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Internett.No/Historie Unn Kristin Daling og Øyvind Thomassen Internett.no/historie NTNU Trondheim 2006 Innhald Kapittel 1: Innleiing 1 Måtar å forstå og forklare Internett på 2 Internett som teknologipolitikk 3 Internett - resultat av forsvarspolitikk eller vitskapleg idealisme 5 Utfordringar i det å skrive om Internett 6 Kapittel 2: Galaktisk nett 9 Internettet som ein "endelaus frontier" 10 ”Galactic Network” 13 Kald krig - networking for fred 16 Pakkesvitsjing 18 Todelt arkitektur 22 ARPAnet – Fugl Fønix stig opp 23 Europa koplast til ARPAnet 27 Larry Roberts og Bob Kahn på besøk hos FFI 29 Eksperimentelle nett i ARPAnet og Xerox 31 SATNET 34 Eit nett av nett 35 Noreg blir først på ARPAnet 37 Det var ganske alvorlig altså…. ingen ville snakke om det… 38 FFI koplast til ARPAnet 41 Eit nett utan grenser 44 Avslutning 46 Kapittel 3: Internett 55 ARPAnet delast i to nett 56 CSNet, BITNET og NSFNET 57 På veg mot noko nytt… 59 This software’s going to change everything… 60 www legg grunnlaget for det globale Internett 61 Nettlesarkrigen 65 Verda går online 69 Det idealistiske Internett 72 USENET til Noreg 75 Hacker-rørsla tar form 76 Free Software versus Open Source 78 Phreaks og Crackers 82 Avslutning 85 Kapittel 4: Forskingsnett 91 Dele på datamaskinkapasitet ved distribuert datahandsaming 92 Televerket sitt prøvedatanett – eit nordisk prosjekt 94 Pakkesvitsj eller linesvitsj? 98 Kontaktgruppa for televerkssamarbeid 99 Distribuert datahandsaming og fleksibel brukerterminal 104 Lokalnettplanar i Trondheim 106 Frå lastebil til fjerndataterminal 107 Lokalnettplanar i Oslo 108 Mangel på datakraft: Større reknemaskiner eller interaktivitet? 112 Visjon og innovasjon 114 Kapittel 5: Standardnett 119 Inkompatible datanett 120 Frå Euronet til Studiegruppe i datanett 122 Alternative standardar? 123 Forskingsprosjekt Datanett 125 Samordna nasjonal pionerinnsats 126 Nettdanningsfasen 127 Kommunikasjon KOM! 129 Protokollkontroversar 130 Krav om standardisering 131 Kontroverslukking? 132 Prøvedatanett 134 Motbør 134 Ein tung leverandør 137 Eit leverandøravhengig datanett 138 Meldingstenester 140 Televerkets offentlege datanett som flytekork 142 Kapittel 6: Multiprotokollnett 149 Bibliotekautomatisering 150 Biblioteksystem som kommuniserte 152 Han kunne høyra om ei knappnål fall på golvet! 155 Frå jubelmøte til NORDUNET 156 Eit nettverk av nett 157 Staten kjem ut frå kulissane 158 Nye UNINETT 160 UNINETT driftsorganisasjon og nye brukarar 162 Samordna opptak 164 Frå kartleggjing til ingenting 165 X.EARN 167 Televerksprotokollar versus Internettprotokollar 169 NORDUnet i nettverkslaboratoriet 170 Multiprotokollplugg 172 Reorientering: To-fot-strategi 175 OSI – eit ufråvikeleg premiss 177 Nordisk Internett og europeisk multiprotokoll stamnett 180 UNINETT AS 182 Brytningstid 183 Kapittel 7: Nettpolitikk 189 Noreg inn i informasjonssamfunnet? 190 Ein modell for eit infrastrukturprogram 192 Standarden og interimsløysinga 193 Å definera internasjonale standardar 195 Staten og IT-politikken 198 Visjonen om ein global landsby 199 Rop om styring 201 Trufaste eller prinsippfaste nordmenn? 203 Staten på Internett 204 Internett i kontrovers med politisk mål om ny europeisk IT-industri 205 Kapittel 8: .no 211 DNS og no.-domenet 212 Pizzagjengen som vart internettpionerar 216 Gjennombrotet: OL på Lillehammer og EU-røystinga 219 Hardare konkurranse og slutten for Oslonett 221 Opera 222 Opera inn i nettlesarkrigen 224 Søkemotorane ryddar i kaoset 226 Supernett 229 Bobla som sprakk 234 Nettbankar 236 Avisene på nett 237 Bruken av Internett 240 Avslutning 243 Kjelder og litteratur 249 Takk! 258 Det første klikkbare kartet på Internett! Kjelde: www.uninett.no innleiing Kapittel 1 INNLEIING Internett som middel til massekommunikasjon er eit relativt nytt fenomen. Det første nettet som vart sett i drift og som kopla saman brukarar over lengre avstandar var ARPAnet. Da det vart sett i drift i 1969 var det berre nokre få som kunne bruke det. Det kravde meir enn vanlege kunnskapar å bruke det, det var tilgjengeleg på relativt få plassar i samfunnet og det var ikkje ope for bruk for alle. Gradvis vart det bygd ut med fleire tilkopla institusjonar og brukarar. Frå kring 1990 kan vi snakke om Internett som eit verkeleg massekommunikasjonsmiddel som ikkje stilte krav om særskilde teknologikunnskapar av brukarane. Utviklinga av Internett-teknologien frå kring 1990 har forenkla bruken, det er tilgjengeleg svært mange plassar i heile verda og det aller meste av informasjonen og tenestene på nettet er tilgjengeleg for dei som vil bruke det. Søkjer vi i litteraturen og på Internett etter informasjon om kva Internett er, så er det ein sterk overvekt av definisjonar som legg hovudfokus på dei tekniske karakteristikkane ved teknologien. Det leggjast generelt vekt på at Internett ikkje er eit nettverk, men ei samankopling av fleire hundre tusen nettverk og at desse er knytte saman ved hjelp av ein felles kommunikasjonsprotokoll (TCP/IP) som gjer det mogleg å utveksle informasjon på tvers av nettverka. I den grad desse definisjonane legg vekt på menneskjelege aspekt, er det i all hovudsak det anarkistiske aspektet som blir trekt fram og at det er eit globalt 1 internett.no/historie nettverk. Dette til saman gjer at det omtrent ikkje finst reglar for informasjonsutvekslinga. Ein definisjon av Internett bør også innehalde dei menneskjelege aspekta ved utviklinga og bruken av teknologien. Internett er både teknologisk, kulturelt og sosialt eit så komplekst system at det truleg ikkje er mogleg å kome fram til ein kort og presis definisjon. Internett inneheld tankemåtar, kunnskapar, kulturelle tilpassingar, sosiale praksisar samt teknologiske gjenstandar. Ein definisjon bør såleis spegle både dei sosiale, kulturelle og teknologiske aspekta ved fenomenet Internett. Måtar å forstå og forklare Internett på Internett er ikkje einskilt teknologi, men karakteriserast av kjenneteikna til det som i den teknologihistoriske forskinga har vorte kalla for ”eit stort teknologisk system”. Manuel Castells karakteriserer Internett med referanse til ei slik forståing i boka The Internet Galaxy: "If information technology is the present-day equivalent of electricity in the industrial era, in our age the Internet could be linked to both the electrical grid and the electric engine because of its ability to distribute the power of information throughout the entire realm of human activity." 1 Denne forståinga vart opphavleg utvikla av den amerikanske teknologihistorikaren Thomas P. Hughes i ein studie av utbreiinga av elektrisiteten i USA på 1800-talet. Internett har mange likskapstrekk med andre store ”teknologiske system”, som til dømes elektrisiteten, bilen, flyet, fjernsynet osb. 2 Eit svært tydeleg likskapstrekk mellom dei nemnde teknologiane og Internett er at dei alle er bygd opp av ei rad ulike delteknologiar. Nokre av delteknologiane i Internett, som til dømes datamaskina og kabelteknologien, er eldre enn Internett sjølv og var ikkje opphavleg utvikla med tanke på nettet. Andre av teknologiane har vorte meir direkte utvikla for å løyse konkrete og spesifikke utfordringar som på ulike tidspunkt har forsinka utviklinga av Internett som ”teknologisk system”. Eit døme på ein teknologi som løyste ei slik utfordring var World Wide Web (www). I Hughes si forståing av store teknologiske system er det også andre komponentar enn teknologiske som inngår. Døme på slike er politiske institusjonar, investeringsbankar, produksjonsselskap osb. Menneskja er i denne forståinga oppfinnarar og/eller systembyggjarar. I ulike fasar av utviklinga av eit ”teknologisk system” er det som oftast ulike personar eller grupper av personar som driv utviklinga av 2 innleiing teknologien framover. Systembyggjarar karakteriserast ved den evna dei har til å knyte saman dei ulike komponentane i nettverket av menneskje og teknologiar. Ei tilsvarande forståing finn vi hos Castells i påstanden om at: The Internet is the technological basis for the organizational form of the Information Age: the network." 3 ”Store teknologiske system” gjennomgår ulike fasar frå oppfinning, utvikling, implementering, vekst og konkurranse til konsolidering. I løpet av ei slik utvikling vil andre konkurrerande løysingar ”tape” for den som står igjen som ”vinnar”. Etter kvart som systemet utviklar seg vil det oppstå ”utakt” mellom dei ulike delane. Heile systemet kan vere avhengig av ein enkelt innovasjon for å kunne utvikle seg vidare. Dette skal vi sjå mange gongar var tilfelle for utviklinga av Internett slik vi kjenner det i dag. I følgje Hughes får eit stort teknologisk system framdrift i utviklinga ved at det mobiliserast kulturelle og sosiale interesser til støtte for det etter kvart som det utviklast.4 Dette er eit syn på teknologiutvikling som står i motstrid til eit teknologisk deterministisk synspunkt, og som har vorte vidareutvikla både innanfor samfunns- og kulturvitskapane sidan Hughes utvikla forståinga knytt til ”store teknologiske system” i 1980-åra.5 Internett som teknologipolitikk I boka The Internet Galaxy drøftar Castells danninga av internettsamfunnet i den tidlege perioden. Han fokuserer særskilt på politiske og sosiale grupper som såg Internett som ein reiskap til å spreie ein bodskap. Han studerte den flyktige "nye økonomien" som nettet skapte, og korleis økonomiske aktørar responderte på Internetteknologien.6 Terje Rasmussen sitt fremste argument i boka Kampen om Internett er at Internett oppstod under heilt særskilde sosiale, politiske og kulturelle tilhøve, og vart driven fram av heilt spesifikke teknopolitiske kulturar. Inspirasjonen til skildringa
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