Chapter 21: Psychology: Present and Future

What do you think will be the most serious problem in this century? Write your answer in your journal. ■

PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter Overview Visit the Understanding Psychology Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 21—Chapter Overviews to preview the chapter.

602 Careers in Psychology

Reader’s Guide ■ Main Idea Exploring Psychology Human behavior plays a key role in many areas of study. Studying psy- Choosing My Destiny chology can prepare you for many Many of the students at the school had career opportunities. been given intelligence tests and scored at ■ Vocabulary the lowest and most handicapped level. Yet • crisis intervention program it was evident that these young people had skills that were relevant to their culture. I ■ Objectives recall a Down’s syndrome child who could • Outline the requirements needed to beat out complex rhythms on the drum, become a psychologist. young women who learned to card and • List several careers available in weave rugs from foster grandparents, and psychology. Yazzie, our survival artist, who could go for days in very severe weather conditions with little clothing or food and would turn up in a distant town days later seemingly no worse for wear. Obviously, the intelligence tests were missing something that was very important. —from “Pathways to Change and Development: The Life of a School Psychologist” by Stephen F. Poland, in Career Paths in Psychology, edited by Robert J. Sternberg

n the passage above, author Stephen Poland describes his experiences with teaching a group of mentally challenged Navajo children. This Iadventure led him to seek his destiny and his career—becoming a school psychologist.

CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY

“What are you going to do when you get out of school?” “Beats me. My grandparents want me to learn the shoe business and take over when they retire. Mom and Dad want me to think about law as

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 603 Figure 21.1 Areas of Expertise of Ph.D. Psychologists a career. I was leaning toward business administra- Over the past 30 years, the number of people receiving doctorate tion, but my sister just grad- degrees in the field of psychology has grown by nearly 170 percent. uated with an M.B.A. I Which area of expertise has enjoyed the greatest growth? don’t want to be just like her. I’ve got more choices 1975 1995 2004 than I can handle.” Clinical/Counseling/School 35% 50% 53% This conversation is Experimental/Comparative/Physiological 17% 16% 2% imaginary but typical for juniors and seniors in high Developmental/Child/Social/Personality 14% 13% 2% school. You do have many Educational 5% 3% 7% options. Because you have Industrial/Organizational 3% 3% 2% spent a period of time studying psychology, it may be Other psychology subfields 26% 15% 34% beneficial to respond to ques- Sources: NSF/SRS Surveys of Doctorate Recipients; Digest of Education Statistics, 2005. tions about psychology: What will I do with what I have learned? Was it worth it if this is the only psychology course I ever take? What careers in psychology are open to me? To help you find answers to these questions, this section offers several descriptions of opportunities in psychology careers. The careers described here, though, are only a few in the vast field of psychology and related fields.

What Are Employers Looking For? Employers are most likely to hire someone who offers special skills. In psychology, as in many other fields, job choices are limited if you have only a high school diploma. Surprisingly, when you have a Ph.D., you also have relatively few choices, but by that time you have chosen to fine-tune your education and experience for a specific kind of job; you are a specialist. Those with a bachelor’s degree in psychology may have the most options with the widest array of possible employers. Moreover, psychology is a logical undergraduate major for those planning graduate work in such fields as sociology, social work, law, medicine, or education. Human behavior plays a key role in all of these areas.

Some Career Options Reading Check Psychology is both a science and a profession. As a science, psycholo- How is psychology both gists study how people perceive, think, feel, and act. In the professional a science and a profession? arena, careers that are based on psychological principles seek to predict how people will act; help people modify their behavior; and help organizations, businesses, and communities to change.

Crisis Hot Line Adviser crisis intervention program: short-term psycho- Employer: a large hospital logical first aid that helps indi- Can you do it? viduals and families deal with A person holding this job might be a senior in high school. emergencies or highly stressful For crisis intervention programs, applicants must complete a com- situations prehensive training program. A county hospital, for instance, might offer

604 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future such training over three weekends. Following training, a typical assign- ment would involve two 4-hour shifts a week. What’s involved? Crisis hot line personnel respond primarily to two kinds of problems. One involves the immediate, possibly life-threatening situation that can arise as a result of a personal or family crisis—perhaps an argu- ment or the unexpected death of a loved one. Drug use, whether from withdrawal or overdose, can also bring about an immediate need for help. The other type of problem is the crisis evolving from long-term stress, such as that experienced in the family, on the job, or in a failure to develop one’s career. Crises like these are not as threatening, but still need to be resolved. A person handling a hot line will have a list of psychologists and counselors as well as information about a wide array of treatment facilities and programs operating in the vicinity. This job requires being able to calm the caller, identify his or her problem, and help that caller to see the wisdom—once the immediate crisis has been dealt with—of contact- ing the most appropriate agency or professional for long-term follow-up.

Word Processor Salesperson Employer: a local computer dealer Can you do it? People with an interest in psychology are likely to have a higher-than-average interest in behavior—both theirs and others. That interest, even if backed only by a high school diploma, is a vital element of the successful salesperson. One report suggests that the best salespeo- ple are motivated by the need for status, control, respect, routine, accom- plishment, stimulation, and honesty. With those needs met, a salesperson will feel happy regardless of level of education. A basic understanding of people’s driving forces—their needs for achievement, affiliation, and safety—is but one aspect of psychology that would aid someone seeking a career in sales. What’s involved? The key requirement may be experience. One psychologist has suggested that you cannot educate Try Out a someone to be good in sales, but sensi- Career in tivity to others can be improved by Psychology training. You must also be persistent, skillful at language, able to query As you search the want ads in your local newspaper, prospective customers, and able to relate you may not see very many entry-level job openings for their needs to those answered by the psychologists. There are jobs, though, that can expose you product you are offering. to psychology-related work. Look for jobs that utilize people skills, such as communicating or relating to people; ana- Mental Health Assistant lytical skills, such as figuring out and resolving problems; writing skills, such as writing logical reports; and research Employer: a senior citizen service skills, such as using statistics or tables to analyze issues. center These skills are called for in a variety of jobs, such as work- Can you do it? This is a new career ing for case workers, business managers, probation or cor- field, usually requiring at least an asso- rections officers, city managers, and human services. ciate degree. An associate degree is

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 605 awarded after a two-year course preparing for para- Profiles In Psychology professional occupations in nursing homes, community mental health Linda L. McCarley centers, centers dealing with mental retardation, 1946– or even special-education “Artmaking opens centers for the variously windows to the disabled in public schools. inner world.” What’s involved? Typically supervised by a staff psychologist, an assistant helps with or conducts admission interviews. He inda L. McCarley, an art therapist, is founder and director of or she may be respon- L the Art Therapy Institute in Dallas, Texas. She helps people — — create drawings, paintings, sculptures, and other art forms that sible under supervision provide a glimpse into their inner world. for administering various How does art therapy work? Have you ever felt better after psychological tests, either expressing yourself with music, dance, drama, or art? That is to new patients or to because words may not adequately express some of your deepest assess the progress of feelings or life experiences. Artmaking provides another avenue of those already admitted. self-expression, helps release tension, and is known to be life enhancing. As we can see by studying the images etched on the Personnel Director walls of caves dating back to ancient times, people have always Employer: a large depart- relied upon imagery to express their most significant life experi- ment store, for example ences. The art made by people throughout history enriches our Can you do it? The suc- understanding of those people. cessful applicant is likely Similarly, art therapists gain an understanding of their clients through the process of making art in therapy. Art therapists set the to have a bachelor’s stage for self-discovery and healing by facilitating their clients’ cre- degree in psychology, ative expressions. having concentrated on courses involving interviewing, test construction and interpretation, statistics, and law. Such a person might also have taken a minor in management courses in a university’s College of Business Administration. He or she would stress organizational and quantitative skills. This is not an entry-level job, however. Some prior experience with the employer’s policies is a definite requirement. What’s involved? A personnel director may participate in a wide array of activities, depending on the nature and interest of his or her employer. This person’s responsibility would include some involvement in the decisions to hire and fire, especially for the support staff in an organization. Such a person might also develop programs to improve or maintain staff skills in sales, interpersonal sensitivity, or any other area involved in conducting the company’s business.

606 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future School Psychologist Figure 21.2 Consumer Psychology Employer: a city school system Can you do it? A master’s degree is a must for this Consumer psychologists study the processes position; an undergraduate major in psychology is people go through as they purchase goods and services. Organizations hire them to desirable. In addition, most school psychologists must research and answer questions such as be licensed or certified in their state of employment, “What do consumers think of us?” and which involves taking a test. “How can we better serve our customers?” What’s involved? In bigger districts, you might stay in Why might consumer psychologists one school, but many school psychologists divide be involved in employee training? their time among a number of schools. They usually work with children experiencing the normal array of problems in school. A school psychologist might give reading, aptitude, interest, or intelligence tests and must be skillful in interpreting them. At other times he or she might work directly with the children or young adults in school or with the families of those students.

Clinical Psychologist Employer: self-employed, government, business, hospital, prison, or nonprofit organization Can you do it? To use this title in most states requires a Ph.D. (a Doctor of Philosophy) or a Psy.D. (a Doctor of Psychology). The Psy.D. is a degree developed in the 1970s. In a Psy.D. program, a student gains skill in psychotherapy, undergoing intensive training in testing, interviewing, and giving supervised therapy. What’s involved? A practicing clinical psychologist is often self-employed. Thus, required skills include those needed to run any small business, in addition to knowledge of testing and practical experience with the limits Human Factors Engineering and strengths of various forms of therapy. He or she must develop working relations with other clinicians in Human factors engineers, or engineering — psychologists, help design machines and the area psychiatrists, medical doctors, and other equipment, such as computer systems, contacts in local hospitals and mental health facilities. automobiles, office equipment, and house- From such sources come the patient/client referrals hold appliances, to match human abilities that are vital to one’s success as a psychotherapist. and limitations. Their goal is to create A typical day might involve 8 to 10 hours in vari- equipment that can be operated efficiently ous stages of psychotherapy with different individuals. and safely. Human factors engineers draw The hours have to be offered at times when clients are on physics, anatomy, psychology, sociology, free to visit, so this may not be a traditional 9-to-5 job. and contributions from teachers and com- munications experts to analyze and solve Other types of therapy a clinical psychologist might problems. Consider this example: Why is the offer are group therapy or consultation with other gas pedal on the right side of your car’s floor therapeutic organizations, such as Alcoholics rather than on the left? The reason is for Anonymous. It is also possible, of course, to utilize the more efficient use. Most people are right- same skills as a clinical psychologist in a state- side dominant and use the gas pedal more supported mental hospital, a Veterans Administration than the brake. hospital, or a community mental health center.

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 607 Consulting Psychologist DidDid YouYou Know?Know? Employer: a management consulting firm Postwar Psychology The demand for Can you do it? A Ph.D. is required for this job. Such a the services of counseling and clinical psy- person might spend graduate school in an indus- chologists always increases dramatically trial/organizational psychology program learning toward the end of a war. This occurred at management practices, testing strategies, interper- the end of World War II, the Korean War, sonal behavioral strategies, and intervention tech- the Vietnam War, and the Persian Gulf War. niques in complex organizations. Counseling psychologists are needed to What’s involved? help servicemen and women adjust to By the very nature of his or her job, a civilian life, shift war-industry workers, and consultant must offer an array of skills not normally rehabilitate the wounded and emotionally represented among the full-time employees of compa- disturbed? war veterans. nies that hire consultants. Thus, a consultant’s job tends to be short term. A consultant might, for instance, advise a company’s top management on how to take human performance limits into account in the design of a control board for a nuclear power plant. He or she might be involved in all aspects of the design of an interstate highway—signs, bridges and crossover devices, and lane-flow control.

Future Psychology Career Options As psychologists in every specialty area meet new challenges, new areas of psychology begin to develop. Often a new area of psychology develops as a result of a merging of other areas. For example, the relatively new area of health psychology combines aspects of physiological, social, counseling, and clinical psychology. Health psychologists focus on the role the psychological functions of an individual play on the health of that individual. A health psychologist might research the origins of obe- sity and try to find and apply effective treatments. A health psychologist might also deal with how stress is related to illness. Assessment

1. Review the Vocabulary What types of 3. Recall Information What qualities are situations does a crisis intervention pro- most employers seeking in employees? gram handle? 4. Think Critically How might a degree 2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a graphic in psychology help you design a popu- organizer similar to the one below to lar Web page or market yourself as an list a possible psychology career under up-and-coming actor? each discipline. 5. Application Activity Explore your long-term Careers in Psychology goals by outlining a possible educational and Medicine Law Business career path that you might follow. In your outline be sure to indicate your career goal and how you plan to achieve that goal. Explain why you have selected that goal.

608 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future bend or break objects without touching them. Parapsychology In 1974, psychologists filmed several encoun- ters with Geller. In one instance, Geller unbal- Period of Study: 1882 and 1975 anced a precision scale, and in another, he appeared to bend a steel band. Many people Introduction: Scientists sometimes inves- believed Geller really did all this with psy- tigate behavior or events that seem to have fan- chokinetic power; however, skeptics tastic origins. In psychology, this area of study debunked Geller’s claims. is known as parapsychology, which means “alongside psychology.” Parapsychology is not Results: The events surrounding Geller considered to be in the mainstream of psychol- were highly controversial; for him, they were ogy, but its controversial issues have attracted highly profitable. He began making appear- many people. Parapsychologists suggest that ances in various locations, bending spoons or humans possess senses other than the known similar objects. He eventually received an invi- seven—vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, tation to appear on national television, but balance, and body senses. People skepti- when it was time to perform, Geller failed to cal of this suggestion point to the fact that deliver. It was discovered that he had access the evidence supporting parapsychology’s before all of his performances to the claims never stands up to objects he was hoping to bend. On rigorous testing. television, however, his personal set of objects had been Hypothesis: switched with a new set, Parapsychology’s advocates often state their and Geller was left to claim claims in such a way that they are not subject to that something was blocking disproof; in other words, the claims are not his amazing “abilities.” testable, scientific hypotheses. As a result, Geller’s claim that his abilities were blocked many investigators approach these claims by illustrates one difference between science trying to eliminate all other reasonable explana- and belief. Scientists accept the results of tions for the observed behaviors. well-designed tests, whether their hypotheses are supported or not. Geller rejected the Method: In 1882, scientists established disconfirming observations, adding a vague the first organization to study parapsycholo- explanation after the fact to explain unsatisfying gy, the Society of Psychical Research, in results. The effects allegedly produced by London. The American version of this society parapsychological phenomena have much was formed in Boston three years later. These simpler explanations—sleight of hand or prior organizations focused on mediumship, or manipulation to bend spoons, hidden magnets communication with those who have died. As to deflect compasses, and the like. Perhaps time passed, other phenomena began to be breakthroughs will occur in the study of para- studied, such as telepathy (the ability of peo- psychology. However, for now, healthy skepti- ple to communicate without using ordinary cism prevails. senses), clairvoyance (the ability to experience an event without physically being there), and psychokinesis (con- Analyzing the Case Study trolling objects with the mind). 1. What is parapsychology? Perhaps the most famous attempts to demonstrate psychokinesis were 2. What abilities did Geller claim to have? made by Uri Geller. Geller claimed he 3. Critical Thinking Do you believe that some people could bend and break metal objects by have parapsychological abilities? Why or why not? using his mind. On nonscientifically con- trolled occasions, Geller did appear to

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 609 Psychology’s Contributions

Reader’s Guide ■ Main Idea Exploring Psychology Psychology has made many contributions to society by promoting human Misinformed welfare, clarifying assessment methods, A few years ago, a psychology profes- explaining human behavior, and helping sor, famous in his field for developing new humans better understand their world. experimental and statistical methods, got ■ Vocabulary into a taxi. He started a friendly conversa- • ACT tion with the driver and when asked what • SAT he did for a living, the professor replied • forensic psychology that he was a psychologist. “Oh yeah? My • industrial/organizational psychology sister went to see a psychologist,” replied • sports psychology the driver. “She’s really a nut-case. Hey • visualization wait, can you read my mind? I’d better be • gerontology careful what I say!” The professor reports ■ Objectives that he now replies to such questions by saying that he is a “research scientist.” • Describe psychologists’ contributions in everyday life. —from Opportunities in Psychology Careers by • Summarize psychology’s challenges Donald E. Super and Charles M. Super, 2001 for the future.

lthough most people seem to have an accurate idea of what doctors or lawyers do, many people do not realize what psychologists Ado. These people probably do not realize, then, the many contributions to life that the science of human behavior has produced.

PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN MENTAL HEALTH

Of all of psychology’s contributions, perhaps its most significant is the development of forms of professional helping, including psychotherapy. An early step forward came in the 1790s through the pioneering efforts of Philippe Pinel, a French physician and a founder of psychiatry. Pinel unchained patients who were held in mental wards, some of whom had

610 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future been restrained for more than 20 years. Figure 21.3 Before Psychological Pinel argued against the prevailing belief Illnesses Were Understood that the mentally ill were possessed by Often described as the father of scientific psychiatry, demons. Moreover, he thought mental ill- Philippe Pinel argued that the mentally ill required ness could be treated. Mainly due to his humane treatment, sympathy, and guidance, not the efforts, France became a leader in improv- beatings, imprisonment, and ridicule they so often ing conditions for the mentally ill. suffered. Why was Pinel’s behavior considered Despite the progress in France, more revolutionary? than half a century passed before similar efforts were exerted in the United States. After discovering that the mentally ill were being jailed along with criminals, teacher and social reformer Dorothea Dix (1802–1887) became the chief spokesperson for reform. Her personal crusade in the 1840s aroused interest in the problems of mental illness and led to more enlightened treatment of the mentally ill in Canada and Great Britain, as well as in the United States. A former mental patient, Clifford Beers (1876–1943) became the guiding force in the early growth of the modern mental health movement. Beers’s own account of his illness and recovery, A Mind That Found Itself (1908), first published nearly 100 years ago, has motivated many concerned individuals to promote better psychological care in communities, in schools, and in hospitals. The book set into motion Beers’s plan to improve conditions in mental hospitals. In 1908 Beers founded the Connecticut Society for Mental Hygiene, the first organization of its type. In its charter, the Connecticut Society pledged to eliminate restraints on patients, improve standards of care for the mentally retarded, prevent mental disorders, pre- serve mental health, and provide information on mental illness to the public.

PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN TESTING

Most students are given IQ tests or other tests at an early age. Psychologists have played a leading role in devising and updating these tests, as well as other tests in higher education that assess personal skills. Many of you have taken or will take one or both of the two major standardized college entrance exams: the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American College Testing Proficiency Examination Program ACT: a standardized test that consists of four assessment (ACT). Developed in 1959, the current ACT places greater emphasis on tests that measure academic scientific concepts and abstract reading skills and less emphasis on factu- development al material than the earlier version. Nearly 1.2 million high school seniors take the ACT each year. The SAT, taken by about 1.5 million high school SAT: a standardized test that is an admission requirement at seniors annually, was redesigned in 2005 and now assesses critical read- some colleges; the test mea- ing, math concepts and reasoning, and development and expression of sures verbal and mathematical ideas in writing. reasoning and writing abilities

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 611 PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN EVERYDAY LIVING With more than half of all mothers and an even higher percentage of Student Web Activity fathers working outside the home, day-care and out-of-home nurturing and Visit the Understanding learning are significant developmental issues. Researchers note that day Psychology Web site at care appears to have few negative effects on children and actually promotes glencoe.com and click on development of social skills (Bukatko & Daehler, 2004). Children with Chapter 21—Student Web Activities for an activity experience in day care tend to be more assertive and aggressive. Alison about psychology’s Clarke-Stewart (1993) has suggested that this may result from the fact that contributions. day-care children tend to think at a more advanced level but have not yet developed the social skills to smoothly implement their plans for action. Much remains to be learned about how children grow and learn. Harry Harlow’s work led to the idea that the attachment of children to their caregivers is made stronger by physical contact. That, in turn, led to the demonstration that breast-feeding versus bottle-feeding makes little difference in the parent-child attachment. It is the holding, not the feeding, that is most important. Psychologists play a role in designing and assessing tools for learning in a variety of media; for example, their understanding of the principles of learning contributed to the development of the PBS series Sesame Street. Studies show that almost 60 percent of the preschool children who watch that program at least five times a week can recite the entire alphabet cor- rectly. Originally designed to provide creative ways to educate children with skills required in school—such as spelling, counting, and new words—this program, as the data indicate, has met its goal. Some of B.F. Skinner’s ideas on learning have been implemented into computer software designs. The ideas of feedback, prior knowledge and knowledge of results, and reinforcement play important roles in games as well as educational programs. The work of many psychologists led to a clearer Figure 21.4 Then and Now understanding about chal- Although it is considered a new science, psychology has come a long lenges facing men and way. Some of the questions of early psychologists, such as how per- women as they age. As the ception works or why we reason, have been mostly answered. Other American population ages, questions, such as nature versus nurture, remain the focus of increased understanding of research. What have psychologists contributed to everyday living? the abilities of the aged is an area in which psychology must make continued contributions.

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY

Contemporary psychology can be grouped into experimental fields and applied fields. Experimental

612 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future Figure 21.5 Some Significant Dates in the History of Psychology

The history of psychology reflects the origins of many contemporary psychological issues and questions. In 1649 René Descartes suggested that the body and soul are separate. How might contemporary psychologists label the “body” and “soul” today? B.C. 170 170 B.C. • Claudius Galeno describes the anatomy of the human brain.

0 A.D. 1600 1649 • René Descartes proposes that the body and soul are totally separate. 1651 • Thomas Hobbes argues in Leviathan that all human behavior is the result of physical 1800 processes. 1848 • Jean-Baptiste Bouillard offers 500 francs to anyone who can show him the brain of a human who suffered from speech disturbance and did not have damage to the left frontal lobe. 1859 • Karl Marx proposes the idea that social being determines consciousness in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. 1860 • Paul Broca claims that a specific area (left frontal lobe) of the human brain is responsible for speech. 1879 • Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig University. 1884 • William James argues that human behavior can be understood in terms of its purposes or functions. 1890 • James McKeen Cattell develops the first psychological tests for individual differences. 1891 • American Psychological Association formed at Clark University 1900 1901 • Ivan Pavlov discovers the conditioned reflex. 1905 • Binet-Simon scale, the first intelligence scale, formulated 1912 • William Stern develops the intelligence quotient (IQ). 1913 • John B. Watson advocates behaviorism. 1920 • Hermann Rorschach develops the inkblot test. 1930 • Karl Lashley concludes that complex behavior is the result of neural programs in the brain. 1933 • Lev Vygotsky argues that the human mind is a product of history and culture. 1950 1951 • Simone de Beauvoir publishes a landmark book on the rights of women (The Second Sex). 1954 • The U.S. Supreme Court rules that racially segregated education is inherently illegal in Brown v. Board of Education, resulting in many psychological studies of social issues. 1955 • A federal commission reports that more than 50 percent of the 1,500,000 hospital beds in the U.S. are devoted to patients with mental illness, making mental illness the greatest single U.S. health problem. 1966 • The first federal act to protect animal research subjects is enacted in the United States. 1971 • B.F. Skinner argues that human behavior is a product of environmental stimuli. 1980 • It is estimated that 1 of 10 doctorates granted in the United States is in psychology. 1990 1990s • Various psychologists argue that behavior is determined by social and cultural influences. 1995 • First issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law appears.

psychologists use a variety of scientific methods to study human and animal behavior. Applied psychologists put knowledge of psychology to work solving human problems. Yet this distinction is not always sharp. Both experimental and the applied psychologists gather the available evidence and offer the best explanation they find. Both study behavior, and both use similar processes in similar situations. A major difference is that applied psychlogists search for immediate solutions, experimental psychologists for long-range answers.

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 613 Current Trends The American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and professional society of psychologists and educators. Founded in 1892, it is the major psychological association in the United States and is made up of more than 50 divisions, each representing a specific area, type of work or research setting, or activity. Some divisions are research-oriented, while others are advocacy groups. Together they are a cross section of the diverse nature of psychology. Beginning in the 1970s, some members expressed dissatisfaction with the direction of the APA. These critics feared that the APA was becoming a pro- Psi Chi is the national honor society of psychology. fessional instead of an academic organization. As a result, a new organization for academic and science-oriented psychologists, the Association for Psychological Science (APS), was founded in 1988; in five years it grew to a membership of 15,000, with slightly more now. With 150,000 members and affiliates, the APA is the world’s largest organization of psychologists. Another organization, Psi Chi, a professional and scientific honor society, has chapters on many college and university campuses. Members of Psi Chi hold meetings and help orient psychology students to the field. Reading Check According to the most recent survey completed by the APA Research How does the work of Office (1996, 1999), about 43 percent of those who study psychology experimental and applied psy- obtain master’s degrees in counseling, 32 percent in clinical psychology, chologists differ? and 15 percent in school psychology. The remaining respondents to the survey obtained their degrees in traditional research and other subfields, such as industrial/organizational psychology, general and educational psychology, and experimental psychology (see Figure 21.6). The United States Bureau of Labor places psychology among the fastest- growing fields into the twenty-first century. In addition, the number of women in psychology has been increasing rapidly. In the Figure 21.6 Employment of Ph.D. Psychologists early 1990s, women held 60 percent of the civilian jobs Psychology is one of the most diverse fields to enter. Almost all psy- in psychology, and women chologists are trained at colleges and universities, and therefore all psychologists are familiar with the academic setting. Where do most received more than two- people who obtain Ph.D.s in psychology work? thirds of the bachelor’s and master’s degrees conferred Federal government State/local government during that time. Although 4.9% 17.0% psychology is still a male- Private, nonprofit % dominated field, the propor- 4.2 Other educational Self-employed settings tion of women in psychology 6.0% 11.5% is greater than in most

Private, for Universities/ other scientific disciplines profit* colleges (APA, 2005). 27.8% 28.2 % Ethnic minorities have indeed been a minority in the field of psychology. *This category includes businesses and incorporated private practices. This trend, however, also Source: 2003 Survey of Doctorate Recipients, National Research Council and National Science Foundation. seems to be changing. In Compiled by APA Research Office, August 2005. the past decade, a relatively

614 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future larger number of doctorates have been awarded to members of minority groups. The increasing diversity DidDid YouYou Know?Know? of the field of psychology is important. As diverse Funding The United States federal gov- people enter the field, they offer new perspectives on ernment invests about one twenty-fifth of 1 issues of psychology and behavior. Although new percent of the national budget in psycho- perspectives can be controversial, they pave the way logical research. The APA and APS send for scientific advancement (Super & Super, 2001). representatives to Capitol Hill to appeal for more support. The government spends Fields of Psychology painfully little to study the nature of human behavior. ? Forensic psychology is a branch of applied psychology that studies and makes practical sugges- tions about the workings of the law. The work of psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has played a pivotal role (see Chapter 10). forensic psychology: the Many forensic psychologists study criminal behavior. Still others do work study of the diagnosis, on the reliability of eyewitnesses, the effects on children who appear in evaluation, treatment, and testimony regarding the law court, counseling victims, and the jury selection process. A lawyer- and criminal behavior psychologist often has both a Ph.D. and a law degree (Hofer, 1991). Work and the working environment are the provinces of industrial/ industrial/organizational organizational psychology, or, as the field is often called, organiza- psychology: the study of behavioral elements of the tional psychology (Schneider et al., 2005). Psychologists in this field workplace apply their findings to help businesses and industries operate more efficiently and humanely through improving methods of selection and training, and developing new organizational and management strategies. Other industrial/organizational psychologists concentrate on such issues as labor-union relations, rules defining harassment, job satisfaction, and worker motivations and incentives. Sports psychology, a field that developed during the 1980s, is an sports psychology: the important part of training for many amateur and professional athletes. study of athletics and athletic Sports psychologists apply the principles of psychology to sports activities. performance Some focus on maximizing athletic performance through visualization— visualization: mentally mentally rehearsing the steps of a complete, successful performance— rehearsing the steps involved in a successful performance or improving concentration or relaxation or reducing negative thoughts that process may interfere with performance. Other areas of study include the psychological and physiological benefits of sports participation, violence, ethics in sports, and the design of safe equipment (Durkin, 1991).

The Challenges for Psychology Social change, urban problems, early learning, the neural bases of behavior, psychology and minorities, and the reduction of violence are psychology’s challenges today. One way to determine future directions of psychology is by analyzing the trends of age in the population. The average age of the citizens in North America is going steadily upward; there are more people over age 65 in the United States and Canada now than at any time in the history of either country. That creates new problems for psychologists to study and new careers in both research and service. It also suggests a growing specialty in the field of developmental gerontology: the study of psychology—gerontology, the study of aging. aging

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 615 At the other end of the age spectrum are a different set of factors that may impact future jobs for psychologists. Consider the traditional killers of children—measles, chicken pox, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, mumps, tuberculosis, and polio. Assuming a child has had his or her proper vac- cinations, all of these problems are gone. The top three killers of children and adolescents in our society now are accidents, violence, and drugs. These are not physiological or medical problems like our old enemies, they are psychological or behavioral problems. Many of the dangers that face society today are rooted in social problems; that is, they can be solved only through changing behavior and attitudes of individuals and communities.

Where Do You Go From Here? As you come to the end of this textbook, it is important to consider not only the future of psychology but also how psychology plays a role in your future. Whether you choose further education and a career in psychology or not, you should not stop thinking critically about and seeking to explain your behavior and the behavior of others. The information presented in this textbook does not represent the absolute truth. Psychology is a science—it is a process of trying to understand the world around us. As you encounter articles in newspapers and magazines concerning psychology, try to read them critically. Read the material, think about it, and question it. Analyze the evidence and the author’s conclusions. Remember, though, that all conclusions are tentative. Ask yourself: Are there better ways to approach this issue or question? Use what you have learned in this course to determine your own hypotheses and theories and to critically analyze what you read, hear, and experience every day. Assessment

1. Review the Vocabulary What do 4. Think Critically Consider what you sports psychologists do? have learned in this psychology course. What information will be most useful to 2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a you during your lifetime? Why? In what graphic organizer similar to the one types of situations during your life do below, outline the challenges psycholo- you think you will use this information? gists face. Explain.

5. Application Activity Challenges for Psychologists Visit a large bookstore and browse through the titles of books dealing with psychology. What topics seem to be the most popular? Which books seem to be the most helpful? 3. Recall Information Why must psy- Which books seem most interesting to you? Why? chologists study aging? Based on your observations, forecast several topics that could result in a popular psychology book.

616 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future Summary and Vocabulary

Psychology has made many contributions to society in the past. Its place in the future is secure because it helps people resolve issues Chapter Vocabulary and problems. The field of psychology is among the fastest-grow- crisis intervention program ing in the twenty-first century. (p. 604) ACT (p. 611) Careers in Psychology SAT (p. 611) Main Idea: Human ■ A bachelor’s degree in psychology affords many forensic psychology (p. 615) behavior plays a key role options with a wide array of possible employers. industrial/organizational ■ As a profession, careers that are based on psycho- in many areas of study. psychology (p. 615) Studying psychology can logical principles seek to predict how people will sports psychology (p. 615) prepare you for many act; help people modify their behavior; and help career opportunities. organizations, businesses, and communities visualization (p. 615) change. gerontology (p. 615) Psychology’s Contributions Main Idea: Psychology ■ The most significant contribution of psychology is has made many contri- the development of forms of professional helping, butions to society by pro- including psychotherapy. moting human welfare, ■ Psychologists have played a leading role in devis- clarifying assessment ing and updating educational testing programs. ■ methods, explaining The study of psychology has implications for everyday living, especially in the areas of raising human behavior, and children, improving learning, and understanding helping humans better the process of aging. understand their world. ■ The common link in careers in psychology is the desire to understand behavior. ■ Psychology can be grouped into experimental fields and applied fields. ■ Experimental psychologists use a variety of scientific methods to study human and animal behavior. ■ Applied psychologists put knowledge of psychology to work solving human problems. ■ According to the United States Bureau of Labor, psychology is among the fastest-growing fields in the twenty-first century. ■ The American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and professional society of psychologists and educators. ■ The American Psychological Society (APS) is an organization for academic and science- oriented psychologists. ■ Fields of psychology that have potential for future growth include forensic psychology, industrial/ organizational psychology, and sports psychology. ■ Many problems that face society today, such as violence, drugs, and AIDS, require behavioral solutions.

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 617 Assessment

PSYCHOLOGY Recalling Facts 1. Explain the findings of research about the effects of day care on children. Self-Check Quiz Visit the Understanding Psychology Web site at 2. Explain the projections for the elderly popula- glencoe.com and click on Chapter 21—Self-Check tion in the twenty-first century. How does this Quizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test. impact psychology? 3. Using a diagram similar to the one below, list the similarities and differences in the work of applied Reviewing Vocabulary psychologists and experimental psychologists. Choose the letter of the correct term or concept below to complete the sentence. a. ACT f. visualization Applied Experimental b. SAT g. gerontology Psychology Similarities Psychology c. forensic psychologist h. crisis intervention d. industrial/organizational program psychologist i. clinical psychologist e. sports psychology j. school psychologist 4. List three organizations for psychologists and/or students of psychology. 1. A(n) ______is often involved in helping businesses operate more efficiently. 5. Identify two careers that require a background in psychology and briefly describe the careers. 2. A(n) ______may give reading, aptitude, interest, or intelligence tests to middle or high school students. Critical Thinking 3. ______is the study of aging. 1. Analyzing Concepts Define job satisfaction in 4. A(n) ______is often self-employed, prac- your own words. Do you think it is possible to ticing some form of psychotherapy. measure job satisfaction? Explain. 5. Athletes sometimes use the process of 2. Evaluating Information Do college admission — ______mentally rehearsing the steps of a tests really predict success in college? Why or — successful performance to reduce negative why not? thoughts that may interfere with performance. 3. Synthesizing Information There are many 6. Nearly 1.2 million high school seniors take the types of mental health professionals. What com- ______, which emphasizes scientific con- mon characteristics do they all share? cepts and abstract reading skills. 4. Making Inferences Name three jobs in psy- 7. About 1.5 million seniors take the ______, chology that you think will offer good opportu- which was redesigned in 2005 to give more nities for employment and explain why. Name weight to abstract thinking skills and writing. three jobs that you think will offer few opportu- 8. A(n) ______can respond to an individual’s nities and explain why. life-threatening situation or long-term stress. 5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare and 9. A(n) ______is involved in working on the contrast the educational requirements and the reliability of witnesses in a court proceeding. responsibilities of a crisis hot line adviser, 10. An important part of training for many profes- a mental health assistant, and a consulting sional athletes is the field of ______. psychologist.

618 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future Assessment

30 25 Psychology Projects 20 Technology Activity 15 10 5 0 1. Psychology’s Contributions Find out about the One of the major contributions of historical treatment of psychological problems. psychology is in the designing and You might focus on the treatments used in the assessing of tools for learning. Find examples of edu- Middle Ages and in the early nineteenth centu- cational computer software. Find out what ry. Share your findings in an oral report. approach to learning is incorporated in the soft- 2. Psychology Today and in the Future In recent ware—feedback, reinforcement, and so on. Evaluate years, astronauts in the U.S. space program have the effectiveness of the software. spent extended time in space in cramped and crowded quarters. A recent field of psychology Psychology Journal is space psychology. Psychologists in this field Review your journal entry. Do you feel study the behavioral challenges of spaceflight. optimistic or pessimistic that those prob- Find out about this field and the kinds of issues lems can be solved? Why or why not? In what it addresses. Present your findings in an infor- specific ways might psychology help solve these mational pamphlet. problems? Write answers in your journal.

Building Skills Job Satisfaction Interpreting a Graph Job satisfaction— 100 Workers rating this job studied by industrial/organizational 90 characteristic very important psychologists—is an issue for many 80 Workers reporting complete satisfaction people. Various factors contribute to job with this characteristic of their job satisfaction. Review the graph, then 70 answer the questions that follow. 60

50 1. According to this graph, what three job characteristics do most people 40

find important for job satisfaction? Percentage 30

2. With which job characteristic were 20 people most satisfied? Least satisfied? 10 3. Select an area on the graph. How might an industrial/organizational 0 psychologist help managers and/or employees in this area?

Job security High income

Practice and assess key social Interesting work Limited job stress

studies skills with Glencoe Ability to help others Skillbuilder Interactive Good health insurance Chances for promotion Regular hours (no nights Chance to learn new skills or weekends) Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2. Vacation of a week or more Recognition from coworkers

Freedom to work independently See the Skills Handbook, page Job characteristics 628, for an explanation of Source: Hugick & Leonard, 1991; based on Rathus & Nevid, 1995. interpreting graphs.

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 619