1 the Vernacular Mosques of the Malay World
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The Vernacular Mosques of the Malay World: Cultural Interpretation of Islamic Aspirations Harlina Md Sharif Hazman Hazumi Abstract This study looks into the spatial arrangements provided by vernacular mosques of the Malay World and how they respond to the liturgical requirements of a mosque in Islam. Through an analytical study done on the form and function of over forty selected mosques across the Island Southeast Asia, this paper summarises the findings which demonstrate the originality and ingenuity of indigenous designs which efficiently accommodate religious requirements using local architectural repertoire. 1. INTRODUCTION The Island Southeast Asia – historically known as the Malay World – is the region which spreads over 13,000 islands stretching around 3500 miles from the north-west tip of Sumatra to Irian Jaya. Set in between the Indian Ocean and the China Sea with mountains, jungles, rivers, sea and the humidity of the climate as part of the natural environment; this region produces a range of spectacular languages in vernacular architecture as a result of the harmony between human beings and the environment. The vernacular architecture of the Malay World is characterized with extended line of the roof, often with outward sloping gables supported by timber posts which form the main structural components. This structural configuration generates a unique archetypal form consisting of a rectangular or square structure raised on main wooden posts with pitched roofs often culturally identifiable to the various ethnic groups of the region. The constructional system which emphasizes the timber framing is characterized by its sophisticated jointing techniques demonstrated in the absence of nails and intelligent methods of distributing dead loads of the building. Variations are also witnessed between regions which are prone to seismic activities such as Toraja and Nias; and non-volcanic regions such as the Malay Peninsula – in which massive columns and equally massive diagonal struts are used as stabilizers in 1 the first, while architecture of the later is distinguished for its slim and skeletal framing members (Figure 1 & 2). (a) (b) Figure 1 (a): Traditional house of Toraja; (b) Traditional house of Nias Edited from (Davison 1999: 8-9) Figure 2 Traditional house in Pahang, Malay Peninsula Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27) Pile foundations and wooden posts have several advantages in the tropical climate of the Malay World. The pitched roofs cater for the heavy rainfalls during the monsoon seasons while the raised floor provides excellent under-floor ventilation system (Figure 3). 2 Figure 3 Climatic design of a Malay House (Source: Philips Gibbs, 1987) The under-floor space is also used as storage spaces and as a pen for domestic animals (Davison 1999: 12). The raised floors protect the building from mud and flood waters although Lee (2003) proposes that such configuration has more to do with aesthetic considerations than mere pragmatic solutions to the environmental requirements. 2. VERNACULAR MOSQUES CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGINS The emergence of Islamic centres in the coastal regions of the Malay World in the beginning of the fourteenth century was signified by the presence of mosques in the area. Although Pasai and Lamuri are known to have accepted Islam as early as the 11th century, none of the mosques built during the period survived. The earliest extant mosques of the Malay World are found in the northern coastal region of the Java Island. Although most of them have been extensively renovated over the years, original forms can still be detected. The Malay Peninsula – despite the flourishing of Melaka in the 15th century as an Islamic kingdom – lacks any archaeological evidence of that period. The earliest mosques which survived are the eighteenth century mosques of Melaka and the Kampung Laut Mosque in Kelantan which has been relocated and extensively renovated with new materials in place. 3 Most of the mosques designed in the vernacular architectural language in Java are found built prior to the eighteenth century. However in other parts of the Malay World such as Sumatera, the Malay Peninsula and Kalimantan, vernacular mosques were still being built up to the early twentieth century. In general the vernacular mosque derived its form from two main archetypes: the first is the traditional house; the second which is more dominant in the Malay World is pre-Islamic religious house archetype presented in the mosque form which is often referred to as the Javanese mosque prototype. 2.1. TRADITIONAL HOUSE ARCHETYPE The traditional house archetype adopted for the mosque design is mainly found in the long roof construction (bumbung panjang) and its variations (Figure 4). The structural configuration is represented by a series of ‘A’ shaped timber frames forming the skeleton of the building. Using post and beam construction, the posts and roof frames form the loadbearing structural elements leaving the walls to be non- loadbearing. The weight of the roof is spread through the frames towards the wall plate level down to the posts or columns’ pedestals on the ground. This structural arrangement resulted in greater design flexibility with regards to the interior spaces as it allows for greater open plan design to be employed. Mosques built in domestic house archetype however are relatively few. The examples found in this study are Surau Aur (Patani), Masjid Wadi Hussein or Telok Manok (Patani), Masjid Langgar (Kelantan) and Surau Tok Janggut (Kedah) (Figure 5 & 6). Figure 4 Bumbung Panjang House Type with twelve pillars – section and elevations Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27) 4 Figure 5 Masjid Langgar, Kota Bharu, Kelantan Bumbung Panjang traditional house prototype employing 16 pillars construction Edited from (Tajuddin Rasdi 1999) A mosque built in the traditional house prototype in general demonstrates several unique characteristics. It has rectangular floor plan, often with the long side parallel to the qibla (prayer) axis. The pillars supporting the long roof are often aligned further emphasizing the qibla axis. In Surau Tok Janggut for example, the mihrab is placed on the longer wall with the roof ridge aligned north-south. The floor level is raised from the ground level; thereby entrance to the prayer space is marked by the presence of stairs leading to the prayer hall. The entrance is sometimes found to the sides of the prayer hall (i.e. in the southern or northern wall such as the case with Masjid Teluk Manok); however – similar to traditional house spatial arrangement – the main entrance of the mosque is usually provided via staircase leading to the anjung (porche) or serambi (veranda). The serambi or anjung is often placed on the eastern of the prayer hall – opposite of the qibla wall in the west – such as in the case of Surau Aur, Surau Tok Janggut and Masjid Teluk Manok after renovation. The 5 mosque is a detached building with ample open spaces around the building and is usually found built near water source such as the sea or the river. Surau Aur, Patani Long Roof House Masjid Teluk Manok, Patani Long Roof House Mosque Lubuk Bauk, Sumatera House at Karo Batak, Sumatera Fig. 6 Mosque forms originating from traditional houses 6 2.2. PRE-ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS HOUSE ARCHETYPE The Javanese mosques prototype is built using a structural configuration made up of soko guru (main posts) located in the central zone of the floor plan with smaller perimeter columns supporting the roof span leaving the central prayer zone with minimum column interruption. This structural system determines the roof form (i.e. the height and the number of roof-tiers) and floor space (the area and shape) based on the employment of main pillars which range from one central pillar (soko tunggal) to four, twelve, sixteen, thirty six and forty eight. Depending on the construction techniques and the final forms intended, the Javanese mosque pyramidal roof has at least ten types of variations known as limasan, sinom, joglo, kutuk ngambang, tajug, kampung, dara gepak, klabang nyander, srotong and panggang epe (H.J. Wibowo 1987). The main types used for a mosque is usually tajug, although joglo and limasan types are sometimes found as additional structures to the main buildings. This prototype is presented by the oldest extant wooden mosque in the region, Masjid Agung Demak (built end of the 15th century) (see figures 7 & 8); to the extent that mosques adhering to these forms are sometimes referred to in Indonesia as ‘masjid Demakan’ (Demak-like mosque) (Roesmanto 2000: 79). The structural configuration of the Demakan mosques is characterized by the square floor plan with tiered roofs which are said to have been derived from joglo – the traditional Hindu-Javanese architecture (figure 9). W. F. Stutterheim in “Cultuur Geschiedents van Indonesie, De islam en Zijn Komst in III de Archipel” (1952) was of the opinion that the mosque form originated from wantilan, a cock-fighting arena which is found in Bali (Sartono et al. 1977: 210); G.F. Pijper however believed that the form was a local produce, as the Javanese people have long recognised the tiered roof form as representing the magical Meru mountain as the abode of the deities (Pijper 1974: 17). H. J. De Graaf in his “De Oorsprong der Javanese Moskee” however suggested that the mosque forms were influenced by the mosque architecture in Malabar (Graaf 1963: 63). 7 Figure 7 - Masjid Agung Demak in a photograph taken around 1800 A.D. before the inclusion of gateway (gapura – built in 1804) and minaret (built 1932). Figure 8 - Masjid Agung Demak – photograph taken in 1962; showing the gateway in gable roof construction, and the steel minaret to the left. 8 A. Masjid Agung Yogjakarta B. Masjid Payung Agung, Bali C. Masjid Saka Tunggal, Yogyakarta D. Masjidan Lambang Teplok, Bali Figure 9 - Various roof forms derived from Java-Hindu temple designs (Source: Ismundar, 1986) G.F Pijper (1985: 8) identified several unique characteristics possessed by the Javanese mosques.