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1. Introduction

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1. Introduction 1. Introduction 1.1 History 1.2 Concepts 1.3 Control Engineering 1.4 Examples of Control Systems 1.5 Controllers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ These lecture notes, for Control Systems I, are based on the textbook: K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002, and were developed by Dr. D. Necsulescu, Dr. A. Fahim and Dr. B. Kim 1-1 1.1 History 1769 James Watt’s steam engine and flyball governor Fig 1.2 Speed control system Before 1868 the development of automatic control systems was based on intuition, not on engineering basic principles. 1868 J. C. Maxwell formulates a mathematical model for the flyball governor based control of a steam engine. 1913 Henry Ford’s mechanized assembly machine introduced for automobile production using sequential logic but no feedback control. 1927 H. W. Bode develops feedback amplifiers. 1932 H. Nyquist develops a method for analyzing the stability of systems. 1-2 Prior to WWII, - US and Western Europe: Frequency domain approach - Russia: Time domain approach. 1940’s Frequency-response classical control theory methods and Root-locus methods for designing linear closed loop control systems 1952 Numerical control (NC) for control of machine-tool axes developed at MIT. 1954 George Devol develops “programmed article transfer,” considered to be the first industrial robot design. 1960 First Unimate industrial robot 1970 State-variable models and optimal control developed 1960’s Modern control theory based on time-domain analysis and synthesis of complex systems using state variables has been developed. 1960~1980 Stochastic systems, adaptive and learning control 1980 Robust control system design 1-3 1.2 Concepts Controlled variable (output y) is the quantity that is measured and controlled. Manipulated variable (input u) is the quantity that is affected by the controller-actuator to modify the value of the controlled variable y. Control means the modification of the manipulated variable u to correct the deviation of the controlled variable y from its desired value yd. Plant is any physical object to be controlled (for ex. mechanical device, heating furnace, chemical reactor, aircraft) Process is any operation to be controlled chemical, economic, and biological processes, etc), i.e the process of a plant System is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective. (physical, biological, economic, etc.) In control engineering plant, process and system are used interchangeably. Disturbances is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output y of a system. 1-4 Feedback Control a type of control that tends to reduce the difference between the system output y and its desired value yd. A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide a desired system response. Control engineering is not limited to any particular engineering discipline but is equally applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and electrical engineering. Input-output relationship of a system represents the cause-to– effect relationship in a system. Input System Output 1-5 Open-loop control system uses an actuator that provides an input u to the system to bring the output y its desired value yd. In this case the output has no effect on the control action i.e. the process is controlled directly without the feedback of the measured output. (Example: sequence control of a washing machine). Power Supply u yd Actuator System y Desired Output Output • the output y is not compared with its desired value yd. • each value yd corresponds a specific operating condition • the accuracy of the system depends on calibration. • in the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system does not perform the desired task. • it is used only if the relationship between the input and output is known and if there are no internal or external disturbances. • any control system that operates sequentially, on a step-wise time basis, is open-loop. This is the case of basic Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) 1-6 A negative feedback control system reduces the error e , i.e. the difference yd –ym between the measurement ym of the output y and desired output (called also reference input to the closed loop system or the command) yd as a means of control. (Example: Thermostat based room-temperature control system). A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output ym i.e. the negative feedback of the output y, in order to make the actuator input u to the system reduce system error e = yd –ym. The concepts of negative feedback control and closed-loop control are used interchangeably. Power Supply + e = Controller U yd y & System _ yd –ym Actuator Input Desired Output Output ym Sensor Measured Output 1-7 Closed-loop versus Open-loop control • Closed-loop control uses feedback to make the system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and to variations in system parameters. Closed loop system can be unstable and a stability study is required. • Open-loop control system is sensitive to external disturbances and to variations in system parameters but does not have stability problems. The stability is a major problem in the closed-loop control system. • If the inputs are known and there are no disturbances, open- loop control is preferable. • If there are unpredictable disturbances and/or unpredictable variations in system parameters Closed-loop control systems have advantages over Open loop control systems. • Closed-loop control systems generally are more complex and cost more open-lop systems 1-8 Multivariable control systems Control systems in practice involve simultaneously several controlled variables Desired Outputs Outputs Controller Actuators System Measured Outputs Sensors Block diagram of a multivariable control system. 1-9 1.3 Control Engineering Control of an industrial process is achieved now automatically rather than manually and is often called automation. Control systems are used to achieve production systems with: - increased productivity - high quality and products with: - high performance - required reliability - safety - durability. Automation is used to improve productivity for example of automatic production and fabricate high-quality products. Modern industry requires flexible and customized production using automation and robotics. 1-10 1.4 Examples of Control Systems Manual Feedback Control System for regulating the level of fluid in a tank by adjusting the output valve Incoming constant flow rate of liquid Human operator Desired of the Liquid Control Valve Actual Level Liquid Level Transparent Tank Outgoing Wall manually controlled Control flow rate of Valve liquid A human operator: 1) looks at the Actual Liquid Level through the transparent tank wall , 2) compares it to the marked Desired Liquid Level, 3) estimates visually the Error and 4) turns the Control Valve such that to reduce the Error by modifying the Outgoing manually controlled flow rate of liquid until the liquid level is acceptable close to the Desired Liquid Level. 1-11 Speed Control System -A closed loop speed control system using the fly-ball governor with valves for a steam engine velocity control Fig. 1.1 The amount of steam admitted to the engine is adjusted according to the difference between the desired and the actual engine speed in accordance to the repeated sequence of automatic actions in case of occasional differences or due to a disturbance: 1. If the actual speed drops below the desired value, then the decrease in the centrifugal force of the speed governor causes the balls to fall downward and control valve is made to open more to supply more stem, such that the speed of the engine increases until the desired value is reached. 2. If the speed of the engine increases above the desired value, then the increase in the centrifugal force of the governor causes the balls to move upward and the control valve is made to close more to supply more stem, such that the speed of the engine decreases until the desired value is reached. 1-12 Temperature Control System for an Electric Furnace using Digital Control Fig. 1.2 The repeated sequence of automatic actions is: 1. temperature y measurement in the electric furnace with a thermometer (analog voltage signal output) 2. A/D converter converts analog signal y into a digital signal 3. the interface acquires the digital signal (measured temperature) for a PC based controller 4. the digital signal (measured temperature) is compared with the programmed input (desired temperature), yd , calculates the deviation (error) e = yd - y and generates a command u as a digital signal 5. The digital signal u is converted in analog voltage signal, amplified and passed to a relay that turns “on” the electric Heater when the error e is significant and “off” when the error e is insignificant 1-13 1.5 Controllers In negative feedback systems, the error e is the input to a controller that generates the command uc for the Actuator. y + e uc u y d Controller Actuator Syst _ em y m Sensor Controllers are often of the following types: - P-Controller, that achieves Proportional control c u = kP e where kP is a constant value called proportional gain - PD-Controller, that achieves Proportional Derivative control c u = kP e + kD de/dt where kD is a constant value called derivative gain - PID-Controller, that achieves Proportional Derivative control c u = kP e + kD de/dt + kI ∫e dt where kI is a constant value called integral gain. The calculation of the values of kP , kD and kI is a main topic of control engineering practice. 1-14.
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