifications some are good and some bad confrontation. Like the image of Uncle Sam its early stages when I joined the fray, but - or shall we say not so good. It can make an and John Bu ll, such caricatures have, now the rate of what we like to call progress enormous difference to the job you get. And however, a long life, and I wonder whether in has increased to such an extent that we must when you employ somebody or consult the depths of the engineering jungle there are change our old ways of thinking. somebody you want to know not only his not tribes who still see reality in this way. And technical qualifications but what sort of per­ Science-guided design and mechanized pro­ would this, I wonder again, be at the root of son he is. Can you rely on him? does he mean duction - technology for short - is the the idea that a successful integration of all what he says, is he truthful, reliable, honest, domain of engineers. the building services, or even a meaningful bright, friendly, easy to get on with? Titles It is advanced through engineering design. As discussion of such integration, could be and labels are not much use as a guide in this the art and craft of building is being swamped achieved without the participation of the respect. The Honourable So-and-so could by technology, the engineer muscles in on the architects, or the heating and ventilating and well be dishonourable, and the engineer who building field. This is as it may look from an structural engineers, for that matter? Of is a Doctor of Science may well be useless as architect's point of view. He was once a course one must grant that there is a great a designer. We all know that, so why take master-builder. After he had ceased to be a deal of truth in this caricature, otherwise these letters so seriously? builder himself, he was still master, he knew there would be no problem. But I believe in the I know the answer, of course. Many the art and craft of building, and he could architect's mission. All the same, some, or employers take them seriously, institutions design competently and tell the builder how many architects, if you like, may not be good and Government departments take them the work should be done. But submerged by enough, cling to outworn ideas. But archi· seriously, your family take them seriously, so technology he had to learn new tricks, he was lecture is important. It is about time they can really mean something, even in hard bewildered, insecure. He had to listen to engineers realized that engineering is useful, cash, at least at the beginning of a career. advice. He was still master, but he did not necessary indeed, but not enough. 39 Specialization and the environment output of electricity which could be obtained I am afraid I have spent too much time in prov­ I suppose I will have to try to explain and sup­ from a given variation in water levels. ing the obvious: that the failure of our civil­ port this statement. But it should not be Who could possibly object to this aim? ization is not a failure to increase our power, necessary for me to go into the whole ques­ I remember as a child staying with my mater­ but a failure to use it wisely. We must bring tion of pollution, squandering of scarce nal grandparents in Norway and hearing peo­ technology under the control of man for the resources, overpopulation and the rest. That ple discuss a proposal to harness the largest benefit of man. This has been said a thou­ mankind is in a precarious situation we all and most spectacular Norwegian waterfall, sand times, of course. Both architects and realize by now. And, as Barry Commoner so the Rjukan, to provide electric power. I engineers see themselves as fulfilling this convincingly argued at the recent RIBA remember the sorrow and dismay they felt at role. Both are right, to a certain degree, but to annual conference on 'Designing for the possible loss of this awe-i nspiring understand their respective roles better, we survival', the root cause of the trouble is the national monument. I was sad, too, for I must study them in the milieu in which they massive introduction of new technologies, would for ever by deprived of the possibility of cannot avoid the necessity of collaborating, impelled by greed and fear. seeing this sight. It was. I suppose, the first the urban environment. The environment created by natural forces time I had an inkling of the ecological conse­ Design acting in compliance with their own laws, by quences of technology, although I didn't Architects and engineers both see them­ fauna and flora in equilibrium or by the dwell· exactly put it that way. selves as designers. And although the major­ ing or tilling patterns of a pre-industrial era, A trivial matter? Perhaps. But have you ever ity of engineers and a great number of archi­ all speak to us in some way - it can be awe­ been spell-bound by the majesty of such a tects can hardly be called that. It's the design­ inspiring or sinister, squalid or pathetic, it can display in a setting of great natural beauty? It ers I am concerned with here. For the design. lift up our heart or welcome us. But the does something to you. It teaches you humi­ as I use the word, is the key to what is built; it environment created by uncontrolled ind­ lity. Have we a right to deprive mankind of is the record of all the decisions which have a ustrial processes, the ravishing of our such an experience forever, everywhere? bearing on the shape and all other aspects of countryside, the pollution, the insensitive One cou ld mention hundreds of such special­ the object constru cted . These decisions are building for profit, simply disgust us. To feel unfortunately not all taken by the designer at home we must feel the impact of the ized disciplines or technologies exacting complete devotion from their acolytes, with but they must be known to him and integrated human mind on our environment, not the into a total design. mind of the rapist but the lover. their institutions, congresses, trade journals and their heroes who need no introduction We must distinguish between routine design, What could save us is also technology, but but are unknown outside the charmed circle. which does not require any creative thinking, wisely guided to serve humanity. But how do And all have impeccable aims. Aims which and what may be labelled original, innovative, we, and can we, guide technology wisely? obviously benefit mankind. conceptual or creative design. Creative That is the question. Technology is guided by And yet, when you add it all up, there seems design must, of course, build on previous design, and designing is decision making. experience and contains and employs pre­ These decisions are made by people. And if to be something wrong. The undoubted pro­ gress seems to be somewhat patchy. It is designed parts. and it may even consist only these people would make 1he right deci­ almost entirely in assembling such parts to sions we would be home and dry. good in parts, like the curate's egg - but taken as a whole, the curate's was a bad egg. create an entity. Bu_t building is always tied to What are the right decisions? A designer, to What went wrong? Obviously, in pursuing locality and to the people one builds for, and make the right decisions, must know: their aims, engineers also achieved a great they vary from case to case. The synthesis required to create an en tity, a whole which (1) What he should try to achieve, and number of other things. Some of them perhaps relatively harmless on a small scale, economizes in means yet fulfils the aims, is (2) How to go about achieving it. but catastrophic if large-scale interference an artistic process. Aims and means. tor short. The engineer is upset the balance of nature. Like the Art , as the Danish author Piel Hein has not used to worrying his head very much medicine that cured the fever and killed the stressed. is solving problems which cannot about the first of these problems. His task is patient. We must understand that everything be formulated before they have been solved. set tor him - to span a river, invent a machine we do affects everything else, and that we The search goes on. until a solution is found, to make buttons, produce an insecticide to must consider the consequences of our which is deemed to be satisfactory. There are kill certain pests. He throws himself enthu­ actions. Efficiency in achieving our narrow always many possible solutions, the search siastically into the problem and comes up aim at the lowest cost to us or our client can­ is for the best - but there is n,., best - just with an answer. The best answer he can think not remain our on ly yardstick. Systems engin­ more or less good. Quality ,s produced if the of. Until recently, at least, it didn't occur to eering and value engineering attempt to take search doesn 't stop at a second-rate solution him to doubt the value of his work. In fact he into account the effects of a given tech­ but continues until no better solution can be saw himself as a benefactor, liberating man nological decision when assessing its merit. found. from drudgery and tear of want. Did he not But merit is still equated with cost-efficiency. The artist who knows his stuff - literally - harness the forces of nature for his benefit? This is something entirely different from knows when it clicks. Then he knows: this is Did he not increase man's power, force the human welfare. Engineers have been very the best I can do. He has his own artistic yard­ earth to yield its riches? successful in solving the problems they are stick - and if he is satisfied there is a good faced with. Almost too successful, for we chance that his work will make other people These achievements were based on cannot resist the temptation to show off, to happy - for he should be his own most specialization. And the more the engineer do things just because we are able to do severe critic. But this statement carries no specialized, the narrower was his aim, the them, without considering whether we really guarantee with it. for sometimes he isn 't. more he shut himself off from any global view need them. During the war we were told to ask of things. This extra exertion is not dependent on mone­ ourselves whether our journey was really nec­ tary reward . and frequently goes without, but Recently I attended the Fourth Fluid Science essary in view of the need to save resources Lecture at the Royal Institution. The speaker it is indispensable if the result is to possess for the war effort. We have a war on now, and any quality. was Mr Braikevitch, one of the world's fore­ we would do well to ask the same question. All this applies to engineering design as well most water turbine engineers, one of those In other words, we must pay more attention to as architectural design - in areas where who need no introduction, but whose name I the first problem. both act as prime agents. In both cases the had never heard of, typically enough. He What should our designs try to achieve? talked about the development of the water designer is responsible for a structural entity. We must take a critical look at the brief, make and in both cases he is trying to make it func­ turbine. He had apparently devoted his life to it more comprehensive. We must look beyond tion well, last well , look well and cost little. or the improvement of this very important tool, the narrow object and ask ourselves: What to put it differently: make it fulfil all the continuing the work of previous generations. will be the ecological consequences? What requirements of the brief including the afore­ And a very full life it was, too. According to about the working conditions for those who mentioned social and ecological aims, at the the speaker, there is more to this machine carry out the work, including their spiritual least cost to the community. th an meets the eye. Water is a fickle mistress, well-being; will the work provide useful it has to be coaxed, but like a human being it employment or cause unemployment - An engineer who doesn't care a damn what works better when given a little freedom. As perhaps in other countries? What effect has it his design looks like as long as it works and is every part of a turbine is inter-connected on other industries? What is the cost in cheap. who doesn't care for elegance. neat­ hydraulically with its neighbour, fluid engin­ scarce resources? We must ask ourselves ness, order and simplicity for its own sake, is eering has to be applied right the way through what would happen if everybody else did not a good engineer. This needs to be so that a harmonious whole is obtained, and what we do. Would that serve humanity? The stressed. the efficiency is at the maximum. The Kantian criteria for ethical conduct. The distinctive features of engineering are research field is therefore much wider than Taking this global view is a daunting task. mainly matters of content - the nature of the the lecturer was able to indicate. Engineers have a big role to play in this dis­ parts and the aims. Obviously, trial and error, science, and feel ing cussion about aims, for just as it is no good Engineering structures are mainly concerned for the totality, the soul of the machine, all doing things which serve no useful purpose with the forces of nature, overcoming difficult this and more went into it. Obviously he was or are harmful to humanity, so it is no good soil conditions, retaining earth and water, an artist in his domain. aiming at things which can't be done. You containing grain and liquids, spanning rivers, 40 The aim of all that effort was to increase the cannot alter the law of gravity, for instance. creating terra firma in deep water, moving mountains and taming rivers. All very difficult But enough of that. Besides this kind of differ­ cannot be installed because there is not but with easily defined aims. ence there is the difference in background enough money or because it is deemed more Architects, on the other hand, have to deal and education and the resulting values of cri­ desirable to enable the windows to be open­ with people. Cater for them, cosset them. teria. What the engineer sees as a structure, ed , etc. The search in this case is for a Would you like a little more heat, or light? Do the architect sees as a sculpture. Actually, of comprehensive quality which is a sum of you like your living room facing west? Or course, it is both. particular qualities, each measured with its would you prefer the view on the golf course? In building, the entity we want to perfect is own particular yardstick, but modified to fit And as the people can't reply, they have to not the structure or the air-conditioning as into a general pattern. choose for them, and get the brick-bats later. such - although that as well - it is the sum The success of the whole undertaking People are fickle. They differ. They quarrel. of all these parts. The engineer only designs a depends on the right allocation of priorities They flock together. They want privacy. They part of the total. His ideal structure may and whether the resulting entity has this want to drive their cars everywhere. They hate occupy space which is required for other pur­ quality of wholeness and obvious rightness other people"s cars. It is quite a difficult pro­ poses, it is also part of the architectural com­ which is the mark of a work of art. blem. Compared to that, the actual physical position and therefore subject to other And as this sounds a bit high-falutin I will try obstacles to overcome are generally trivial. criteria. The ideal air-conditioning system to show you some slides which may throw some light on what I mean, or at least will relieve the tedium.

Examples I recently found some prewar photographs and press-cuttngs in an old folder, and I will show you a few of these. (1) The first example is, I think, the first build­ ing I had anything to do with. It is a small cafe and shelter built just behind the river wall in Canvey Island in 1932 or '33, by Christiani and Nielsen, specialists in the design and con­ struction of reinforced concrete structures. I was employed by them as their chief engin­ eer in the London office. I functioned both as architect, engineer and contractor - but was severely restricted by lack of funds and lack of architectural training. But as you can see, I had an architectural 'image' derived from the Modern Movement - a kind of mock Mendel­ sohn, or perhaps Tecton. The steel columns supporting the canopy of the shelter roof, in­ troduced here to restrict the view as little as possible, definitely remind me of the Penguin Pool at the Zoo - and other Zoo jobs. Although I think these came later - so per­ haps I went to the fountain head, le Corbusier. Anyhow, the circular cafe with windows all round, everything supported on a concrete cylinder on piles, and its extension upwards through the cafe in the form of six columns supporting the roof, all this couldn't be simpler, and was certainly cheap - and, I am afraid, also rather nasty. Anway the one time I was allowed to visit the job - my place was in the office - I was depressed by the shoddi­ ness of the cheap standard metal windows, the concrete which had received only the nor­ mal contractor's rubbing down with cement grout and cement wash or perhaps a coat of Stic B, the bare columns supporting the con­ crete drum at the back, the cheap lino and 1 Cate and desk, the bad detailing. But I couldn't do shelter: anything about that. Canvey Island The moral of it all? That architecture on the cheap by an amateur architect employed by a contractor, and a client with no money to spend, is not a good way in which to achieve perfection. (2) The next slide shows a model of an ambit­ ious scheme to build a spiral tower at the end of Clacton Pier. Visitors would enter through a central lift and then gently meander down a spiral concrete ramp, passing the shops, stalls, etc. (including peeps at what the butler saw) which were arranged on the inside. Much the same idea was later adopted by Frank Lloyd Wright for his Guggenheim Museum in New York but I am not suggesting he got the idea from me! The construction was very simple, a cone of inclined columns supported on pile groups or cylinders, and supporting the double cantilevered concrete ramp, which in turn contributed to the stabi­ lity. It was much cheaper than making a long pier deck to house the stalls. I took the model to Mr Kingsman, the owner, who resided on the Riviera in the winter. He and his family were enthusiastic, but later saner consel pre­ vailed. The scheme was never built. 2 Model of spiral tower Moral? That bright ideas too much removed for Clacton Pier from the ordinary run of the mill hardly ever get adopted. Certainly not in prewar Britain. 41 3 Water tower (3) The next is a sad story, for this monster was actually built. The client wanted a water tower with the tank divided into five compart­ ments, four of equal size and one larger. As his architect was unfamiliar with water tanks or reinforced concrete, he asked my firm - J.L. Kier and Company - to give him a price for design and construction. I came up with a scheme with four circular tanks on slender circular columns, flaring at the top to support the tank walls. The fifth tank was formed by the space between the interconnected tanks. It was a monument beautiful to behold. But then the architect got the bright idea of using the space in beween the columns for an office, adding some decor­ ative features, rims at the top and bottom of the tanks, etc., which considerably compli­ cated the formwork. Moral? The intervention of an architect, even if he succeeds in pleasing the client, is not always helpful.

(4) Highpoint by Tecton, is quite a different story. Here was an architect, who knew what -- ,,_1"" ~:----~ ~-. he wanted, and how to get it. An architect, I ·- ~~,. . -:-.~-.;~: ~~:~ "~ .:::_.. ~ say - there were seven young architects, all equal, trading under this name, but one was . ' . - , ' .... '...... more equal than the others. His name was Lubetkin, and from him I learnt among other things that architecture involves taking infin­ ite care over every detail, including services, fittings, and other installations. Every tile was placed in an orderly pattern of unbroken squares, floor tiles lined up with wall tiles. Lubetkin detailed the liftcage and shaft in tubular steel and netting, light and elegant, and between us we dealt with waterproofing, insulation, surface treatment of concrete, etc. , in a very dilettantish way, I am afraid. It had to be cheap, and shoddiness gradually resulted, as with all these modern Corb­ a inspired buildings. I dealt with the structural design, suggesting doing away with columns and beams inside the concrete box - which pleased Lubetkin - and organizing the construction, devising • a special moving platform raised by jacks • from which the formwork was suspended . And I had to fight the authorities about the bye-laws and concrete regulations. So bet­ • ween us it was complete integration of design and construction. The heating was • done by Hadens, hot water tubes being embedded in the concrete floors, a new development at the time. Moral? Taking pains gets results. 4 Construction and right: interior of Highpoint 1

42 (5) The fifth is Brynmawr Rubber Factory, designed by four young architects, the nucleus of the later ACP, or Architects Co­ Partnership. It bubbles over with shells, as Jane Drew described it at that lime. What I would like to point out is the way the healing and ventilation were integrated with the roof structure of the main hall. The two main ducts blowing hot air into this area were housed inside two edge beams of adjoining square domes and the point is that the whole form of construction was especially chosen to make this possible, so avoiding the usual ugly duct­ ing. That among other things, is what integ­ rated design means, and I can't see how that can be achieved without the architect and the structural engineer coming into the picture beside the heating consultant. And that is the moral. (6) Lastly I show a few slides of Sydney Opera House. Utzon believed in the architect having control of every visible detail, like Lubetkin, and he undoubtedly was an archit­ ectural genius. But the organization he built up was not capable of dealing that way with a job of this complexity and magnitude. All went well as long as he was only dealing with the structure - the architecture in this case is the structure, he used to say - but integrating the unbelievably complex instal­ lations and furnishings with the structure in 5 Brynmawr his exacting way could only have been done Rubber Factory by a much more expert integrating team. The aerial view thing had to be completed without him, but it and, left: interior could not be done by anybody - or by Utzon himself, for that matter - to Utzon's stan­ dards. But Utzon's brilliant spatial concep­ tion has secured him a place in the architec­ tural firmament. The design team Lubetkin and Utzon are what are generally referred to as prima donna architects, and this is meant as an insult, the image being associated with egocentric soloists throwing tantrums. Their contribution, however, is more that of a conductor - to choose another metaphor from music, so I will use the term architect-conductors. A conductor must know the score, obviously, and he must achieve a balance of sound which is faithful to the score but adds his own artistic touch to the whole. This must be hammered out in rehearsals. The conductor who only strikes attitudes and lets the orchestra get on as best it can does not deserve the name. What does happen when the architect­ conductor is mainly a visual artist, which is generally the case, is that he will allot too high a priority to sculptural or aesthetic qual­ I have not time now to discuss which that feed the buildings with light, heat, water ity. On the other hand his critics in most technical co-architects will be required and and tele-communications. These in turn cases have also the wrong priorities, for they what their role should be. There will obviously generate new and inter-related problems and underrate visual or spatial quality for lack of be a structural architect, for the structure and so on almost ad infinitum. A comprehensive visual training or sensitivity. You can't make a fabric of the whole building is the physical is essential. But departments keep on dealing deaf man appreciate music. Yet spatial music expression of the architecture. And there will with one aspect at a time. is important. For we must build in space and equally certainly be a building services The establishment of the Department of the in light, we appreciate the relationships of architect. As the name implies, he should Environment is the Central Government"s things in space and move in space and we cover all services, but should also understand answer to this problem. But will this enor­ create our own space. So a visual artist is not the architectural and structural implications mous conglomeration of civil servants and a bad conductor in this case, provided he has of their spatial requirements and the professional gentlemen be able to cope with humanity and builds for people. psychological and physiological effect on it? It seems almost too much to expect. human beings of light and glare, of humidity, Leaving it to the architect-conductor to solve We must hope that they will learn by exper­ heat and radiation, noise vibration, acoustics all his problems with the aid of his own team ience, it is obviously a step in the right direc­ - as well as the economic and ecological of architectural assistants and the tion. But we are beginning to witness the aspects of different sources of power. It is a specialists he consults, and the manufac­ emergence of pressure groups of laymen who very wide field and is largely dealt with by turers he guides, can therefore give excellent no longer are satisfied to trust the collective architectural hunches - which are very results, depending on the master mind. But it wisdom of the professionals to supervise our important, but can hardly deal with modern breaks down in the case of large, technically environment. The task is to restore trust in technological sophistication. One man can­ sophisticated jobs. He must then at least our ability to tackle comprehensive problems not deal with all these aspects - but he have advisers and collaborators who are con­ comprehensively. stantly at hand, also at the conceptual stage, should be able to call on the needed expertise for the whole way of tackling the job may as required. He would be of immense help to Our aims must be comprehensive. depend on their advice - he cannot any more the building team, in fact without him expen­ Our building competent. impose a visual pattern. it is the parameters, sive blunders are inevitable. And, of course, But priorities must be fixed by men. not by to use Lionel Brett's phrase, which govern the he should be able to achieve chartered machines. conception. status, but his status would be assured. anyway, If he cou ld fill the role. But as long as the various disciplines and I have said both too much and too little. I have trades involved are represented by different And may I say again that encouraging high tried to place the problem in its global or firms, it is difficult to involve them al l at the calibre people to fill this role is much more overal l setting and therefore courted and , I conceptual stage. And in any case you can important than any inter-institutional am afraid, not avoided the dangers of super­ only involve a few key men at that stage, rivalries. If giving them chartered status fur­ ficiality. But I have made it clear, I think, otherwise the whole affair develops into a thers this aim. ways should be found to give it where I stand. design by committee. And most important, to them. If no more charters are available, I honestly cannot see how the BSES can those key men must share the conductor's they should combine with the Structurals, achieve what it set out to achieve as long as view of what the aim is, and must try to who also provide a building service, or with the principal institutions concerned with achieve 'the complete integration of struc­ the Mechanicals. or some of the other institu­ building oppose it. It wou ld become a bone of ture and services which will best serve that tions should combine - Structural with Civil contention in stead of a unifyinq influence. aim'. for instance, which would be sensible - or And we very much need a unifying influence. I This can as a rule be best achieved if they are what about Mining with Mining and Metal­ lurgy, Marine Engineers with Naval am all for a society of this kind, but the name independent consultants and not represen­ should be something like the Society for the tatives of commercial firm s. But they must Architects - leaving a space open. so to speak. This may be utterly naive, but those Built Environment. And it should not be the not be specialists in a narrow field only - property of any institution. I cannot see the otherwise there will be too many of them. who know the ins and outs should find a way. architects flocking to a meeting at th e Civils They must represent a broader section of the I wonder, are institutions created to prevent or the engineers coming to the RI BA. total technological knowledge required , able us from doing what we want to, or to give us to produce - from inside their own firms. or an excuse for not doing what we ought? The venue could be changed from time to by calling in from outside - ad hoe Surely not, so let bygones be bygones, kiss time, meetings cou ld be arranged also in specialists as needed. They wil l in fact be and be friends and let Fred have his lollipop. other cities. It should, of course, be supported assistant architects. Not on paper but in And if you think I am not serious you are by all those institutions who are now sulking - no disrespect intended - and it should action. For not only should they understand wrong. collaborate with or absorb the Junior Liaison the conductor's architectural ideas and There is a third chief adviser who I think is Organization and perhaps other groups who approve of them, but like the architect they needed, especially when the design stretches have the same aim. And the governing body, each represent a team covering a multiplicity into untrodden territory. It is a production or at least the body that takes the initiative, of detailed knowledge and experience in a engineer, or operational costing expert. But should not consist of a representative from particular area of related subjects. They are this is a chapter in itself. and highly con­ each of the sponsoring institutions or also synthesizers, like the architect. It would troversial to boot. I have probably offended anything of that kind. It is not their job to not be a bad idea to recognize this and call enough people for one evening, and I have no represent anything except common sense. To them structural architects, building services time. either. run the show we should have people who architects, etc., etc., if they really are capable There are, of course, many ways of working understand the problems, who are convinced of fitting that role. other than the way I have just described. in of the need for collaboration and have the In the past, there have always been large fact the possible permutations are legion. enthusiasm, drive and tact to further the aims lacunae in the combined knowledge of archit­ There is, for instance, the contractor"s of the society. (The last is inserted to leave me ects and consultants, which were covered by package deal, and there is the multi­ out). hunches and rules of thumb. That's why the disciplinary team working as we practise it in And finally I suggest that the matter should fabric deteriorates, and the services don't Arup Associates. be taken to the Presidents· Committee for the work. This must stop; responsibility must be The latter is probably the best way to Urban Environment to initiate the formation squarely placed in one camp or another. eliminate professional rivalries and create of such a reformed society. This was Alex The integration will then be effected from the the right enthusiasm straight down the line. Gordon·s suggestion. and it is obviously a top, so to speak. by the architect-conductor in but it takes time. The quality of people plus sensible one. as you would expect. I hope the conclave with his chief assistants and enthusiasm is what matters, much more so present sponsors would generously agree to specialist co-architects, who then each will than the type of organization. But the latter that. see to it that his particular team, including the should be of a kind to encourage and not ad hoe advisers needed, carries out the thwart enthusiasm. It remains to thank my hosts for affording me leader's agreed intentions. the liberty to express my views. If I should The comprehensive view have caused offence I regret it - but I can Such a system can work very well. it is the Just one thing more - to set up an organiza­ only say what I think is right. If I am not right. parallel working which in a more or less tion which is able to effect the integration of then I can only ask you to forgive me . If I incomplete form is generally practised. diverse elements of the environmental tabric should have been able to convince you that The question has often been raised whether is one thing. But its usefulness is severely my views are sound, you will be generous another profession could not fill the role of restricted by existing bureaucratic boun­ enough to act on them. daries. the leader. Of course, but it is not a profession But I cannot help thinking of Orwell's words but a person (with his team) which is the Every time a major surgical operation in the recently discovered foreword to Animal leader - and it depends on that person. He disturbs established environmental patterns Farm: must then have the necessary qualifications it sparks off side effects which may even ·Liberty means the right to tell people what for such leadership. He must be able to make the proposed operation obsolete before they do not want to hear" . assess the priorities and effect the synthesis, it can fulfil its function. Where people live and be in effect an architect-conductor - in my work determines the transport network that To which my secretary cynically added: 44 sense. establishes routes for underground services ·stupidity is expecting that they will listen'. Institution of Structural Engineers Gold Medal Speech This speech was given when Ove Arup received the 12th Gold Medal of the Institution on 11 October 1973.

First of all I want to thank the President and Institution of Council and all of you for honouring me in Structural this way. I am naturally very pleased, and I Engineers don 't think this statement needs supporting Gold Medal evidence or argument. I was also very surprised, at least in the sense that I didn't expect it. Whether I think I deserve it is yet another question, and one to which I am not prepared to give a straight answer - sometimes I do and sometimes I don't. In your very generous citation you honour me for my rare ability to influence the thoughts of my colleagues. If you say so, I suppose I must have influenced them - it is not for me to judge. It must obviously be left to those who have been so influenced to bear witness; which presumably they have done - and that it is a good influence is obvious from the whole context, so that is So you see, it isn't just a matter of what you piles. There was absolutely nothing there very gratifying. In fact it is quite marvellous say. It also depends on whom you say it to that would prevent the wall from being what you say, I couldn't ask for more. and when. You have to be fortunate enough pushed forward by the filling, one could see But - I ask myself - what does this influ­ to find people who will listen to you, so that that at a glance by looking at the cross­ ence al I amount to? concerted action can result. Ideas are section. No anchors, no raking piles. And Perhaps that is a naughty question to ask, powerful: that's why totalitarian states are isn't it remarkable that in those days and perhaps I am fundamentally naughty, afraid of them. But it's a delayed action. a design like that could be adopted, the contractor could build it without although I try to conceal it. But obviously They take time to sink in, and still more time everyone must put his own valuation on protest, and a learned and respected to produce practical results - and the latter engineer could undertake completely whatever praise or blame comes his way, so depends on other people. as not to get swollen-headed or unnecessary measurements of minute unnecessarily dejected. As I have said Mind you, I am not trying to argue that I vertical and horizontal movements of the before, to be fooled by praise or praised by don't deserve the medal. It would be very mud in front of the wall under the influence fools profits no one. And it could be said sad if my rare ability to influence others of the tides, and his report could be that all the things I have spent my life trying persuaded you to take it back again. It may published in an engineering journal, to say and do and teach are simple, be that my ideas are not explosive, that without anybody raising an eyebrow so far commonplace, and obvious, things that they are very simple; they are just common as I know. So I piped up. I sent an article to every moderately sensible person would sense. But it is unfortunately also true that the Journal gently pointing out the facts of know. For instance: most of the mistakes made by life - only to be told that it was engineers - and I suppose it applies to controversial and couldn't be published that design and construction are inter­ other people too - are elementary, are in under the umbrella of the editor. I could dependent and must be adjusted to one fact due to lack of common sense. It is not only be allowed to send in a private letter, another so much that the involved calculations go which could go in at the back of the journal that simplicity of design makes economic wrong. It is more often that the structural on my own responsibility. So that's what I and aesthetic sense system to which they are applied is did and waited for the explosion. And I basically unstable, or acts as a mechanism. never heard another word about it. that two parallel brick walls covered with a Or that some forces are simply forgotten . reinforced concrete slab don't provide a That was long ago, and times have good shelter against blast Or that people think and draw in two changed. But wasn't Ronan Point a similar dimensions, forgetting the third which may case? Isn't it clear as daylight that when that when we build we don't want a good contain some awkward forces. Or they you have an end wall, which is not tied structure, but a good house forget that the design has to be built, and back, supporting a portion of the building, that when many cooks make a dish, they must therefore be possible and preferably and when an explosion takes place behind had better agree amongst themselves not too difficult to build and should be it, then what must happen is exactly what about the recipe stable during all stages of the construction. did happen? The important difference is, of Or that they put things in the wrong place course, that a backfilling is bound to exert a that to start th inking about the cost of what altogether, because the whole purpose of pressure, whereas explosions are not you are designing after you have designed what they are doing is barely considered. bound to take place, and were in any case it, is a bit late not officially anticipated in the regulations. I could tell you many frightening stories of that it is a waste of time to base exact So perhaps the remedy is official failures of common sense. There was one calculations on rough assumptions, or a anticipation; in other words more glaring and almost incredible case. I know I strong building on weak foundations, or in regulations. Or perhaps what is needed is shouldn't tell you about it, because it casts general to pursue the means without the kind of common sense that would reject a not too favourable light on the Journal of a structure which only needed a hard push defining the ends the Institution of Structural Engineers. But to come tumbling down. And if once it is it was in 1929, and th e Journal now is not All that, and more, - it hardly seems to generally accepted that designs may be merit a Gold Medal, exact ly. At least, if it what it was then, it has improved beyond all successfully produced simply by applying a does, it isn't because it is particularly measure, and what happened then certainly host of detailed regulations, common clever. It must be because it needed saying couldn't happen now. So perhaps I may be sense does tend to get left out. just the same. forgiven. So perhaps after all it is useful to repeat An article by a past President of the And as for influence - my persuasive obvious things again and again. When I was Institution appeared in the Journal under powers may have worked with my young and innocent I would have hesitated colleagues, and with my collaborators the heading: ' Notes on a failure due to subsidence under tidal pressures'. He had to do so - but now that I am old and cynical, especially. But I don't always seem to have I have learned better; and so I fully intend to made much headway with government been called in to apportion blame in a case where a retaining wall or wharf had continue to utter platitudes for the rest of departments or with official bodies. During my life. the war, for instance, I remember I collapsed as soon as the backfilling was struggled hard to save steel for the war placed. The wall was L-shaped, some 20 ft. And that, surely must be the perfect lead-in effort, and to knock some sense into high, with counterforts about every 10 ft., to allow me to trot out again some of my old official shelter policy - with scant success. each supported on two, almost vertical, hobby horses. To say again, for instance, 45 that a structure exists for a purpose and as architecture will result in efficiency of But receiving a Gold Medal should be, not part of an entity that also has its purpose; execution, but will also require much effort an impediment, but an encouragement to and that the efficiency of a structure can and dedicated involvement on the part of speak one's mind. It is in my mind that the only be judged in the light of these various the directing team. And the onslaught of time ahead is going to call for common purposes great and small. To insist again mechanization and standardization, the sense to a quite uncommon degree. on the need to integrate the work of the compulsion to minimize human efforts, to Finally, I thank you again for my Gold various disciplines in the building industry, reduce cost at whatever cost, all this may Medal. I am aware that to get a Gold Medal in order to achieve greater efficiency, and spell - I am afraid - the end of design as an one also has to be lucky. One must firstly greater artistic control. All right - old hat it art. And of course many people realize now have collaborators who follow up ideas with may be; but the hat still fits. The plain facts that our economic thinking is faulty, that actions and one must live long enough for are that architecture will die if it is not the cost in human happiness is too high, such actions to bear fruit. I have been lucky efficient; and that we need an environment that we are frantically busy building on in both respects. One of my partners, a very where we can feel at home - which is what sinking foundations. We can afford, if need distinguished member of your institution, architecture stands for. Such facts are no be, a lowering of material standards. What happens to have been with me for 30 years less true now that we are undertaking tasks we can't afford is to lose our humanity. this very day, and I honestly don't know of ever-increasing size and complexity, with But there is no agreement on what we can what the firm or I would have done without ever more complex technical resources at do about it; the radical measures requ ired him. I think you can guess his name. our command. And when I say that design for reversing the trend seem impossible to should aim at a practical fu lfilment of I conclude therefore by thanking my realize. Perhaps I can put it this way: that purpose, this is the purpose I have in mind. partners and collaborators who should unless we cultivate an art of the impossible, really be sharing my medal with me and we may well be doomed. But it is not the purpose that is forced upon also last but not least, my wife, who will us. For totally integrated comprehensive This is a gloomy note to end on, I am afraid. share the medal with me.

may be contained in the client's brief, or con­ judge the building as users, owners or just The Building Centre sist of verbal instructions by clients or onlookers. foremen or others; the test is whether the The quality of a building thus appears as a A talk given at The Building Centre, decision affects what is being built or con­ 18 May 1978. conglomeration of different qualities which, structed. however, can not be added up to produce a Ori gins It will be readily seen that there is practically sum which would be an index of the total no limit to the number of Total Designs which quality, for they have no common denom­ The Building Centre came into being because could be made for an artefact consisting of inator. Some qualities, like stability, are a number of public spirited people concerned parts which can be varied and combined in an essential up to a point and useless thereafter with building in some way or other felt that almost infinite number of ways - good, bad - others are marginally desirable, some something like that was needed to take or indifferent. But how do we know which is make for comfort, some for beauty and some advantage of the many new materials and which? How do we recognize the 'goodness· of economy - it is a question of what you inventions which had come on the market of a building, or of any human artefact, for want most. lately, and they decided to do something that matter? Which of all the possible The functions and what we might cal l the about it. They were not so very clear about designs is the best one? what exactly was needed and how to finance engineering qualities of rival schemes can, to the venture, but in the typical British way they Quality some extent, be measured and compared. It started on a small scale with something A quantity surveyor can't help us, for he can may take some time before their true worth is obviously useful, a samples room at the only sum up the quantities and transform revealed, however. In contrast, we are Architectural Association perhaps, roped in them into costs, but he will miss what is most immediately aware of the visual aspects of a like-minded people who gave of their time and important - what we may cal l the quality of scheme as represented by perspectives or money, and off they were. Where to? - that the building. But quality - what is it? models, and it is on this basis that its place in could be and was discussed on the way, as the architectural hierarchy is determined. We come up against the fact that quality This can often be very misleading. the nature of the country dictated. can't be measured. We may recognize quality Many people suffer through having to live or That this developed into the present Building when we see it, but we can't define it. And the Centre is a tribute to the devotion and ten­ work in architectural masterpieces and many worst is, that it means something different to highly praised designs in architectural com­ acity of the founders. But that is not what I different people. 'One man's meat is another petitions couldn't be built as depicted or want to dwell on tonight. Instead I will try to man's poison' as they say. would fall down if they were built. tackle the problem from the other end: why do But it would be wrong to conclude from this In line with this, it is nearly always the archi· we need a Bu ilding Centre? What is it for, and that quality only exists in the eye of the tect who is blamed if a building project hap­ what should it provide, ideally speaking, if beholder. When it comes to works of art we pens to displease, or praised if it pleases, for money were no problem? have plenty of ·Quality Surveyors' - critics, whatever reason. This is often unjust - but My point of view will be that of a designer who historians, practising artists, or students of on the whole it makes sense, for it is the archi· is trying to find the best possible solution to art, who are very willing to tell us what is good tectural direction which determines what we design problems occurring in buildings, and I and what is bad, and they would strongly get - the technique is only the means of get­ am suggesting that to help designers in this deny that they only spoke for themselves. ting it. task should be the main aim of the Building They consider themselves as experts on a Centre. particular art form, at least inside a cultural Any good design must strive both to create Total design frame of reference. It is tru e that they often internal harmony between its parts and out· This is not such a one-sided view as it may disagree. There are factions and fashions in ward harmony with its surroundings. As the seem to be. For it can be argued - as I have the world of art. But inside each of these fac­ Total Design is not often the creation of one done for 40 years - that what I call the Total tions or fashions it is possible to distinguish man, as the public is led to believe by the Design is the key to what is built. If the design works of character and quality from what is media, but is affected by the design decisions is right, and, if it is executed as intended, then just immature rubbish, more or less. And of numerous people largely motivated by the job will be right. And the aim of the unless an artist has this venerati on for art, their own aims, this internal and external har­ designer of buildings or parts of buildings, and believes in the mission of the artist, he is mony or integration can only be achieved if and that of the building industry as a whole, unlikely to produce anything outstanding. the designers themselves work in harmony. as well as that of the general public, must of The highest accolade which can be bestowed Choosing course be to get the best possible buildings on a work of art is to cal l it timeless art. But Designing is choosing: the materials, the at the right cost, which as I have argued, how timeless? If humanity perishes - structure, the spatial layout, the services, all means ensuring that the design is right. The 'timeless art' has no meaning. of it. Without choice there can be no perfec­ execution must be right as well, of course, but When we come to building, the situation is tion - perfection is choosing rightly all the that is another matter; the design must be somewhat different, for a building is more time. But we don't invent everything from tackled first. than a work of art. It has work of its own to do, scratch. More and more designing is becom­ The word design can mean so many things, it should sa tisfy a great many different ing the judicious assembling of pre­ however, and it is necessary to emphasize requirements, which might, with some con· manufactured parts. The right parts, that here I am talking about the Total Design, trivance, be summarized under the headings: assembled the right way. by which I understand th e sum of all the commodity, firmness and delight. Unfortun­ The choosing must therefore be guided by a design decisions made by many people with ately they often clash with each other and vision of the whole. If this vision is accepted different functions and which collectively money is mostly short. by the whole design team, and has the enthu­ define the finished job. The decision may be We therefore have to fi x our priorities to make siastic backing of the clients, then there is the recorded in specifications, on drawings or a judgement and these priorities are bound to best possible chance of a happy ending. 46 sketches, in by-laws and regulations, or it vary, for instance according to whether we Unfortunately this does not happen too often. To choose the right materials and parts, we that we cannot make quality the overriding publish. The law of libel is probably too strict. must, of course, also know that they exist, condition. The exhibition is also meant for If you tell a truth which damages somebody's where they can be got, their properties and housewives and 'do-it-yourself'·ers, who have economic interest, truth is no excuse - if I price, so that we can compare them and every right to decide what they want their kit· am not mistaken. choose those that best serve our purpose. If I chen to look like, but who do not necessarily It somehow reminds me of an old German may quote from an address which I gave to care for the opinion of well-wishing quality couplet which I was taught when, as a child, I the British Association for the Advancement surveyors. And think of the consequences. went to school in Hamburg and which in my of Science during the War in January 1942 ' ... The cry of 'Why weren't we included?' The childish innocence I embraced with enthu· a wealth of new knowledge, new materials, very idea of selection bristles with diffi· siasm. It was this: new processes has so widened the field of culties. 'Wer die Wahrheit kennel possibilities, that it cannot be adequately But there are two ways of selling: surveyed by a single mind ... and the usual pro· und saget sie nicht, blem arises - how to create the organiza. (1) By producing goods which are good, der ist fur wahr tion, the " composite mind" so to speak, durable and yet cheap - which are easy to ein erbarmlicher Wicht.' sell which can achieve a well-balanced synthesis As there may be some of you who don't under· from the wealth of available detail. This is, I (2) Or, to rely on advertising, packaging and stand German, I will attempt a translation: suppose, one of the central problems of our salesmanship to seduce people to buy. time.' 'He who knowest the truth and doesn 't speak out, My answer was at that time, briefly: It would be a good idea to favour the first kind - but they are not always easy to he is indeed a contemptible lout!' (1) 'One is to have the planning carried out by distinguish - there are many grades bet· The last word should have been 'knave' - but a team of experts whose combined ween the two. But that there ought to be some what rhymes with knave? knowledge covers a substantial part of the kind of selection cannot be gain-said, also relevant technical information. because the whole purpose of the Building A more up-to-date version might be: (2) Another is to have all the technical infor· Centre was to further better building. I am mation which may have a bearing on the pro· 'He who knowest the truth, afraid this is a matter I will have to leave to the had better forget it, blem checked up, classified, standardized management to solve - it calls for tact and and made easily available.' Lest otherwise, diplomacy, which is not my country, but it He should live to regret it.' If this was needed then, it is 10 times as much could become easier as the prestige of the needed now, and what the Building Centre is Building Centre grows, as I am sure it will. So what can be done about that? trying to do is really to help with the second If space is scarce and sought after, it might The Building Centre wants to be a force for requirement, that of knowing which materials be possible to impose certain restrictions good; but it must pay for itself, it must be and resources are available. They are doing a and conditions. solvent to exist, as it gets no grant from the very useful job in that line, but there is still a But there is another need which is still more Government. considerable gap between what the sponsors important, and also more difficult. The The solution has been to run the Centre on would have liked to do and what they in the Building Centre provides information mainly strictly commercial lines, and with the profit it nature of things can do. by referring to the trade literature of the makes it endows a trust which hands out The user exhibiting firms. This naturally praises their money to socially useful activities. This is The user would like the exhibition to include wares, more or less truthfully, but doesn't say probably an excellent policy - for it is diffi· anything which could be useful to him. For anything about the snags, except perhaps in cult to mix business with charity. But I do obvious reasons it would be impossible to a few cases of truth in advertising. But it's the think they should not forget their primary include everything being manufactured or snags we are interested in. We want to know business of giving the public an overall view imported for use in building so a selection how long the thing will last, what can go of what industry and commerce can do for must be made to reduce it to a manageable wrong, what are the maintenance costs, how building, by making their exhibition selective dimension. But on what basis? The present does it compare with a rival article? These and yet inclusive and their information a policy of allotting space to those that pay for things the Building Centre cannot disclose - model of truth in advertising. It is a for· it may be unavoidable, but is obviously it would upset its customers. And if one turns midable task and I know it is what the present unsatisfactory. What could replace it? Selec· to the various research stations we have the leaders would want to do. Ought it to have tion according to quality? same trouble. They will issue a report of their Government consideration, particularly at We have already discussed the difficulties research to the firm that pays for it, and the this time when Agrement activities are under inherent in that. Besides, cost is so important firm will use its discretion about what to review?

Chess set designed by Ove Arup

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