The Reforms of the Council*

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Reforms of the Council* chapter 10 The Reforms of the Council* Birgit Studt 10.1 Introduction Reform was not a specific attribute or an exclusive concern of the so-called reform councils of the 15th century. The call for reform in the Late Middle Ages came from many sides. The expression ecclesia semper reformanda (the Church always must be reformed)1 in principle characterizes the entire history of the Church, even when at certain times there was more reformatory zeal than in others.2 The ecclesiastical constitution provided councils as regular organs of re- form, and since the first half of the 14th century, this task was more and more justified theoretically, often with the purpose of limiting the plenitudo potes- tatis (fullness of power) of the pope.3 Nevertheless, the pope could also make reforms by means of his jurisdictional authority, and this was expected of him. Traditionally, both of these reform institutions operated in tandem: the coun- cil formulated proposals for reforms, so-called “gravamina” (grievances), while the pope was expected to take care of their administration.4 Already in his letter of invitation to the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, Pope Innocent iii had called for thoroughly investigating necessary measures of correction and reform, and instructed that the written results be presented to * This chapter was translated from German by Daniel O’Connell (initial translation) and Mi chiel Decaluwé. 1 This phrase originated with 17th-century Dutch Calvinism and was then also used at the time of the Second Vatican Council. 2 Christopher M. Bellitto, Renewing Christianity: A History of Church Reform from Day One to Vatican ii (New York, 2001); see also the overview of Johannes Helmrath, “Reform als The- ma der Konzilien des Spätmittelalters,” in Alberigo, Christian Unity, 75–152 at 76–9; Gerald Strauss, “Ideas of Reformatio and Renovatio from the Middle Ages to the Reformation,” in Handbook of European History 1400–1600, (eds.) Thomas A. Brady, Heiko A. Oberman and James D. Tracy, vol. 2 (Leiden, 1995), 1–30. 3 Hermann Josef Sieben, Die Konzilsidee des lateinischen Mittelalters, 847–1378 (Paderborn, 1984), 351–7; Helmrath, “Reform,” 80 ff. 4 Johannes Helmrath, “Theorie und Praxis der Kirchenreform im Spätmittelalter,” Rottenburger Jahrbuch für Kirchengeschichte 11 (1992), 41–70 at 43. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���7 | doi �0.��63/978900433�464_0�� <UN> The Reforms of the Council 283 the council for examination.5 In 1272, Gregory x initiated preparations for the Second Council of Lyon in a similar way, but in doing so emphasized that he was the one who would introduce the appropriate measures for correction, as well as measures for carrying out these corrections, which the council was expected to examine and offer advice.6 During the Great Western Schism this papal command of reform was ac- cepted, when at the 1409 Council of Pisa—called by the cardinals of both obe- diences together—the question regarding the unity of the church was believed to be solved by means of legal action deposing both popes. The fathers of this council brought to the newly-elected pope, Alexander v, numerous complaints and requested that he initiate their roughly outlined reform in capite et in membris (reform in head and members) with the help of a curial commission of specialists.7 In addition, however, it was requested that a general council be called within the following three years, in order that reform deliberations not be put off too long.8 It was first at the Council of Constance that an earnest attempt was made to establish the general council as a reform and regulatory body, which would meet periodically. In the decree Frequens—published on 9 October 1417 be- fore the election of the new pope—the regular meeting of general councils at required intervals was arranged in detail (the next council would meet in five years, the following council in seven, and then every ten years after that). In this way the task of reform was codified in canon law.9 The inspiration for this decision was the treatise De modo generalis conci- lii celebrandi (On the Way of Celebrating a General Council) which was com- posed by William Durant the Younger prior to the Council of Vienne which, in 1311, had pressed for the convocation of general councils every ten years. In 5 Mansi 23, 961–2. 6 Et nos nicholominus variis modis et viis sollers studium et efficacem operam dare proponimus, ut omnia et alia in examen eiusdem correctionem et directionem recipiant opportunam; Jean Guiraud, (ed.), Les régistres de Grégoire x (1272–1276) (Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome) 2e série 12, 1 (Paris, 1892), 53–5 at 55. 7 Regarding the formula of reformatio in capite et in membris, which became a standard trope of the rhetoric of reform during the Schism, see Karl Augustin Frech, Reform an Haupt und Gliedern: Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung und Verwendung der Formulierung im Hoch—und Spätmittelalter (Frankfurt am Main, 1992); Christopher M. Bellitto, “The Reform Context of the Great Western Schism,” in Rollo-Koster, Izbicki, Great Western Schism, 303–31. 8 Jürgen Miethke, “Kirchenreform auf den Konzilien des 15. Jahrhunderts: Motive— Methoden—Wirkungen,” in Studien zum 15. Jahrhundert: Festschrift für Erich Meuthen, (eds.) Johannes Helmrath and Heribert Müller, 2 vols. (Munich, 1994), 1, 13–42 at 22. 9 cogd 2, 1, 608–9; cod (Tanner), 438–9; Quellen Kirchenreform, 1, 485–7. <UN>.
Recommended publications
  • Events of the Reformation Part 1 – Church Becomes Powerful Institution
    May 20, 2018 Events of the Reformation Protestants and Roman Catholics agree on first 5 centuries. What changed? Why did some in the Church want reform by the 16th century? Outline Why the Reformation? 1. Church becomes powerful institution. 2. Additional teaching and practices were added. 3. People begin questioning the Church. 4. Martin Luther’s protest. Part 1 – Church Becomes Powerful Institution Evidence of Rome’s power grab • In 2nd century we see bishops over regions; people looked to them for guidance. • Around 195AD there was dispute over which day to celebrate Passover (14th Nissan vs. Sunday) • Polycarp said 14th Nissan, but now Victor (Bishop of Rome) liked Sunday. • A council was convened to decide, and they decided on Sunday. • But bishops of Asia continued the Passover on 14th Nissan. • Eusebius wrote what happened next: “Thereupon Victor, who presided over the church at Rome, immediately attempted to cut off from the common unity the parishes of all Asia, with the churches that agreed with them, as heterodox [heretics]; and he wrote letters and declared all the brethren there wholly excommunicate.” (Eus., Hist. eccl. 5.24.9) Everyone started looking to Rome to settle disputes • Rome was always ending up on the winning side in their handling of controversial topics. 1 • So through a combination of the fact that Rome was the most important city in the ancient world and its bishop was always right doctrinally then everyone started looking to Rome. • So Rome took that power and developed it into the Roman Catholic Church by the 600s. Church granted power to rule • Constantine gave the pope power to rule over Italy, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Alexandria.
    [Show full text]
  • (22SU526) a Freshwater Mussel Shell Ring in the Mississippi Delta
    Mississippi State University Scholars Junction Theses and Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 8-1-2012 Addressing sample bias and representativeness at the Kinlock site (22SU526) a freshwater mussel shell ring in the Mississippi Delta Joseph Alan Mitchell Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/td Recommended Citation Mitchell, Joseph Alan, "Addressing sample bias and representativeness at the Kinlock site (22SU526) a freshwater mussel shell ring in the Mississippi Delta" (2012). Theses and Dissertations. 385. https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/td/385 This Graduate Thesis - Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Scholars Junction. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholars Junction. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Automated Template B: Created by James Nail 2011 Addressing sample bias and representativeness at the Kinlock site (22SU526): a freshwater mussel shell ring in the Mississippi Delta By Joseph Mitchell A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mississippi State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Applied Anthropology in the Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures Mississippi State, Mississippi August 2012 Copyright by Joseph Mitchell 2012 Addressing sample bias and representativeness at the Kinlock site (22SU526): a freshwater mussel shell ring in the Mississippi Delta By Joseph
    [Show full text]
  • Christopher White Table of Contents
    Christopher White Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Peter the “rock”? ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Churches change over time ...................................................................................................................... 6 The Church and her earthly pilgrimage .................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1 The Apostle Peter (d. 64?) : First Bishop and Pope of Rome? .................................................. 11 Peter in Rome ......................................................................................................................................... 12 Yes and No .............................................................................................................................................. 13 The death of Peter .................................................................................................................................. 15 Chapter 2 Pope Sylvester (314-335): Constantine’s Pope ......................................................................... 16 Constantine and his imprint .................................................................................................................... 17 “Remembering” Sylvester ......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church
    The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church A History Joseph F. Kelly A Michael Glazier Book LITURGICAL PRESS Collegeville, Minnesota www.litpress.org A Michael Glazier Book published by Liturgical Press Cover design by David Manahan, OSB. Painting in Kiev, Sofia. Photo by Sasha Martynchuk. © Sasha Martynchuk and iStockphoto. Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible with Revised New Testament and Revised Psalms © 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, DC, and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner. © 2009 by Order of Saint Benedict, Collegeville, Minnesota. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, microfilm, microfiche, mechanical recording, photocopying, translation, or by any other means, known or yet unknown, for any purpose except brief quotations in reviews, without the previ- ous written permission of Liturgical Press, Saint John’s Abbey, PO Box 7500, Col- legeville, Minnesota 56321-7500. Printed in the United States of America. 123456789 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kelly, Joseph F. (Joseph Francis), 1945– The ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church : a history / Joseph F. Kelly. p. cm. “A Michael Glazier book”—T.p. verso. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 978-0-8146-5376-0 (pbk.) 1. Councils
    [Show full text]
  • Review of the Church, the Councils, and Reform: the Legacy of the Fifteenth Century
    John Carroll University Carroll Collected History Summer 2009 Review of The hC urch, the Councils, and Reform: The Legacy of the Fifteenth Century Paul V. Murphy John Carroll University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://collected.jcu.edu/hist-facpub Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Murphy, Paul V., "Review of The hC urch, the Councils, and Reform: The Legacy of the Fifteenth Century" (2009). History. 2. http://collected.jcu.edu/hist-facpub/2 This Book Review is brought to you for free and open access by Carroll Collected. It has been accepted for inclusion in History by an authorized administrator of Carroll Collected. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 594 RENAISSANCE QUARTERLY Gerald Christianson, Thomas Izbicki, and Christopher M. Bellitto, eds. The Ghurch, the Gouncils, and Reform: The Legacy ofthe Eifteenth Gentury. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2008. xvi + 336 pp. index. $79.95. ISBN: 978-0-8132-1527-3. Tbis very welcome collection of essays on tbe councils and conciliar tbougbt from tbe Council of Constance tbrough tbe Council of Trent (1414-1563) is tbe fruit not only of a conference sponsored by tbe American Cusanus Society and tbe International Seminar on Pre-Reformation Tbeology of Gettysburg Lutheran Seminary in 2004, but also of a rich stream of researcb initiated by Brian Tierney witb bis publication of Eoundations ofthe Conciliar Theory in 1955. Tbe essays included here represent some of tbe contributions of tbe generations tbat bave followed bis pathbreaking work. The volume is divided into four parts, each ded together by belpfiil introducdons by Cbristianson and Izbicki.
    [Show full text]
  • Reconstruction Or Reformation the Conciliar Papacy and Jan Hus of Bohemia
    Garcia 1 RECONSTRUCTION OR REFORMATION THE CONCILIAR PAPACY AND JAN HUS OF BOHEMIA Franky Garcia HY 490 Dr. Andy Dunar 15 March 2012 Garcia 2 The declining institution of the Church quashed the Hussite Heresy through a radical self-reconstruction led by the conciliar reformers. The Roman Church of the late Middle Ages was in a state of decline after years of dealing with heresy. While the Papacy had grown in power through the Middle Ages, after it fought the crusades it lost its authority over the temporal leaders in Europe. Once there was no papal banner for troops to march behind to faraway lands, European rulers began fighting among themselves. This led to the Great Schism of 1378, in which different rulers in Europe elected different popes. Before the schism ended in 1417, there were three popes holding support from various European monarchs. Thus, when a new reform movement led by Jan Hus of Bohemia arose at the beginning of the fifteenth century, the declining Church was at odds over how to deal with it. The Church had been able to deal ecumenically (or in a religiously unified way) with reforms in the past, but its weakened state after the crusades made ecumenism too great a risk. Instead, the Church took a repressive approach to the situation. Bohemia was a land stained with a history of heresy, and to let Hus's reform go unchecked might allow for a heretical movement on a scale that surpassed even the Cathars of southern France. Therefore the Church, under guidance of Pope John XXIII and Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg, convened in the Council of Constance in 1414.
    [Show full text]
  • Ecumenical Councils Preparing for Next Week (Disciple 6–Eucharist 1)
    January St. Dominic’s RCIA Program Disciple The Church: 15 History & Teaching 4 Goal • Having switched the Disciple 4 & 5 weeks, we looks at an overview of the Sacraments last week (Disciple 5), and explored the Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation. These Sacraments are two of the three that initiate us into the Church community, and into Christ’s body and mission. This week we’ll continue to unpack the meaning of Church by looking broadly at its history one the last 2000 years. We’ll also explore it’s role as Teacher. How does the Church function in and through history? How does God walk with the Church through it all? Agenda • Welcome/Housekeeping (10) • Questions & Answers • Introduction to the Rosary (15) Discussion (15): • If the Church is The Body of Christ, what does this mean for Christ’s presence in the world through history and in the world today? • What do I admire about the Catholic Church’s activity in history? Does any part of the Church’s activity in history disturb or upset me? • How do I (might I) listen to what the Church has to say today? What is my approach/attitude to the Church as “Teacher”? • Presentation: The Church: History (35) • Break (10) • Presentation: The Church: Teaching & Belief (30) • Discussion (time permitting): • What is special to this moment in history? • What is the Good News of Christ & the Church that speaks to this moment in history? • How can the body of Christ proclaim & witness the Gospel and walk with others today? Housekeeping Notes • Rite of Acceptance: February 10th at the 11:30am and 5:30 Masses.
    [Show full text]
  • Humanism and Spanish Literary Patronage at the Roman Curia: the Role of the Cardinal of Santa Croce, Bernardino López De Carvajal (1456–1523)
    2017 IV Humanism and Spanish Literary Patronage at the Roman Curia: The Role of the Cardinal of Santa Croce, Bernardino López de Carvajal (1456–1523) Marta Albalá Pelegrín Article: Humanism and Spanish Literary Patronage at the Roman Curia: The Role of the Cardinal of Santa Croce, Bernardino López de Carvajal (1456-1523) Humanism and Spanish Literary Patronage at the Roman Curia: The Role of the Cardinal of Santa Croce, Bernardino López de Carvajal (1456-1523)1 Marta Albalá Pelegrín Abstract: This article aims to analyze the role of Bernardino López de Carvajal (1456 Plasencia-1523 Rome) as a literary patron, namely his contributions to humanism in Rome and to Spanish letters, in the period that has been loosely identified as Spanish Rome. Carvajal held the dignities of orator continuus of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, titular cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, and Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, and was even elected antipope with the name of Martin VI in the Conciliabulum of Pisa (1511) against Julius II. He belonged to the avant-garde of humanists devoted to creating a body of Neo-Latin and Spanish literature that would both foster the Spanish presence at Rome and leave a mark on the Spanish literary canon. He sponsored a considerable body of works that celebrated the deeds of the Catholic Kings and those of the Great Captain, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba. He also commissioned literary translations, and was involved in the production of theatrical pieces, such as those of Bartolomé Torres Naharro. Key Words: Benardino López de Carvajal; Literary Patronage; Catholic Kings; Erasmus; Bartolomé Torres Naharro; Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba.
    [Show full text]
  • Doctrine of Purgatory 1208 1244 Aquinas & Indulgences Patriarchate
    Doctrine of Patriarchate Constantinople Palestine lostPope Clement Bubonic Emperor’s Reformer Council of Spanish purgatory of Kiev retaken 1291 V plague submission John Hus 3 popes! Florence Inquisition 1208 1248 1261 1305 1347 1355 1412 1409 1439 1479 1244 ~1250 1274 1302 1335 1330-1368 1378 1418 1453 Aquinas & Scholasticism Council of Pope Boniface Hundred Barlaam & Popes, antipopes & Council of Fall of indulgences Lyons III Years’ War Palamas schism Constance Constantinople SESSION 23: CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE – CONTENT 1. Pope Urban’s vision of a unified Church quickly turned into an effort to Latinize the East through the Crusades. Although Pope Innocent III had instructed crusaders to not go to Constantinople (4th, 1204), they took mules into the sanctuary of Hagia Sophia to carry away plunder. And Innocent then said that the crusade was a “just judgement of God”. He began the rebaptizing and reordination of Eastern clergy who converted, and inconsiderately installed a Venetian nobleman as the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. Later, the West began blaming the East for the crusades’ failures. The following years were devastation in both East and West. The East was under constant Turkish attack as the Byzantine Empire diminished. In the West nationalism gave rise to independent countries and kings, who sought to control Rome. Two events brought great devastation to all of Europe – the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, and the Bubonic Plague. The historian S.E. Ozmont said, “As never before, not even during the century of the Roman Empire’s collapse, Western people walked through the valley of the shadow of death”.
    [Show full text]
  • The Great Western Schism, Conciliarism, and Constance Thomas E
    CURRENT THEOLOGY AFTER SIX HUNDRED YEARS: THE GREAT WESTERN SCHISM, CONCILIARISM, AND CONSTANCE THOMAS E. MORRISSEY State University College, Fredonia, N.Y. Recent years have seen an awakened interest in the Great Western Schism, conciliarism, and the councils which brought that era to a close. Yet in some ways the vigorous and careful research has not brought us any closer to a solution of many of the questions and problems that confronted Christian society than the answers which the actual partici­ pants of that time had. Some of the best and newest work in this area reveals how shifting are the bases on which our answers rest and how nebulous are our certainties.1 Yet we must start with what is known and agreed upon, and that is little enough. ORIGINS OF THE SCHISM In April 1378, in order to elect a new pope after Gregory XI had died, the cardinals gathered in the conclave in Rome under circumstances that are still disputed. They could not agree on a candidate among themselves and they were subject to what any impartial observer might call "inor­ dinate pressures." Finally, for the last time since that day, the sacred college decided to go outside of its own ranks in choosing the new pope, and so Bartolomeo Prignani emerged from the conclave as Urban VI. Even these simple factual statements must be interpreted in the light of what had happened before this, e.g., the seventy years of papal residence in Avignon and what was to follow, i.e., the subsequent abandonment of Urban by the cardinals, their election of one of their members, Robert of Geneva, as Clement VII, and the schism that was to last with two papal claimants (later three, after the Council of Pisa in 1409) until the Council of Constance finally resolved the problem with the election of Martin V in 1417.
    [Show full text]
  • INTRODUCTION the Fifteenth Century Started Badly for the Cardinals. They Were Blamed for Keeping the Popes in Avignon for Much O
    INTRODUCTION The fifteenth century started badly for the cardinals. They were blamed for keeping the popes in Avignon for much of the fourteenth century instead of letting them return to Rome.1 After the dramatic events of 1378, the cardinals were also blamed for causing the schism.2 In April, following the death in March of Gregory XI (1370–8), they had elected Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, who adopted the name Urban VI (1378–89). He was the first Italian pope since Benedict XI at the beginning of the fourteenth century to be elected in Rome.3 Shortly afterwards, when Urban VI’s hot temper and desire for reform was exposed, the cardinals claimed that the election was invalid as it had been under duress: it was the first election that had taken place in Rome for seventy-five years, and the local populace had bullied them into electing an Italian.4 In September, the mainly French cardinals elected a new pope, the French Robert of Geneva, who took the name Clement VII (1378–94). 1 On the Avignon period see Étienne Baluze, Vitae paparum Avenionensium : hoc est historia pontificum Romanorum qui in Gallia sederunt ab anno Christi 1305 usque ad annum 1394, ed. Guillaume Mollat, 4 vols (Paris: Letouzey & Ané, 1914–27); Guillaume Mollat, The Popes at Avignon 1305–1378, trans. Janet Love (London: Thomas Nelson, 1963). There is also a useful outline of the period and the main issues in Geoffrey Barraclough, The Medieval Papacy (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992; first published 1968), 140–64. For another, refreshing, approach to the same period, David S.
    [Show full text]
  • The Influence of the University of Paris Upon Ecclesiastical and Political Affairs in the Early Fifteenth Century
    THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS UPON ECCLESIASTICAL AND POLITICAL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY FIFTEENTH CENTURY A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts by Patricia Ann Wegner, B.A. The Ohio State University 1971 Approved by TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. 1 Chapter I. THE GREAT SCHISM . 4 II. THE THEORY OF TYRANNICIDE • . 26 III. THE REIGN OF CHARLES VI • • • . 34 IV. THE TRIAL OF JOAN OF ARC. • . 42 CONCLUSION . 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • 61 ii INTRODUCTION "As the weakness of the papacy gave the University (of Paris) the opportunity to assert its authority in the Church, so the weakness of the crown gave it the oppor­ tunity to assert its authority in the state. 111 The prominence of the University of Paris in the Great Schism spanned the period of time from 1379, when the University recognized the pontificate of Clement VII, until the resolution of the Schism through the Council of Constance in 1414-1417. The discord in the Church, ef­ fected by the circumstance of two rival pontiffs, infected all the nations of Western Europe. Ecclesiastical, as well as national and international politics, were part of the struggle between the two popes. The University, as a highly respected organ of the Church felt the responsi­ bility to make efforts to bring the Schism to an end. The prominence of the University in the Schism, as it dealt in the realm of ecclesiastical politics, gave it the impulse to become an active force in the purely sec- ular affairs of the state as well.
    [Show full text]