Regional Differences of Writing in the Warring States Period * BIN Dongchoel Abstract This article discusses the issue of regional differences in writing style during the Warring States period (Zhanguo 戰 國 , 467-221BCE). Models of regional Scripts developed by Chinese scholars generally consider distinctive Scripts in terms of “the five regions,” which are the Scripts of the states of Yan 燕, Qi 齊, Chu 楚, Qin 秦 and the Three Jin 晉. While these models divide Warring States writing into the five regional Scripts in terms of orthography and provenance in general, this classification does not represent a more complicated reality of the interactions among the states, especially in calligraphic Manner. In this respect, I review the models of regional Scripts developed by Chinese scholars, and then investigate stylistic differences between Warring States regions using archaeological sources to show a different picture of the reality of Warring States writing. Bronze inscriptions from Zhongshan 中山, far to the north, show a calligraphic Manner reminiscent of the Chu Manner in the south. Bird- and-insect Script, which was prevalent over a wide area of the south, appears to have spread far to the north, including the states of Jin, Qi, and Yan. While the influence of the calligraphic Manner of the south may have extended to a wide range of the north, it seems evident in the case of Chu manuscripts that Chu scribes combined an artistic exploitation of their own tradition with the influence of Western Zhou tradition from the northern China. Differences in regional norms seem to be apparent in the evidence provided by bronzes, and, therefore, might be expected to serve as a guide to understanding the evolution of ink practice in manuscripts. However, as we see the case of the Houma mengshu texts, written c. 500 BCE in a Jin brush style that was very close to brush style found in Chu c. * BIN Dongchoel: Senior Researcher, Academy of Asian Studies, Dankook University ([email protected]) 98 Journal of Confucian Philosophy and Culture Vol. 25 / February 2016 300 BCE., our current data of scribal practice is not sufficient for fully understanding the similarity over time and space. Keywords: bronze inscriptions, calligraphy, scribal tradition, early China, Warring States period, Chu manuscripts BIN Dongchoel / Regional Differences of Writing in the Warring States Period 99 In this article I discuss regional differences in writing style during the Warring States period, based on resources available to date. Prior to the standardization of Chinese writing after unification (221 BCE), examples of writing in the Warring States period show evidence of regional differences in Script and Manner.1 My purpose is to introduce a prevalent model of regional calligraphic practice that has important implications for my analysis of Chu ink calligraphy, but that because of disparities between ink calligraphy and inscriptions on durable materials has an uncertain bearing on late Warring States manuscript evidence.2 Before we analyze Warring States writing, it is necessary to be clear about what we mean by “regional differences.” In considering regional differences in Script, we might think of two general issues: orthographic and stylistic. Orthographic issues relate to graphic variations in lexically identical words whose character forms exhibit significant differences in structure, as opposed to general shape, or Manner, of linear execution. Orthography, or “proper writing,” is generally a matter for philological criticism, and does not fall within the scope of my investigation of calligraphic issues in the period in question. In other words, how the structure of a character appears in a specific time and region is not the concern of my analysis of Script in this period. My focus is on the stylistic analysis of calligraphically executed Scripts. In this respect, I will review whether it is viable to use the models of “regional Scripts” developed by Chinese scholars, and to what degree these models can clarify the issue of regional divisions in calligraphic Manner. I will then investigate stylistic differences between Warring States regions using information drawn from archaeological sources such as bronzes, stone, weapons, and manuscripts. From these sources, it is possible to 1 The terms “Script” and “Manner” are specifically designed for my analysis of early Chinese calligraphy. A Script refers to a particular developmental phase in the history of calligraphy concerning the evolution of such features as shape, line, and sometimes structures. Within the scope of one Script, we may suppose many different stylistic variants, caused either by different hands or by different calligraphic traditions. What may be called a “style” or “stylistic variant” within a Script, I call instead a “Manner.” 2 The formats and functions of ritual bronze vessels are inherently conservative, formal, and public. When it comes to the issue of the functions for ink calligraphy as opposed to those of bronze inscriptions, we might consider bureaucratic documents written in ink, for example, the Houma 侯馬 mengshu 盟書 (covenant) texts and Baoshan 包山 legal documents that had no display purpose and were not crafted with any public in mind. However, for other Chu manuscripts, like the Shangbo and Guodian manuscripts, we really do not know what the functions of the texts were. We do not know whether these were reading texts or grave texts, how they may have been used as reading texts (if at all), or even what sort of audience they were written for. 100 Journal of Confucian Philosophy and Culture Vol. 25 / February 2016 draw stylistic comparisons in Script among Warring States or particular regions, delineate the influences between and among the regions, and outline “Chu style.” 1. Former Views on Regional Differences in Warring States Writing 1) Li Xueqin The first useful treatment of writing styles of the Warring States period was set out by the Chinese historian Li Xueqin 李學勤. In his 1957 article, “Zhanguo shidai de Qinguo tongqi” 戰國時代的秦國銅器 (Bronzes of Warring States era Qin), Li assigned the styles of Warring States period characters to “five different regions” by employing the concept of “states,” i.e., Qin, the Three Jin (that is, the states of Wei, Han, and Zhao), Qi, Yan, and Chu.3 Such a division, according to him, was based on stylistic as well as orthographic features of the characters, although he did not clearly demonstrate what these features were.4 In a later three-part article, titled “Zhanguo timing gaishu” 戰國題銘概述 (Survey of Warring States inscriptions), Li applied the term “five regions” to Warring States writings on durable materials, such as bronzes, weapons, seals, and pottery, and to some manuscripts.5 Here, Li paid attention to some key words, e.g. official titles, place-names, and personal names, tracking the provenance of each inscription and, as a result, attributing the written form to one of the five regions. The following example illustrates his approach to the provenances of inscriptions by identifying the state’s name: [L]et us investigate weapons made in the state of Han 韓. According to the Bamboo Annals (Zhushu jinian 竹書紀年), which was compiled in the state of Wei 魏 [of the Warring States period], Han’s capital city was in Zheng 鄭. Therefore, the people of Han themselves called their state Zheng. For this reason, the following examples belong to the state of Han. .6 3 Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo shidai de Qinguo tongqi,” 38. 4 Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo shidai de Qinguo tongqi,” 38. In the article, Li mentions “fengge” 風 格 and “jiegou” 結構 (style and structure) as criteria for the classification of Warring States bronze according to the “five regions,” but does not describe the features of the bronze inscriptions in these terms. Li briefly describes only the characters of the state of Qin: “the Qin script was the ancestral form of xiaozhuan 小篆.” 5 Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo timing gaishu (shang)” 戰國題銘概述 (上), 50-54; Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo timing gaishu (zhong)” 戰國題銘概述 (中), 60-63; and Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo timing gaishu (xia)” 戰國題銘概述 (下), 58-60. 6 Li Xueqin, “Zhanguo timing gaishu (xia),” 60. BIN Dongchoel / Regional Differences of Writing in the Warring States Period 101 The character “zheng” 鄭, which is the name of the state, is a clue to identify the provenances of the inscriptions that Li lists following this analysis. Apart from the names of states, some other clues, like official titles and personal names, are also important in tracking provenances of inscriptions. In this regard, let us look at a specific example given by Li: In the thirteenth year Prime Minister Yi wrought this [by the agency of] Master Craftsman of Xianyang, Tian, Major Craftsman Qi, and Craftsman Kui. 十三年，相邦義之造，咸陽工幣(師)田，工大人耆，工樻｡7 Li notes that we know that Xianyang 咸陽 is a place-name in the state of Qin. According to Li, “xiangbang” 相邦 is the title of an official whose status can be comparable to “Minister,” and the character “yi” 義 is a person’s name. Based on literary sources that describe persons appointed as Minister in the state of Qin, Li deduced that the person’s name, Yi, refers in this case to Zhang Yi 張義, who was appointed as Minister during the reign 8 of King Huiwen 惠文 of Qin (337-311 BCE.). Li’s analysis of inscriptions is based on historical and cultural contexts. There is little consideration of orthography or calligraphy in his approach to writing styles in the Warring States period. Nevertheless, Li’s classification of the writing materials of the Warring States period according to the concept of “five regions” became a stepping-stone to later studies in which other Chinese scholars, such as Tang Yuhui 湯余惠 and He Linyi 何琳儀, focused mainly on the issue of Warring States orthography.