Typologies of Ethiopian society. the of integration development andthe spaces inurban sacred roleof The Belief The influence of religion in the urban landscape.

Typologies & Spatial Patterns of Belief

The role of sacred spaces in urban development and the integration of the Ethiopian society. Master Thesis Advanced Urbanism Advanced

Author: Alejandra Urrutia Pinto

Supervisors: Prof. Dr-Ing. Sven Schneider

Bauhaus Universität Weimar Bauhaus Universität M.Sc. Wossen Woldekidan Acknowledgments

Eternal gratitude to my family and friends who have supported me in all my never ending journeys and endeavours. I would not have been able to do this without you.

Special thanks to my travel and research companions, Aurelija, Bastiaan and Fikre who ventured with me into the vast highlands of Ethiopia. Ben for shedding light into life. My supervisors for their guidance and support and to all the friends in Ethiopia who showed us their country and culture. Abstract

This work focuses on the spatial compositions and social dynamics of religious or sacred spaces and its immediate surrounding areas in the cities of Kon, Mer’Awi and Gondar, located in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Rapid urbanization and development in Ethiopia alongside with internal national conflicts inz recent years are transforming the spatial configurations of these towns and cities. This study offers insight into the dynamics and influence of religious space in the development of settlement pattern composition, based on the socio-spatial relations of the two most predominant religions in Ethiopia; Orthodox Chris- tianism and Islam. After examining the collected data and social analysis questionnaires, diverse spatial and social behavioral patterns can be derived per city, allowing us to determine how people decide to settle in accordance to their religious affiliation. To be able to determine percent- ages of inhabitants in relation to the location of mosques and churches in order to see if there is a specific pattern of socio-spatial order that could cause possible segregation or cohesion between different religious social groups. This qualitative analysis is performed to include religious space in future urban planning, since religion is a strong denotative characteristic of the Ethiopian culture and tradition.

Religious space, religious affiliation, socio-spatial

Keywords relations, settlement patterns, Amhara region. Introduction

Research background 12 Problem statement 13 Research aims & questions 14 Table ofTable Contents Key reserach terms 15 Methodology 17

Understanding religion in society & space

The influence of religion 20 Contested land and 22 interreligious conflicts Religion as an element 25 of cohesion

The production of Case studies religious space Table of Contents The Amhara Region 46 Governance & organization 30 Selection & classification 50 of settlements Religious settlement 33 patterns Sacred typlogies: churches 37 & mosques of Ethiopia Analysis of case studies Ethiopia’s land tenure 42 Social area analysis 52 Mapping religious 56 affiliations Gondar 58 Mer’Awi 74 Kon 90

Conclusion

Findings & reflections 105 12

Research background

Religion and sacred spaces in Ethiopia repre- predominant religious typologies in Ethiopia, sent a fundamental aspect of people’s lives, the church and mosque as factors of influence which plays an important role in the produc- to the new development of spatial patterns and tion of urban and social space. Spirituality and how their presence or location influences how religiosity in this country are elements that followers decide to settle around them. These remain latent in the Ethiopian culture, weaving spatial distributions of religious systems repre- new social rituals, practices, and typologies that sent an insight into existing and possible spatial influence the urban transformation and devel- variations among city inhabitants and cultural opment of cities and towns. patterns that reflect urban behaviors of how Predominant religions such as Christianity and people nowadays are deciding to live according Islam hold meaningful and strategical positions to their religious affiliation. in the Ethiopian national life, acting as catalysts Introduction In other words, the spatial distributions of and sometimes obstacles to integral socio-spa- Introduction religious systems make evident the crucial tial development. (Loubser, 2002) A factor that patterns of cause and effect that arise from nowadays seems to be in constant struggle due the interactions between religions and places. to the growing internal political conflicts and Furthermore, showing a constant dynamic shifting of faith among several social-religious of transformation and being transformed by groups, which also transform the urban land- the various contexts in which they are placed scape (Girma, 2018). (Stump, 2008). Moreover, questioning if the Such events make the study of social aspects location of religious typologies matters in the and its intersection with religion and space development process of a settlement’s pattern important factors to consider in future urban or plays an organizational role in the transfor- development. Since sacred and religious spaces mation of cities. have represented the urban culture of Ethiopi- A matter that arises from the historical an life for many years and reflect the traditional meaning of churches in Ethiopian sense and structure of settlements, becoming history and how they were considered an integral part of the Ethiopian society (Alem, as urban landmarks that held the most 2016). Which brings interest to understand the sacred and highest level in hierarchical nature and importance of the most predomi- space (Alem, 2016). 13 14

These typologies nowadays are easily recogniz- A case that I encountered in my previous trip like to determine if there is a specific meaning able in any town or city in Ethiopia and seem Problem to Ethiopia in the northern cities of Axum in their urban location or if the social aspects to be crucial elements that must be included in and Lalibela, where only one form of Christian of rituals and costumes render important to any urban settlement. Therefore, acting as at- entity could be built in respect of the long per- define these spaces, further on adapting to the tractivity entities for future inhabitants, placing statement sisting traditional religion of the country. specific spatial layouts people want to create spirituality and religion in close relation to the Therefore, if these situations of separation for themselves. Therefore, the goal is to create urban context and its spatial dynamics. continue to persist in current times of political a focus on the urban development of sacral In Ethiopia is not only important to understand and social struggle it is important to include spaces, considering both the physical and the spatial development of sites but also under- This research derives from the importance of sacred space and typologies in long-term social elements to analyze their subjective and stand the power religious typologies and sacred the after-mentioned meaning of religion in planning. Since they are beacons of an ancient objective compositions, in the form of qualita- spaces have, to re-integrate fractured elements the Ethiopian society and the significant role tradition and culture, with the possibility tive research carried out in the Northern part of societies. it plays in the urbanization of its settlements, to act as spatial agents of social and urban of Ethiopia, specifically the Amhara Region. traditions and socio-spatial values. As a reaction In the present, sacred spaces should not only transformations. Which create an intersection To obtain clarity on the following research to the current situation, Ethiopia is facing represent a factor for urban arrangement but of society, religion, and space, that I believe questions: constant reform and change, which is bringing also a link to pluralist communities of different currently is seen as a socio-political strategy to internal displacement, unlawful killings, tribal religions to increase governance, participation, unify a country but still hinders to see beyond Main Question conflicts, and injustice (Girma, 2018). placemaking and strive towards urban devel- the power space must become a societal solu- Does the location of sacred and places It is worth to call exemplary the attachment its opments that follow traditional guidelines but tion for peaceful coexistence among members of worship influence the settlement society has to sacral entities and religion despite transform them to create heterogeneous social of different social-religious groups and political layout of a city? the persistent conditions of extreme poverty, and spatial settlements. Which incorporate affiliations. insecurity, and destitution (ibid, 2018). Which is spirituality and religion in future urban planning stirring the country towards a fractured society

Introduction as an integrative cultural and social framework, Followup Questions Introduction not only caused by instability but also by a lack that is connected to the values of the Ethiopian Are people settling in proximity to their of reconciliation or engagement its people have society and places people inhabit. places of worship and same religious towards one another. social group, or they just settle where A problem that also stems from the rapid Research aim there is free land with no religious or growth of other forms of Christian denomina- social preference? tions, Islam and the effect of a power struggle between religions to gain and keep followers. How does the meaning of space and Because many of the sacred typologies and Such happenings are causing internal con- religion affect people’s identifications, spaces are representatives of the social and flicts over land tenure and ownership, inciting social networks and, community cultural life of Ethiopia, I deem important to new forms of spatial and social segregation relations? study if there is an organizational premise in in developing settlements. Which is the case the urban framework of the spatial patterns Is it possible to achieve cohesion between of some cities only one form of religion is and the typologies themselves. Since there is different religious communities through accepted, usually being Orthodox, extremely still comparatively a small amount of research sacred space? forbidding the construction or introduction of projects that study the relation and intersec- any other form of sacred space or religion that Why is it important to consider the tion between religion and its influence in the is not the same. influence of religion in urban development of settlements and sacred space. settlements for future urban planning? Through their investigation and study, I would

Figure 1. Orthodox Christians outside of a rock- hewn church, Lalibela, Alejandra Urrutia 2019. 15 16

Key research terms Socio-spatial Relations As Carrette’s review on Foucault’s work demonstrates, “a culture cannot understand itself without understanding its implicit connection and development within the constructs The Amhara Region of religious belief and practice. Contemporary culture is born out of religious traditions The Amhara Region is in the north-central highlands of Ethiopia. It is and the conditions of our knowledge are therefore embedded in religious discourse. The home to the Amhara and Tigre people, one of the largest ethnolinguistic so-called secular space is itself a hybrid of past religious traditions, and to understand groups in the country. This area mainly follows the Ethiopian Orthodox contemporary culture is important to recognize the religious influences upon though and Church, with important historical religious centers such as the cities of practice” (Carrette, 1991). Aksum, Lalibela, Gondar, and Lake Tana (Britannica Encyclopedia, 2019). In the spatial distributions of religious populations and the impacts such groups have on landscapes, it is important to recognize how religious and the spiritual are central to the Religious Space everyday lives of many individuals (Holloway and Vallins, 2002). Religious and spiritual spaces or landscapes are produced through an intersection of space and identity based around faith and belief, a variety of embodied acts and bodily practices, involved in for example prayer, ritual, and pilgrimage which construct material Settlement Patterns or imagined landscapes (Martin and Kryst, 1998). According to Tzonis and Lefaivre, a settlement can be developed in several models in consonance to its climate, geomorphology and available resourc- es, which are materialized through formal solutions adapted to specific Introduction Spiritual landscapes pose as the new understandings of how faith, belief, and religion Introduction open out spaces that can be inhabited, therefore they characterize the spiritual in everyday socio-cultural perspectives (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003). life and construct a material embodiment which denotes itself as space (Dewsbury and Cloke, 2009). Tzonis also argues that each pattern can be organized into three categories of morphology referring to the physical, operation and form: Referring to the physical form; operation, discussing how people make use of the space Religious Affiliation and the performance that represents how well space is used (Tzonis, 1992). Abrahamson describes religious affiliation as the basis of an enclave of members, that give rise to “religious enclaves”, where inhabitants of a cer- “Refined patterns are critical in creating a social process of design that tain place, “share an identity, a commitment to a place and a way of life in includes a piece by piece configuration of the individual patterns that focus which religious institutions are the center of their organization”(Abrham- on the relations of space to physical form” (Jiaxiu Cai, n.d). son, 1996).

Religious affiliation in the words of Kong is a transnational element that is rooted in which connects, transcends in different localities in the world. Which causes a change in religious landscapes making them more complex and variegated, making several social-religious groups live in a context of increasing pluralism (Kong, 2010). 17

Methodology

and behaviors that include the mapping of functions in the sectors of analysis, acces- sibility, proximities, density, and patterns of dwelling settlement. To determine percentages 17 and agglomerations of housing settlements be- longing to Christian and Muslim social groups around the sacred typologies. Which will allow me to see if there are patterns of social and Methodologspatialy segregation, random housing settlement

the given areas. and behaviors that include the mapping of functions in the sectors of analysis, acces- sibility, proximities, density, and patterns of dwelling settlement. To determine percentages and agglomerations of housing settlements be- longing to Christian and Muslim social groups around the sacred typologies. Which will allow me to see if there are patterns of social and 17 spatial segregation, random housing settlement

the given areas. Methodol17 ogy 18

Church & mosque as selected Methodology sector of study: Questionnaire areas Percentage of and behaviors that include the mapping of followers per town: functions in the sectors of analysis, acces- Five point scale questionnaires: The methods chosen for my research plan sibilitand behaviorsy, proximitie that includes, densit they ,mapping and patte of rns of - Gondar - Mer’Awi firstly are based on a historical/sociological dwfunctionselling settlement. in the sectors T ofo analysis,determine acces percenta- ges - Belief investigation on religion and its influence on sibility, proximities, density, and patterns of - Dwelling Proximity to place of worship - Kon socio-urban matters in Ethiopia. Which will be anddwelling agglomerations settlement. To o determinef housing percentages settlements be- - Interaction & acceptance to other social explained in my literature review, centering my longingand agglomerations to Christian of andhousing Muslim settlements social be g- roups religious groups focus on the Orthodox and Muslim religion, aroundlonging the to Christian sacred andtypologie Muslims .social Whi groupsch will allow since they are the two most predominant mearound to see the i fsacred there typologies. are patte Whichrns o willf social allow and religions in the country with the biggest per- me to see if there are patterns of social and centage of followers. An investigation of their spatialspatial sesegregation,gregation, random random housing housing settlement settlement most important scared typologies is carried out, with no specific religious preference or higher taking the circular Orthodox traditional church concentration of specific religious groups in 17 and the Muslim mosque into account as two the given areas. the given areas. Mapping percentages main elements of focus in the urban context. Methodology The following part consists of the collection of of religious affiliations data and qualitative research in the Northern Factors of Influence part of Ethiopia, the Amhara Region. Where and behaviors that include the mapping of

Introduction functions in the sectors of analysis, acces- Introduction three case studies were chosen based on the sibility, proximities, density, and patterns of dwelling settlement. To determine percentages following qualities for further analysis: Kon as and agglomerations of housing settlements be- longing to Christian and Muslim social groups a rural example of a small-scaled settlement, around the sacred typologies. Which will allow Mer’Awi as a mixed urban/rural settlement of me to see if there are patterns of social and Church & Mosque Dwellings spatial segregation, random housingVisualize settlement settlement medium-size scale and Gondar as a historical Density urban settlement of bigger scale. the given areas. patterns In this manner establishing three factors of influence, the church and mosque, people, and, dwellings in each city as focus points of the People analysis. Firstly, carrying out a social analysis Percentages per city in selected sectors of study that sur- round the sacred typologies through five-point Determine if there is or scale questionnaires dealing with dwelling prox- imity, belief, and interaction with the opposite not spatial segregation in social group. Through this social analysis, field each city/town observation and the aid of satellite imaging it is possible to draw out specific spatial patterns Social Area Analysis Distance 20

The influence of religion

Tamene describes Ethiopia as a nation of than other parts of the world (Heliso, 2017). ancient poly religious roots and various ethnical Beginning with the introduction of Christianity groups that compose a pluralist country with by the palace of Axum and flourishing amongst several traditions, religious affiliations, habits, the people, expanding towards the southern and culture (Tamene, 1998). This quality has part of Ethiopia, making Orthodox Christianity become the narrative of a country’s history and the empire’s official religion. Consequently, uniqueness in spirituality and religiosity. Islam also made its way to Ethiopia establish- Through the persistent devotion by its people, ing itself in the 7th century and expanding Understanding religion has become a representative of many in the 10th century. In this manner, Muslim forms of lives, relationships, landscapes, communities emerged in close conjunction activities and most importantly an agent to with Christian traditions and religious beliefs. stifle change and maintain a country’s tradition. religion in society Even though Islam did not have a legitimate Aside from these daily life manifestations its ideology to the empire since this position was importance extends beyond its common re- appointed to Orthodox Christianity. Ever since quirements of religious worship, creating links then Islam and Christianity have co-existed in

& space in society & space Religion to diverse structures of society and the creation a “vis a vis” relationship of cooperation, com- of spaces to nurture its meaning(Cilliers, 2009). petition and different forms of power (Abbink, This characteristic of high religiosity has been 2014). present since past times, persisting in tradition Additionally, noting that the Orthodox Church and transforming into many derivations of remained for many years as a dominating religion. In this research, I would focus on the political, social and cultural life figure in the influence of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church northern highland area, since it was the official and Islam in the country, to which I consider imperial religion until the deposition of Haile relevant to also mention how Ethiopia has be- Selassie in 1974. With the emergence of social- come a pluralist nation. A fact illustrated in an ist regimes such as the Derg and the Ethiopian eventful timeline of happenings and introduc- People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front tions of a country, described by Desta Heliso (EPRDF) the church and the state became two as a nation that has accepted Judaism, Islam, separate entities, making Ethiopia a secular Christianity and other forms of religion earlier state with a secular government (Girma, 2012). 21 22

This caused religious independence in the state Christianity, 32.9 percent were Muslims and but not in its society, developing a covenant Protestants and Catholics accounted for 5.48 Consequently showing how religion way of thinking amongst people that created and 0.98 percent of the total population of 82% aside from representing the richness of an interplay between various existing religious Ethiopia. Years later a change in religious DR Congo a society and culture also poses as an groups and politics. Since the Ethiopian society adherence could be seen in 2007 where the 79% important catalyst in the advancement remains extremely religious and is content with Orthodox Church lost followers by 10 percent of a country, harmonizing “the relation the continuity of religious values and traditions and became 43.5 percent of the Ethiopian pop- Ethiopia between continuity and change”, striving that appear resistant to change. As Abbink ulation, religious groups such as the protestants 74%74% to maintain traditional values and states there is a strong adherence among the increased by 13 percent, making them 18.6 nonconfrontational approach between people in Ethiopia to religion and they all are percent of the country’s population (Population South Africa religious groups (Girma, 2012). living in secular states, which proves how much Census Commission 2007, 2007). Even though 75% the religious factor influences their lives and there are clear signs of religious transformation creates links between religion, politics, and and freedom between followers, the fact that Botswana space (Abbink, 2014). Ethiopia is driven much by religion does not As a projection of this claim, I would like to change. illustrate this theory in numbers, according In 2010 the Pew Research Centre carried out Figure 3. Importance of religion in Sub-Saharan to a survey carried out on African religious surveys in the Sub-Saharan Region of African countries, Pew Research Centre, 2010. Contested followers it is known that over three of four countries stating that nine out of ten people people surveyed believe that it is essential to say, “religion is very important in their lives”, believe in God because of moral values. (Lugo which can be compared in figure 3 (Pew holidays together, respecting the values and land & and Cooperman, 2010) Over 96 percent of the Research Centre, 2010). Therefore, this aspect beliefs of each other. Furthermore, highlighting population of Ethiopia are followers of the shows how much the assertion of identity in the fact that this is also a characteristic devel- two predominant religions: Orthodox Chris- African countries is valued through religion, oped from the previously mentioned covenant interreligious tianity and Islam, which is presented in the where many people dwell within pluralist thinking of the Ethiopian society that not following table based on the 2007 population only is related to politics, but it’s often used by Religion in society & space Religion communities. This characteristic is mainly conflicts in society & space Religion census on the how the number of followers has observed more in large-scale cities like Addis people to smooth interethnic and interreligious differed between religions since 1984 to 2007. Ababa, Bahir Dar or Gondar, where I could see relationships. A characteristic needed nowadays (Population Census Commission 2007, 2007) that people create pluralist friendship commu- in times of political and religious struggle since As shown in figure 2 in 1984, 54.02 percent of nities and accept different members of other this way of thinking has been losing power and The emergence of conflict in cities has always the total population followed religions and even sometimes celebrate progress during the years. been in close relation to urbanization and its Therefore, it is pertinent to state that Islam and link to socio-political factors. Research on Christianity act as focal elements of religion contested holy places by Michael Dumper and Ethiopian life. Both have undergone a demonstrates that historical religious hierar- Census No. of No. of No. of No. of significant transformation of denominational chies, economic revenue from adherents and year Orthodox % Muslim % Protestant % Catholics % change, denoting various characteristics of state, and the activities or rituals carried out in 1984 20,637,362 (54.0%) 12,569,995 (32.9%) 2,094,371 (5.48%) 374,880 (0.98%) a society through practices and rituals that these holy places are major catalysts for conflict 2007 32,154,550 (43.5%) 25,058,373 (33.9%) 13,748,842 (18.6%) 517,430 (0.7%) are part of each religion. Which is causing as (Dumper, 2019). In the Ethiopian context, Growth -10.5% 1% 13.1% -0.28% Abbink states a rapid decline in the ethnic-reli- conflict generated between the relationship of gions, claiming space for religious celebrations, Orthodox Christians and Muslims is challeng- generating various tensions between different ing the preservation of Ethiopia’s religion social groups and the state (Abbink, 2014). and the prevalence of mutual tolerance and

Figure 2. Religious composition of Ethiopia, 2007 Population Census. 23 24

coexistence between leaders and adherents of Another factor that fuels the rise of conflicts in land was already sold by the government to both religions. This section of my research is Ethiopia is closely related to political-religious the private investor (Stockmans & Büscher, based on contested holy spaces referring to struggle which is transforming the urban land- 2017). Another similar example is portrayed public and communal places of worship to fur- scape into an element of power authority over by Ahmed Hussein where the conflict is not ther investigate if the same phenomenon oc- the use and control of public space or vacant directly with the state but with the Orthodox curs in the case of how adherents of different land (Stockmans & Büscher, 2017). According Christians of a district in the southern part of religions decide to settle in accordance to their to Stockman’s and Büscher, this reflects a new Addis Ababa asking for permission to erect religious affiliation. Therefore, it is pertinent to pattern of political claim and competition of a mosque. When the city granted the permis- consider both the historical and contemporary the state between two different religious groups sion Christian adherents built a temporary factors that influence the existing tensions and that already have disputes with one another, church during the night in the same site where competition that brings confrontation between while the government exacerbates the situation. the mosque was supposed to be built. After these two social-religious groups. In Ethiopia, the types of land use and property this incident, the government decided to give ownership are controlled by the state a task that priority to the Muslims and the conflict was Ethiopian researcher Hussein Ahmed in former times was appointed to the empire. resolved (Ahmed, 2006). These continuous is- illustrates this case by referring to Therefore, they determine what types of con- sues over land appropriation and place-making their relation as a path marked by the structions are permitted to be built in vacant prove that there is a definite conflict between progression of ideas and sentiments of plots throughout cities, giving them the power holy land which is more severe in cities that Muslims as an oppressed and helpless to decide if a new place of worship or existing are considered holy Christian Orthodox sites minority in search for equality and public space can be used for practicing religious like Lalibela and Axum where no mosque is of Christians as a group that claims, rituals or celebrating holidays. Which means Figure 4. Outside of Mosque building, Kon, permitted to be constructed on any territory of “inherent superiority” and dominance that land in Ethiopia is granted by the state to Alejandra Urrutia 2019. the city, permitting only one religious denomi- 2 that fails to recognize the rights of their the Church or the Mosque, a different case to nation of worship. These internal phenomena Muslims piers (Ahmed, 2006). the land that is appointed for residential use between different religious groups are not which can only be rented and not bought.1 . According to researchers Abdellah and Ab- only characterized in the acquisition of new Moreover, developing unethical spatial strate- dulwehab, the government purposely prevents land to expand faith but also in the control of Religion in society & space Religion in society & space Religion A conflict of difference that dates to imperial gies of public authority of power and control or complicates the process of the construction festivities and reverence to their gods often times when Muslims were asked or forced to by the state, which actively shape the urban of mosques, especially in cities like Addis done in public spaces. This control over certain convert to Christianism due to the recognition development of a city and becomes an im- Ababa (Abdulwehab, 2011) (Abdellah, 2007). spaces and holidays often seems to exclude and of the religion by the empire as the official rul- portant political mechanism. For instance, the Therefore, most of the mosques operate illegal- segregate people of different religious social ing religion of Ethiopia. These events through Ethiopian administration appointed to regulate ly and without a license, which causes them to groups but in other cases could also promote history have led to complex relationships in spatial interventions often manipulates public be almost unrecognizable from the outside. A social cohesion and toleration of beliefs if which the Orthodox Church has developed an material and political cityscape, “by pushing situation I experienced in the Northern town different religions celebrate together respecting “exclusive religious identity” (Dumper, 2019) religious infrastructures such as mosques to the of Kon, which is mainly a Christian settlement each other’s rituals and faiths. For example, due to its former linkage to the state and em- urban periphery”(Sadeh, 2010). Since religion is Stockmans and Büscher study several examples the Christian holiday of Meskel ( The Feast of pire, undermining Muslim adherents and Islam. a “key framework for community life” (Abbink, of these governmental policies, being one case Exaltation of the Holy Cross) which is cele- Which reflects as an issue that has a historical 2011) public space or the construction of a study the al-Faith mosque in Addis Ababa, brated in Meskel Square in Addis Ababa with a context, due to differences between ethnicities church and mosque often result in an inter-reli- where the local community had to wait 17 years ceremony that includes parades, prayers and a and sectarian groups, leading to changes in gious competition. To illustrate this situation, I for a construction permit and in the meantime distinct bonfire “Demera” (see figures 5 and 6) leadership roles, number of adherents, and would like to focus on the complex procedures had constructed a temporary mosque, while the which celebrates “the discovery of the cross on process of the permission was pending the which Jesus Christ was crucified” (Alem, 2010).

1. Interview with Dr. Genet Alem, Addis Ababa, 2. Interview with religious tour guide Sisay, Ethiopia June 2019. Lalibela, Ethiopia June 2019. 25 26

Consequently, if there is knowledge of spatial sections religion in Ethiopia has a strong reso- Pew Center demonstrates that studies through segregation and conflict in sacred spaces by nance and influence in politics, economics, in- surveys performed in Muslim and Christian different religious groups and the state. It is terreligious relations and the management and communities shows that both groups say that impossible to question if the same pattern re- ownership of land. The inclusion of religious they are “tolerable, honest and respectful” peats itself on a more local scale, being the case actors and the power of faith are and could to each other and that everyone is very free of neighborhoods and dwellings. Throughout play “critical roles in bridging evident gaps to practice different religions and that this is my research in Ethiopia many of the people between the state and a pluralist ethnoreligious “a good thing instead of a bad thing” (Pew interviewed in the cities of Gondar, Kon society” (Karbo, 2013). It has been argued since Research Center, 2010). On the other hand, the and Mer’Awi seemed to live in peaceful and former times that Ethiopia has always remained same survey also shows signs of tension and tolerable coexistence with different religious as a tolerable and harmonious country where division within the groups surveyed, because social groups, as most of them stated they were many beliefs and traditions coexist along with most of the Christians would think of Muslims friends and supported each other even though its social groups. Although research on the as violent and hostile towards them and Muslim they worshiped different gods. So, if conflicts previous section demonstrates how internal groups would also think the same of Christians. arise in the public sphere and in communal conflicts are stirring this nation into a frac- (ibid, 2010) Therefore, if both religious groups sacred spaces, could it be more a battle between tured society. Moreover, situations of conflicts have these opinions of one another, which are the leaders of these religions and the state for recognize the dynamics of social relationships caused in many occasions by the lack of knowl- power, than between adherents? This question in a country, Cox, Orsborn, and Sisk state that edge from each other’s costumes and rituals in is posed to obtain clarity on how powerful social cohesion and the fragmentation and Christianity and Islam, the tendency to achieve religion can be in this country and if aside from conflict brought or stemmed through religion cohesion through tolerance seems very much Figure 5. Meskel Celebration in Addis Ababa, creating tensions and conflict it could also bring are a “constantly moving target”, since they are unlikely to happen (ibid, 2010). Thomas Landy, 2019. people together and allow coexistence. all fragile and in transitional states. Therefore, they function as independent and dependent Since cohesion refers to the process of variables amongst one another, if cohesion building shared values within commu- doesn’t exist, conflict and tension impact the nities in order to reduce differences, social and spatial dynamics of Ethiopia (Cox,

Religion in society & space Religion in land ownership, wealth and rights, in society & space Religion Religion as an Orsborn & Sisk, 2014). which enable people to become a com- mon enterprise of the same community Cohesion does stand as a premise to hold a (Jenson, 1998). element of nation and its people together but many efforts have been placed as Masondo explains in creating tolerance among religious groups to In my opinion, cohesion can provide peo- cohesion ease the process of spatial and social cohe- ple with a better quality of life that smooths sion. Often the government uses plurality and disputes and create an efficient and more productive society, than a fragmented one that In this section, I would like to illustrate how freedom of religion in Ethiopia as a tool to only acts on its own benefit. As Lefebvre states the role of religion being the center of life for cultivate tolerance in order to protect people’s “space itself is socially produced, and it’s a many people in Ethiopia could be a strong cul- rights no matter to which religion they belong result of interactions that can be described as tural and ideological tool for cohesion between to (Masondo, 2014). However, is it enough a complex social construction of social norms, different ethnical and religious groups in the that people of different religions tolerate each values, and ascribed meanings” country. As it was mentioned in the previous other’s beliefs suffice to achieve cohesion? A research in “Tolerance and Tension” from The (Lefebvre,1991).

Figure 6. Meskel’s Demera in Meskel Square, Agape Co. , 2017. 27 28

To demonstrate space acts as a contributor Abbink also states that many of the abgars to cohesion I would like to relate it to some were mainly of Muslim background, but both examples of my own personal experience Christian and Muslim adherents accepted coun- in Ethiopia and to Jon Abbink’s research on sel and the final verdicts imparted (Abbink, the material characteristics social values have. 2014). This example of coexistence between During my research trip, I realized that the different religious groups not only brings equity social aspect to achieve cohesion could be done in the social values and beliefs of people but by as Karbo explains in his research through also changes the space where they perform the inclusion and fomentation of building these meetings, by transforming a place that is bonds between leaders belonging to different usually used for ceremonies into a communal faiths, aiming to learn from one each other’s open space for support. Therefore, religion is ideology and religious views based on faith also a possible part of the solution to conflict (Karbo, 2013). Since these leaders have great and tension between societies in Ethiopia, since influence over the behaviors and beliefs of ad- it can reduce the problem of social exclusion herents in each religion, which be a step further and inequality. in creating inter-religious and personal relations. A characteristic that I noticed while conducting my surveys in the city of Gondar where many Through the bond of religious leaders of the people I interviewed told me about a and other actors, the task to achieve support group the Orthodox Church leads social and spatial cohesion could be open to people of all beliefs, where a religious possible since they have deep resonance leader will help them deal with marriage or amongst their community and can addiction problems. To all these people this promote conflict management and efforts represented an occasion where many members to rebuild broken social relations of different faiths seek counsel and formed a (Karbo, 2013). Religion in society & space Religion in society & space Religion supportive community within the outer space of the church.3 In this manner the importance of religion in society serves as a “marker A similar event is portrayed by Abbink in one of collective identity”, creating a frame- of his research papers, in his visit to a Muslim work for mutual understanding and monastery in the region of Wollo, northern interpretation of conflict, necessary to Ethiopia, where Muslim and Orthodox-Chris- achieve peace (Cox, Orsborn & Sisk, tian leaders assumed the role of mediation 2014) . amongst people. They were called abgars and helped people resolve disputes over land, family, faith and other issues Abbink describes abgars as “fathers of the land”, who work to find a common ground between parties, high- Figure 7. Orthodox Christians followers lighting the values of justice. outside of church, Mer’Awi, Alejandra Urrutia 2019.

3.Interview with group of interviewees outside of Church, Gondar, Ethiopia June 2019. 30

The governance & organization of space

Urban space reflects as a product of social select settlement location and allocate space for behaviors and processes, to understand it, it is various activities” (Alem, 2011). worth to explore both the historical and pres- A characteristic that cannot be divorced from ent time context behind the traditional meaning the strong role religion the Ethiopian Ortho- that prevails in the Northern urban settlements dox Church (EOC) had on the development of Ethiopia and the socio-cultural and political of a country’s social interactions, therefore the values that shape the physical environment power the church had coupled with political The production and form. Most of the analysis here is based interests shaped and created many cities in on the work of Dr. Genet Alem and other Ethiopia. As it was mentioned before in the scholars, who have done extensive research on previous section it was the state’s religion until of religious space the influence of traditional values regarding 1975, which meant it was “Sisto Mengist”, a the physical manner and how the past reflects connotation that gave it the power to claim a in the development and transformation of the third of the Government’s land in the country,

“built-up environment” of today. making it an active institution on land adminis- The production of religious space tration for many centuries (Zewde, 2002). In this manner, Alem states that spatial organi- Subsequently, this strong attachment to spiri- zation is a result of prevailing traditional social tuality not only had an administrative role but activities influenced by socio-spatial and politi- also influenced the selection of certain territo- cal factors over time. As it has been mentioned ries for the foundation of cities or capitals as it before in Ethiopia the built-up environment was in the case of Gondar and Addis Ababa, has had strong values attached to religious because political power needed the acceptance beliefs, political power, and commercial/eco- of the church to ensure important settlement nomic activities. These factors have not only decisions (Pankhurst, 1990). However, the organized and changed the physical environ- religious influence of the EOC also concep- ment but created urban settings that inherit val- tualized the meaning of space in a spiritual ues from the past, making “meaningful impacts manner, for instance the Map of Tigray, which on the decisions that people make when they in the studies 31 32

conducted by Alem relates to the organization West In this matter, Gebeyehu Baye Therefore, they had no impact on religious or of a province or region and the rules of how explains that Muslims belonged to political matters involved in the establishment space is organized for the construction of a one of the most marginalized and of urban centers during this time. during this church, defining and regulating spaces through segregated groups of Ethiopia and their time. This situation is different nowadays and a hierarchical spiritual meaning (Alem, 2011). role for spatial organization is minimal the influence of Islam is seen spatially since is This map shows the different provinces con- since they had no direct access to land or the second most prominent religion in Ethio- cerning the holy city of Axum and is repre- high political and military ranks until pia. In relation to the previous matter, both re- sented in a circular diagram with three different South North the 1974 revolution (Gebeyehu Baye, ligions co-existed together for centuries but the sectors and a centre (Axum) surrounded by 2018). Orthodox Church and its close ties to the state inner concentric circles that represent cardinal influenced the hierarchical order in settlements, points and the name of the districts in Tigray During Imperial times they were attaching religious values to the meaning and (Pankhurst, 1988). It is important to mention restricted to the activity of trade and use of space as well as social activities within that this map mainly holds a spiritual meaning segregated to the outer quarters of them. Alongside the socio-political administra- rather than an actual representation of Axum settlements, penalizing and debarring tion that managed and guided the development and the near districts. Another interesting them for the ownership of land of the land of urban centers which nowadays feature the Map holds is its orientation since (Ahmad, 2000). are preserved as landmarks. the top of the map as noted in figure 8 is not East north but west, and the East as an important orientation, since in the Orthodox religion this is assumed as being the direction of Jerusalem Figure 8. Map of Tigray, adopted from Ramos & Boavida in Alem 2011. (Paradise). Jerusalem is north of Ethiopia, which later North Alem refers to it as being the direction in which settlements. The center was appointed to the the sun rises, making the sun’s movement “the Royal household, the second to the administra- highest important reference point to establish tion personnel also the location of the church The production of religious space hierarchical relationships between the spiri- and the third settlement was the protection The production of religious space tual and the practical world” (ibid, 2011). In periphery of the camp where high-rank military addition to the spiritual meaning of the church where located (ibid, 2011)(see figure 9). It is and its traditions, this element also influenced important to note the presence of the Islamic the spatial organization, since its location was religion in this section since my research always kept east from the palace, highlighting entails the importance of both religions in again the importance of the eastern direction Ethiopia and their impact on the urban space. (ibid, 2011). Consequently, in the foundation As it accounted in history not much has been of a royal compound or urban centers religion mentioned of the place of Muslims or the has had an important position but not as high presence of mosques since during this time Muslims were a religious minority and northern Highest military personnel & their soldiers as political administration. In an urban center, Important administration personnel & courtiers the location of the imperial palace was the Ethiopian highlands were mainly dominated by Royal household & guards Christians (Ahmad, 2000). reference point which divided the settlement, Church developing itself in three important group

Figure 9. Map of royal compund, adopted from Guebre Sellassie in Pankhurst 1966. 33 34

Another factor that attributes to the develop- areas of the cities due to reasons like proxim- Religious ment of settlements along the dynamics of ity to their faith and the attractivity places of urban centers, the presence of places of wor- worship have since they are home to various ship and sacred spaces is the spread of beliefs communal activities. A feature I could observe settlement or ideas in the spatial context between people, in my visit to the city of Lalibela where most creating patterns of settlement according to of the surrounding areas of the ancient rock- religious affiliations. Accordingly, to this subject hewn churches were deemed as a place for the patterns Park exemplifies that diffusion of religion also community, for instance, some of the free open affects the development of the religious urban space was used by priests to teach children of layout and its surroundings, defining three the neighborhood to read and write. Which is forms of diffusion that could also explain the not necessarily a built structure as it is for most Park portrays religion as an element that leaves percentages or conglomeration of adherents of the cases in the Orthodox Church and Mus- an imprint on a landscape, culture, and lifestyle of specific religions in certain areas. One of lim schools within the religious compound in of people (Park, 1994). Many religious tradi- them is “relocation diffusion”, which involves cities (see figure 10). Moreover, the location of tions and structures such as places of worship the initial religious groups moving through time the church is deemed very important, usually in and sacred sites that dominate landscapes and space into a new location (Park, 1994) an a high or elevated place in the city to symbolize influence the physical appearance of an area. example of this is the migration of Muslim its importance to culture, tradition, and power. The influence of religion and political admin- communities into strong populated northern Therefore, its surrounding urban growth in the istration in the use of space in the past has Christian territories, specifically in the rural past was mainly concentric a feature that has had a strong effect on the settlement structure areas of Ethiopia. changed nowadays in some cities but still, the Figure 10. Church school in Lalibela, Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia, 2019. that has been forged throughout the years. elements of the church itself remained intro- But the main question here lies on how the Another type of diffusion is the “expansion by verted surrounded by greenery and trees.4 distribution of the EOC and Islam in Ethiopia diffusion” in which several adherents adopt a has changed the way religious groups spread religious believe and communicate this belief These greenery areas are denominated as across space and what patterns of settlement to other people increasing the number of church forests, which are protected natural have been formed and changed over time? In adherents (Park, 1994). A trend that is highly

The production of religious space ecosystems or environments that belong to the The production of religious space many important cities such as Gondar, Axum noticeable in Ethiopia with the fast growth of church having a spiritual and magical meaning and Addis Ababa religious places of worship adherents following other forms of faith aside (see figure 11).5 A different meaning was ap- have represented the cultural and traditional from the EOC. The last form of diffusion is pointed to the mosque since this one was often views of a country “remaining as a dominant the “hierarchical diffusion” in which belief in the proximity of the market due to the main land use component”. Alem states that religious or religion is adopted or received from kings, craft of Muslims as merchants and traders and spaces acted as a nucleus for the establishment leaders or missionaries, “in the hope their it does not remain as an introverted element of various neighborhoods (Alem, 2011). As people will follow” (Park, 1994) which was the to its surroundings, although it must have a Pankhurst clarifies in his research, they were case in the imperial period where Christianity spacious plan for the development of religious symbols of social hierarchical relationships, was the empires religion. Therefore, not only activities (see figure 12).6 Even though religious where the space assigned to the church and its different forms of diffusion and the dominant traditions and values were very important in surroundings had different patterns of use and image of churches and mosques have caused the development of cities the administration organization, they would somehow act and still and established certain settlements to be inhab- compound was and is the most important act as activation cores for the members ofsur- ited predominantly by certain religious social rounding neighborhoods (Pankhurst, 1990). groups. Which settle in certain in 4. & 6. Interview with Dr. Genet Alem, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia June 2019. Figure 11. Ethiopia’s Orthodox Church Forest, Kieran Dodds , 2019. 5. Interview with Fikre Hailu, Kon, Ethiopia June 2019. 35 36

This development around religious nodes can still be recognizable in old neighborhoods and generally along the historical landmarks of the city since in past times the land granted for housing was accessed directly from the Emper- or through an elite or church-related person. Therefore, this helped the development of set- tlement clusters around important institutions creating new neighborhoods (ibid,2011).

Nowadays for example in cities like Addis Aba- ba and Gondar I could observe that these his- torical landmarks created religious or political compounds that are mainly surrounded by res- idential neighborhoods that follow a municipal masterplan that is intended to guide the land use in cities, restructuring the old and historic space for future development. In many cases most of the recent growth is informal and in some occasions it follows an ordered guideline, Figure 12. Gondar map with church & mosque, but it is worth to clarify that the present urban Google Earth, 2019. life has still a continuation of the traditional socio-cultural values in the representation of social status and most importantly in the highly element for pattern settlement, since “they act- A characteristic that in past times was denoted attached religious values to the meaning and ed as a network connected to the center which mainly to Muslim communities nowadays is

The production of religious space use of space whether its private or public. The production of religious space in past times was the main palace compound” addressed to all social-religious groups. Stock- (Alem, 2011). Therefore Alem describes that mans also mentions that in the case of Addis Concluding that the use of land and the criteria the neighborhoods that developed in the Ababa many Muslim neighborhoods, mosques applied for its development it’s still deeply con- vicinity to religious compounds as “second type and schools are in proximity of Merkato (the nected to tradition and the re-interpretation of settlements” which were mainly occupied by largest market in the city), being one of the spiritual relationships to the functions of space. inhabitants with professions related to religion main workplaces of Ethiopian Muslims, to “Symbolic or spiritual urban elements from or teaching (ibid, 2011). Other types of resi- which he concludes that the presence of Islam the past are preserved and re-interpreted as dential settlements were also developed around is stronger in the sub-city area of Addis Ababa cultural identities, even though the EOC used the profession or craft of people, this feature (Stockmans, n.d.). Consequently the develop- to be a single religious institute nowadays many can be seen nowadays in Ethiopia where ment and construction of churches intensified religions share symbolic representation of faith many people live in the same place where they along with the establishment of new neighbor- in the built-up environment” (ibid, 2011). develop their profession, for example, retail and hoods, this proves that mainly churches and in manufacture of goods, creating a mixed land present times mosques have become important use pattern (Stockmans, n.d.). nodes of the development and transformation of residential settlements (Alem, 2011).

Figure 13. Royal compund landmark and the sur- rounding urban area, Gondar, Justin Clements, 2005. 37 38

three interior spaces and two outside spaces tion (Alem, 2011) (See figure 15). Some of the Sacred (Alem, 2011). This typology is divided into most important constructions of this typol- “three concentric ambulatories” (Fr. Mebratu ogy are in the monasteries of Lake Tana, for K Gebru, n.d.). According to Alem the center example, the Monastery of Kebren Gabriel in Typologies or the core of the church is considered as the figure 16. Additionally, the importance of its holiest place in the compound its where the spatial composition is not the only feature that Tabot, the replica of the Ark of the Covenant makes this religious typology significant but The Ethiopian is found (ibid, 2011) (Fr. Mebratu K Gebru, also the connotation it has to the communities Orthodox church n.d.). The second circle is referred to as the that surround it. These institutions are also Kedest or sanctified and it’s the place where characterized by a strong spiritual and natural adherents take their communion. The third feature which is the forests around them. In my space, Kene Mahlet is reserved for the choir field observations and visits to circular church In addition to the image portrayed of the reli- and has a lower spatial hierarchy with the two compounds in Northern Ethiopia, all of them gious landscape development in the previous previous spaces, this area can be accessed by were guarded by vast trees and greenery that sections, this section illustrates and exemplifies all followers. The outside area of the church is protected the main compound of the church. the composition and symbolical meaning of denoted as Aude Mihret or platform of Mercy Orlowska and Klepeis state that they are one of the factors of influence in my research; and “a small building called Bethlehem”, where dynamic elements which are used as places the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the the communion, meaning the bread and wine is of burial, gathering, and communion and are Islamic Mosque. I have divided their spatial prepared, this building must be strictly located strongly connected to the surrounding social definition into two parts starting with the Figure 14. Rock-Hewn Church, Lalibela, Alejandra to the East of the church and in a lower eleva- communities, acting as ashelter for people in Urrutia, 2019. Ethiopian Orthodox Church, focusing on the need and as natural islands that composition of the circular or concentric ty- preserve ecosystems (Orlowska & pology, with a brief description that highlights The third type is the basilica typology which is Klepeis, 2018). In my opinion, they the symbolism of this religious element. Bux- mainly encountered in urban centers, being of were magical ancient places that ton explains that the origin of the Ethiopian rectangular shape and subdivided into aisles. represented the culture and tradition

The production of religious space Orthodox Church’s architecture can be denoted The production of religious space Although the most widespread typology now- of the EOC church and remain as in the pre-Aksumite period before Aksum was adays in Ethiopia is the circular typology “with tranquil spaces of harmony where a kingdom, where many temples were built a tripartite alignment” (Fr. Mebratu K Gebru, people gather and pay respect to in similarity to the “south-Arabian structures n.d.). As I could notice in my research trip their faith. Therefore, these mystical of the similar age” (Buxton, 1970). In the these churches are scattered throughout every typologies that embody the spiritual tradition of the EOC, its architecture is defined corner and town of Ethiopia, they are built meaning of the Christian Orthodox by four types of church buildings. The most close to each other depending on the decision Makdas religion are elements of religious ancient one being the rock-hewn monolithic of a community regarding the need of a place symbology, unity, congregation and churches, praised by their single rock carved of worship close to their place of residency. cultural history that reflect the values structures existing in Lalibela and regions of Consequently, the spatial layout of the EOC Keddest of a religious society. Tigray. Another ancient form of rock-carved church follows a tradition dictated and pre- churches are the cave churches, believed to be Kene Mahlet served for centuries where the importance of built in remembrance of adherents that used to the East remains valid. The religious compound worship in caves or catacombs (Fr. Mebratu K is composed of Gebru, n.d.).

Figure 15. Church of Kebran Gabriel Monastery, Lake Tana, R. Miyake. 39 40

were in proximity of the city center or vicinity is a central area without a roof used for prayer to a market or commercial area, a characteristic in summer or when the main hall is crowded, it that I mentioned earlier in this chapter. is also a source of light and air for the mosque (ibid, 2015). The other elements of the mosque In comparison to the Orthodox church, are the arcades, that surround the “Sahn”, the these structures don’t hide from their minaret which is a high tower used to “call surroundings, they are still deemed as for prayer” and represents a fundamental holy spaces that seem to be open to the symbol of the mosque, the dome, which is an outside world that surrounds them. Ho- architectural feature of this typology that is teit defines them as places that used or believed to help collect and enhance the sound are at “the heart of the city and existed of prayer. And finally, the ablution rooms and amidst its physical and social worlds” toilets which are an important feature of the (Hoteit, 2015). rituals of the Islamic religion where all follow- ers must “wash their face, hands, elbows, and feet in order to preserve the mosque’s purity As I mentioned before the mosques, I visited and cleanliness” (ibid, 2015). In my visits to were either conventional houses in rural towns these places of worship I could witness most of Ethiopia or followed the fundamental of these features from the outside since the spatial layout of mosques, which was the case entrance to them was forbidden because I did Figure 16. Interior of Lake Tana’s circular church, in the cities of Gondar and Mer’Awi. Hoteit Alejandra Urrutia, 2019. not have proper attire to enter the mosque describes these holy structures as places were except for one occasion where I could enter Muslim adherents perform their prayers, which the mosque of Mer’Awi shown in the following The Islamic Mosque to access land. A condition that made the con- is usually five times a day, stating a difference figure where the prayer hall and ablution rooms struction of Islamic places of worship difficult between the use of the “Grand Mosque” used can be seen. and can still be seen nowadays. Since many for Friday prayer, which is visited by the whole Islamic population of the city in comparison

The production of religious space mosques, especially in rural Christian towns of The production of religious space Northern Ethiopia, are regular houses with no to the local neighborhood mosques that are These places of worship as well as the For many centuries Muslim and Christian apparent spatial distinctions that characterize a mainly used for daily prayers (ibid, 2015). Orthodox church represent spaces for communities have coexisted together, although mosque. A different scenario can be observed Hoteit describes the fundamental parts that the congregation of the communities as Ahmed states the Muslim community did in cities of bigger scale such as Addis Ababa, compose a mosque being: the prayer hall, the that surround them and offer much not manage to develop a pan-Ethiopian sense Gondar, Harar, and Mer’Awi, where I had the courtyard, arcades, the minaret, the dome, and more than prayer and worship to their of identity (Ahmed, 2006). In my opinion after opportunity to visit some of the mosques that the ablution rooms and toilets (ibid, 2015). The gods but also a source for education and having conducted research and analysis on composed the religious landscapes of these prayer hall is the most important feature of a highly influential urban element that various texts discussed in the previous chapters settlements. Therefore, I will base this spatial the mosque since it is a space for congregation influences the urban layout of cities, and sections regarding the history of Muslim description on personal experience supported and worship prayers, usually, these prayers are it is true that their construction is still communities, little can be found on spatial by texts that define the fundamental structure directed to the wall the faces the direction of deemed to be complicated but more and description of the Ethiopian mosque. There of a mosque, which in my opinion is the one I Qibla, the direction of Kaaba in Mecca. This more the representation of Islam is could be several reasons for this cause, one of was able to witness in my investigation. In my area is usually divided by gender, designating a proliferating along with other religions them being that they were a marginalized and experience, I noticed that most of the mosques hall for men and one for women and its shape in Ethiopia. segregated religious social group with no right is usually rectangular. The courtyard of “Sahn” 41 42

Although property rights and ownership Ethiopia’s were and are always related to a complex and difficult system associated with norms dictated by socio-political relations, processes, and land tenure reforms (Baye, 2018). According to Wubne Ethiopia was historically divided into northern highlands, the Christian empire and southern system highlands, which came to the empire by con- quest, both regions had different land tenure regulations, which were regulated as follows. In the north, the major form of land ownership In the previous sections, the historic gover- was the “rist” a communal system where the nance and the development of urban centers descendants of a founder had the right to use have been defined by drawing a historical the land as a “usufruct” (Wubne, 1991). comparison to contemporary times. For this reason, I would like to describe in a historical timeline the development of Ethiopia’s land This communal system was “hereditary, tenure system, since it’s an element that will inalienable and inviolable”, meaning help readers understand the upcoming analysis no user of this land could sell, gift or of pattern settlement according to religious af- mortgage the land that belonged to the filiation among inhabitants in the country. For founder and not his descendants (ibid, this reason, this factor has a deep impact on 1991). the way people decide to settle since it regulates and orders the conditions of land and what can Another form of land tenure was the “gult”, be done in it through state administration. where the ownership right to land was gained through a monarch or provincial rulers who previously owned land through grants. The The production of religious space In Ethiopia land has always been a Minaret owners of this gult collected tribute or labor major asset to traditional and modern service form the peasants who made use of Haram societies, it has constituted a symbol for the land, a reform that was later abolished in Qibla Wall religious traditional values, livelihoods the twentieth century (Baye, 2018). The other and it’s also serves as a political and Figure 17. Anwar forms of tenure were the “samon”, “mengist”, Mosque in Addis Ababa, economic instrument that awakens state and “madeira” land. The first one was the land Riwaq Martin Z., 2018. and social concerns (Chekol, 2017) granted to the EOC by the government, which Mihrab (Tamrat Getahun, 2015). had no usage time expiration it was the proper- ty of the church forever. The second one “was Dikka Figure 18. Meskel Cele- the land registered as government property, Ablutions Portal bration in Addis Ababa, and madeira was the land granted to govern- Sahn Thomas Landy, 2019. ment officials, which lasted for life but the state-owned revisionary rights to it, meaning 43 44

this land could be repossessed by its previous Therefore, I would like to re-establish the Which could bring possible spatial and social owner” (Wubne, 1991). This system persisted connection between this subject and its relation segregation among residential neighborhoods without change until the revolution and by the to religious space and the impact these have on but at the same time could create a homoge- mid-1960’s many regions of Ethiopia favored urban settlements. As it has been mentioned nous pattern of settlement among different a reform in the land tenure system (Tamrat before in the previous chapter Ethiopia is a ethnic groups and members of religion since Getahun, 2015). A reformation that was later multi-ethnical and religious country, many con- people have the right to choose where to settle announced in 1975 by the Derg which changed flicts have flourished since then on land pos- but still must look for unoccupied land that the former land tenure program. Through this session and ownership and the “government later on will have to be granted by the state and reform, the government nationalized all rural has demonstrated corrupt policies and practices will also allow the permission to use or build land without any compensation, abolished ten- over land regulation as strategies of power and on it. For instance, if any religious community ancy, and prohibited the ownership of land by dominance” (Locatelli & Nugent, 2009). wants to build a church or a mosque a demand individuals or organizations (Gebeyehu, 2011). for construction should be introduced at the After the Derg the governments administration municipality for the government to investigate created a policy that transformed land into state And as clarified by Mabin and Jenkins and later grant the land for its construction ownership, existing as a “vehicle for politics land allocation is being used to segregate (Stockmans & Büscher, 2017). and governmental decisions” (Chekol, 2017). or exclude certain social groups as In this matter Chekol states that after the over- well as potential threats to the public In effect of the current situation, I deem throw of the military regime and the ruling of authority, deciding who was a right to important to study the social behaviors the EPRDF referendum over land tenure was possess land and make use of it in the and practices alongside the spatial implemented, , which was not so different from city (Mabin, 1989) (Jenkins, 2009). connotations of EOC and Islam, such the previous one. as the location of churches and mosque Situations that in my opinion drastically affect concerning the settlement patterns evolv- This referendum stated that land will the pattern of residential settlements which ing or establishing around them. be a common property, which meant all is one of my focus points of study regarding members of society had the communal the location of churches and mosques. Since I A matter that I will analyze graphically through

The production of religious space right over the land and this one could The production of religious space could notice in the cities visited during my re- my collected data in the following chapter to not be sold or exchanged, giving “public search trip that people nowadays settle in prox- determine if there are indeed specific patterns and governmental rights over land imity to their ethnic groups, religious affiliation, of religious affiliation that have a remembrance ownership” (Chekol, 2017). and closeness to their places of worship. to tradition and religious values as well as some Therefore, if land regulation discriminates of the factors that influence the decision of This new dynamic of land ownership and where to build a church or a mosque based people’s options on where to settle. tenure remains until the present day, therefore on governmental or social interest to benefit the importance of mentioning how land is certain social groups the settlement pattern is Figure 19. Kon’s agricultural land, Kon, regulated nowadays reflects how there are many also affected by it. Alejandra Urrutia, 2019. contested views on whether land should remain as a communal state asset or should enter private ownership. The Amhara Region

To exemplify the subjects analyzed in my The Amhara Region is one of the ethnic literature review and carry out a study based divisions of Ethiopia, homeland to the Amhara on religious groups on the Northern area of people, one of the two largest ethnic groups Ethiopia I decided to focus my research on in Ethiopia, constituting almost one-third the Amhara Region. Where I selected three of Ethiopia’s population, (Encyclopaedia different cities, belonging to the provinces of Britannica, n.d.) with 21,134,988 million people Case North Wollo, North Gondar and West Gojjam, inhabiting this region (Population Census Com- due to my supervisor’s recommendation and mission, 2007). According to 2007, Population

the facility to obtain help in translation to per- and Housing Census Report there are around Case Studies Studies form interviews, aside from the existing social 3,983,768 households with an average of and spatial reasons. To collect and analyse data 4.3-person ratio per household (ibid, 2007). that describes the percentage of Christians and The predominant form of religion in this area Muslims residing in sectors close to places of of the country is Christianity, following the worship, which influence the residential pat- teachings and traditions of the Ethiopian Or- terns of a city according to religious affiliation. thodox Church. As stated in the 2007 Census Note that this section shows the current statis- 91.2 % of the Amhara population followed the tics retrieved from the 2007 Statistical Popu- Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 17.2% followed lation and Housing Report for the percentage Islam and a small percent of 0.2% followed of adherents to each religion per province Protestantism (ibid, 2007). A fact that can also studied and person ratio per household. Later, be reflected in the higher percentage of Chris- an approximate mapping of the percentages tians in relation to Muslims interviewed per city retrieved from the different points of interview on this research (refer to Social Area Analysis in selected areas of the cities is done, drawing section). out an approximate percentage of adherents residing in each block by the answers given by the interviewees to determine living patterns by religion. 48

Provinces of the Amhara Region

North Gondar Is one of the provinces of the Amhara region and is named after the North Gondar historic city of Gondar, the former capital of Ethiopia until the 19th century (Alem, 2011). Its population is conformed by 3,225,002 inhabitants in a total of 631,509 households with an average of 4.47-person ratio per household. In this province, 95.32% of its inhabitants follow the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and approximately 4.54% is Muslim (Population Census Commission, 2007).

North Wollo West Gojjam Is a province of Ethiopia in the proximity of Lake Tana where Bahir Dar, the capital of the Amhara region is located. Its population is of 2,296,487 inhabitants in a total of approximately 480,255 households with an average of 4.39-person ratio per house- hold. As it is for all the provinces in the Amhara Region Christianity predominates as well in this province with 98.68% of the population as adherents of the EOC and a Case Studies 1.19% to Islam (Population Census Commission, 2007).

North Wollo Is a province located south of the Southern Wollo province and its houses important landmarks to the EOC; the rock-hewn churches typology. West Gojjam According to the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, the population of North Wollo is of 1,639,151 inhabitants in a total of 355,974 households with an average of 4.21-person ratio per household. The population in this area is mainly Christian but with a lower percentage of adherents to the EOC in comparison to the before-mentioned provinces. With 82.74% of inhabitants following the EOC and 17.08% follow Islam, which in my opinion is due to its proximity to the Afar region where the percentage of Muslims predominates over the Christian followers (Population Census Commission, 2007). 50

Selection & classifi cation of settlements North Gondar

The selection of the cities or settlements was based on an urban scale and development premise, having three case studies that differ in size and settlement development. To observe how societal and spatial trends establish themselves in the Orthodox Christian and Muslim religious social groups. The selected settlements were classifi ed in my study as follows: Gondar Gondar as a historical urban large- scaled settlement Mer’Awi as a mixed urban/rural medium-scaled settlement

Kon as a rural small-scaled Case Studies settlement

To discover if there is an organizational premise on residential settle- West Gojjam ment infl uenced by the location of the church and mosque and the de- cision of people deciding to settle in proximity to their fellow religious group members as it was mentioned in the introductory chapter of this research. Moreover, to realize if there is a socio-spatial trend that may be infl uenced by the size and development of these settlements according to acceptance to other religious groups, spatial and social Mer’Awi cohesion and what kind of religious group is predominant in different sectors of these cities.

North Wollo

Kon 52

Social area analysis

To understand the formation of residential ones in Shevky’s and Bell’s Social Area Analysis patterns of settlement in different areas of the system (Shevky & Bell, 1955). Which instead city it is important to distinguish the interaction of examining three societal trends I divide the of various religious social groups within those collected results into the four following groups areas. Consequently, the formation of spatial (see Appendix B): boundaries can be derived from the dynamics of social interactions and how these generate Dwelling proximity to Place of physical manifestations. Zhou argues that the Worship. construction of the tangible environment does Time spent in Place of Worship. not base itself solely on the importance of a lo- Attachment to own religious values. cation but also in comprehending the patterns Analysis of case Acceptance to other religious groups of interaction society have and the processes and values. it undergoes in the characterization of urban sectors (Zhou, 1998). studies In the direction of observing if there is an ex- The following can be recognized by social isting societal behavior that characterizes each

behaviors that belong to specific religious social Analysis of case studies religious social group. Therefore, all interviews groups, in this case, Orthodox Christians and were carried out in specifically selected areas Muslims, outlining identity characteristics that of the cities of Gondar, Kon, and Mer’Awi, make them one of the factors of influence where there was a presence of an Orthodox in my research study, affecting the construc- Church and Mosque to obtain the opinion of tion of space. To carry out this investigation both groups. In this manner, I could draw out I based my research on Shevky’s and Bell’s percentages for each group of questions that social system analysis (Shevky & Bell, 1955), represent how adherents of both religions per- in my approach I simply use this system as an ceive their religion, accept adherents of other academic base to build up a set of clusters and religions, values of the opposite religion and organizations within the two religious social the importance to remain close to their church groups studied. Firstly, basing the analysis on or mosque. These results will subsequently aid five-point scale questionnaires (see Appendix to understand the social-spatial differentiation A) which are divided respectively between in delimited areas of the chosen cities which Orthodox Christians and Muslims. Where each will later be mapped according to the place questionnaire is designed to follow the idea of where the interview was carried out and their establishing constructs of analysis like the respective religious social group with their place of residence and selected place of worship. 43 44 Gondar

People Interviewed Meeting Frequency none 1-5 Very Frequent 79% 68% 5-10 16% Frequently 5% 32% 10-15 Occasionally 11% 15-20 5% Family Personal Rarely 5% +20 79% 68% 32% Upbringing Choice Choice ofChoice Religion Friends ofFriends other religions Never --

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of The Ethiopian

Belief Orthodox Church? Proximity to place 1 5 of worship

38% 24% 38%

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of Islam? Very close Close Acceptable Far Very far 1 5 84% 16% 33% 50% 17%

Notes ** Many of the As an Orthodox Christian do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs Opportunity to live interviewees of Islam? closer to place of worship mentioned they Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree disagreed with certain beliefs & ceremonies of a different religion 8% 38% 54% mainly because they 68% 32% cannot share meat, As a Muslim do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs of The since it’s slaughtered Ethiopian Orthodox Church? differently by Acceptance & Tolerance

Proximity & Accessibility Proximity religion. But Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree No Yes sometimes celebrate holidays together. 50% 33% 17% 45 46

Preferred mean of transportation Time spent during ceremonies

As an Orthodox Christian how much time do you spend in church during ceremonies?

Walk Animal Bajaj Car Bicycle 100% 15 min. 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 4 hours **

Time travelled to place of worship 31% 8% 61%

As a Muslim how much time do you spend in the mosque during 5 min. 6-15 min. 16-30 min. 31-45 min + 45 min. ceremonies?

58% 11% 31%

Frequency of attendance 15 min.** 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 1-2 hours** No time 37% 67% 33%

1 hour 47% 63% Notes ** Most of the percentages are calculated for the two religious social groups except for the

Time spent outside outside spent Time of ceremonies following questions: Scale of belief according to religion and time spent during ceremonies in Daily 30 min. 5% either church or mosque. The amount of people interviewed of Ortho- dox Christian affiliation is:13 and the amount of people interviewed of Islamic affiliation is:

Time spent in place of in place spent Time worship 37% 15 min. 11% 6.

Weekly **For the time spent on place of worship, all Christians usually attend ceremonies on the 10 min. weekends for 4 hours or more. Muslims attend prayer every day (men) and women on fridays. 47 48 Mer’Awi

People Interviewed Meeting Frequency none 18% 1-5 19% Very Frequent 30% 100% 5-10 26% Frequently 19% 10-15 Occasionally 37% 15-20 4% Rarely -- 81% 19% Family +20 33% Choice ofChoice Religion Upbringing ofFriends other religions Never 14%

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of The Ethiopian

Belief Orthodox Church? Proximity to place 1 5 of worship

5% 27% 5% 63%

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of Islam? Very close Close Acceptable Far Very far 1 5 52% 30% 18% 20% 20% 60%

Notes ** In Mer’Awi the As an Orthodox Christian do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs Opportunity to live opinions on tolerance of Islam? closer to place of worship varied from complete Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree disagreement amongst different religions because they dont 45% 27% 14% 14% praise the same God to 78% 22% completely accepting As a Muslim do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs of The other religious social Ethiopian Orthodox Church? groups because they are Acceptance & Tolerance

Proximity & Accessibility Proximity all a religious commu- Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree No Yes nity. Therefore, would sometimes celebrate 80% 20% and eat together. 49 50

Preferred mean of transportation Time spent during ceremonies

As an Orthodox Christian how much time do you spend in church during ceremonies?

Walk Animal Bajaj Car Bicycle 100% 15 min. 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 4 hours **

Time travelled to place of worship 18% 23% 9% 18% 32%

As a Muslim how much time do you spend in the mosque during 5 min. 6-15 min. 16-30 min. 31-45 min + 45 min. ceremonies?

56% 19% 25%

Frequency of attendance 15 min.** 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 1-2 hours** No time 10% 60% 40%

1 hour 19% 70% Notes ** Most of the percentages are calculated for the two religious social groups except for the

Time spent outside outside spent Time of ceremonies following questions: Scale of belief according to religion and time spent during ceremonies in Daily 30 min. 41% either church or mosque. The amount of people interviewed of Ortho- dox Christian affiliation is:22 and the amount of people interviewed of Islamic affiliation is:5 .

Time spent in place of in place spent Time worship 30% 15 min. 15% **Same time spent in place of worship during Weekly ceremonies applies here for both religious groups. 10 min. 15% 51 52 Kon

People Interviewed Meeting Frequency none 21% 1-5 65% Very Frequent 50% 100% 5-10 7% Frequently -- 10-15 Occasionally 29% 15-20 7% Rarely 7% 71% 29% Family +20 Choice ofChoice Religion Upbringing ofFriends other religions Never 14%

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of The Ethiopian

Belief Orthodox Church? Proximity to place 1 5 of worship

10% 30% 60%

In a scale from 1 to 5 how much do you follow the rules of Islam? Very close Close Acceptable Far Very far 1 5 64% 14% 22% 25% 75%

Notes ** In the town of Kon As an Orthodox Christian do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs Opportunity to live many of the interview- of Islam? closer to place of worship ees mentioned they Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree dont celebrate holidays together because they cannot share meat. The 60% 10% 20% 10% muslim percentage in 71% 29% this town is also very As a Muslim do you agree with the ceremonies and beliefs of The low but the interview- Ethiopian Orthodox Church? ees pointed out there is Acceptance & Tolerance

Proximity & Accessibility Proximity no apparent marginal- Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disagree No Yes ization towards them from Christians, they 25% 75% are accepted. 53 54

Preferred mean of transportation Time spent during ceremonies

As an Orthodox Christian how much time do you spend in church during ceremonies?

Walk Animal Bajaj Car Bicycle 100% 15 min. 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 4 hours **

Time travelled to place of worship 40% 60%

As a Muslim how much time do you spend in the mosque during 5 min. 6-15 min. 16-30 min. 31-45 min + 45 min. ceremonies?

29% 50% 21%

Frequency of attendance 15 min.** 30 min. 1 hr. 1 1/2 hours 1-2 hours** No time 100%

1 hour 79% 50% Notes ** Most of the percentages are calculated for the two religious social groups except for the

Time spent outside outside spent Time of ceremonies following questions: Scale of belief according Daily to religion and time spent during ceremonies in 30 min. either church or mosque. The amount of people interviewed of Ortho- 50% dox Christian affiliation is:10 and the amount of people interviewed of Islamic affiliation is: Time spent in place of in place spent Time worship 15 min. 4. Weekly **For the time spent on place of worship, Muslim women spent 1 to 2 hours in place of 10 min. 21% worship during weekends and also pray some- times on Friday. 56

Mapping religious affiliations

The mapping of religious affiliations in this age of neighbors in your block that follows chapter refers to a density, percentage and the same religion as you do? To which they distance relation based on three factors of were given the option to choose between these influence:People, Dwellings, and Mosque answers: All, three fourths, half, one fourth, and Church. The density was first calculated and none. Each of these answers were divided using the person ratio per household obtained into their respective religious groups and from the 2007 Population and Housing Census, ordered in percentages by numbered points of note that the population must be double or the interview with two different color schemes triple the amount nowadays, therefore the (see Appendix C and affiliation percentage results are approximate of what they could be. map in chapter four). With the following Subsequently, a density formula was developed information gathered a percentage – distance by the result of the person ratio times number relationship could be made, first by determin- of houses in a plot divided by the area of each ing the accessibility or most concurred streets plot, giving the number of people living in each (primary streets) and the less concurred streets plot per hectare. (secondary streets), which was done by using Analysis of case studies the DeCoding Spaces toolbox from the InFar No. of houses Residents per Institute at Bauhaus University. x per plot household ratio After having the street network knowledge, the shortest path from each point of the interview to their place of worship could be calculated. Area of plot (ha) This procedure was also scripted in grasshop- per to be visualized in the distance maps (see = Appendix C and distance maps in chapter four). The before mentioned process will be People per hectare used and ordered into percentage-distance relation graphs that show and help determine if This formula was later scripted in grasshop- the distance is also a factor for people settling per and rhino to obtain a visualization of the where they do. The percentage and density Figure 20. Kon’s canyon settlement, Kon, Ethiopia, density per plot with a different color/pattern results will later help determine if there is an Alejandra Urrutia 2019. gradient representing it. The next step was to existing settlement pattern or if it remains obtain approximate percentages of Christians spontaneous with no ordered reason, it is also and Muslims residing in each plot, which was an aid to determine the highest percentage or achieved by the answers the interviewees gave conglomeration of different religious social on the following question: What is the percent- groups in certain sectors of the city. Historical urban settlement

Province: North Gondar Area: 192.27 km2 Projected Population: 700,044 inhabitants

Gondar is a city located north of Lake Tana in the Amhara Region Scale Large of Ethiopia, it was founded in 1636 by Emperor Fasilides. Accord- Gondar ing to Alem this city served as an example of economic stability and functioned as a socio-political center for three centuries after the fall of Axum (Alem, 2011). The city of Gondar was considered as the “Topocosmo” and was attributed a cosmological order in Ethiopia as a center of symbolic religious and political life (Robert, 1999) (Alem, 2011). Nowadays is one of the biggest urban centers in Ethiopia and represents an important landmark to the religious and past kingdom of Ethiopia. Traditionally the city was an Orthodox Christian founda- tion as it was an important political and religious capital, even though Muslim communities have inhabited it since the time of Fasilides, being crucial contributors to the wholesale trade economy of north-western Ethiopia (Ahmad, 2000). Because Fasilides delegated Muslims to es- tablish commercial relations with Muslims in Yemen, making Muslims an important component of the Gondar’s population and commer- cial activities (Van Donzel, 1979). A status that would later change with Emperor Yohannes I and Tewodros II since during their reign they forced Muslims to convert to Christianity and segregated them into lower or outer parts of the city until the time of the revolution (Ahmad, 2000). Nowadays the city seems to be a heterogenous ground where many religions coexist together and some of its spatial layout is still divided into neighborhoods or quarters, existing as an ecclesiastical center of the EOC church having more than forty-four churches and an important religious and socio-political history. Analysis of case studies seem tolive here. insimilarpercentages Inoticedthatbothreligiousgroups ChristianswereOrthodox interviewed, It’s tomentionthateven important thoughinthesocialareaanalysismore thecity. multiple churches andmosquesinthissectorof the presenceof asitcanbeseenonthemapbecauseof has becomemorehomogenous seemstobemaintainednowadays residencepattern 2011). This butalso mercial tradeandthemosquewould beinproximity tothemarket (Alem, retailandcom- historical factwhereMuslimswould resideinnearareasof A characteristic thatwould make senseaccordingtoabefore-mentioned inthedifferentcoloredcircles.ees depicted by block,religious group obtainedfromtheanswers given by theinterview- mapinfiThe religiousadherentstoeach gure24shows of thepercentage shown infiof thecity. aselectedstudyarea gure23mappedperblock of 50-350inhabitantsperhectareliving inhouseholds, of denotes arange highest densityincomparisontotheothercasestudies. Gondar’s density settlement,beingthecitywith rized asahistoricalurbanlarge-scale To beginwith,theanalysisandfi the ndingsof fi rstcityGondar, catego- affiof liation Density &percentage 59 inhabitants there are Muslim(seefi are inhabitants there 22). gure the inhabitsblocks 50-160peopleperhectare where 75%of show thatarangeof thesector, theblocks inproximity tothe mosqueandmarket of part In thesouthwest (seefi where mainlyOrthodoxChurch Christiansreside 21and22). gure St.Michael’s Muslimsisdenotedtotheblock of Christians andMuslims, a75%of withintheblocks resides markedper hectare as50-50%inhabitedbybothOrthodox 160-240 people showthatarangeof interview thepointsof from results The percentage

dox Christian group. P, theinterviewee Ortho- according totheanswer of appointed 21.Densityrelationto percentage Figure Density per block Density per block p/ha p/ha 100 200 300 400 100 200 300 400 10 10 20 20 30 30 religious group perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of 40 40 50 50 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P4 P9 P5 P10 P1 P6 60 60 70 70 group. P, theinterviewee Muslim according totheanswer of 22. Figure P4 P6 P5 80 P12 P11 P8 P13 P7 80 90 Density relation to percentage appointed Densityrelationto percentage 90 100 100 % % 60 100 25 50 Analysis75 of case studies 100 25 50 75 61 62

St. Mary Legend St. Michael ha

290-350

200-240

160-200 Bata

Analysis of case studies 100-160 Analysis of case studies

50-100

Notes ** These fi ndings are qualitative results from the data obtained from the 2007 population and housing census and may differ from these since the mapping of the places of residence for each city is not a 100% accurate, meaning that some of the built-up environment could house different activities aside from being a resi- Jamial Kebir dence unit.

Figure 23. Density per block, measured in people per hectare. 63 64

St. Mary St. Michael Legend

100

75

Bata

Analysis of case studies 50 Analysis of case studies

25

%

Jamial Kebir

Figure 24. Percentage appointed according to the answer of interviewee P per block. Analysis of case studies Michael Church, Gondar, EthiopiaJune 2019. St. Christiansoutsideof of with group 7. Interview worship notnecessarilyclosetotheir homes. inotherplacesof groups and mosquesincetheyoftenattendedsupport whentheysaidtobeusedtravelingby totheirchurch interviewees toget decision onwheretheydecidetosettle. Areasonthat was oftenexpressed therefore peopledon’t considerdistanceasafactor thatinfl uencestheir worship corner, aroundevery urban settlementwithmanyplacesof worship inGondarisalmostnon-existentsincethiscityan place of peopledecidetolive closertotheir if distancerelationdetermining The the market fortheMuslimreligiousgroup. Jamial Kebir inproximity to worship andthemosqueof by interviewees was taken asthemostvisitedplaceof St.Mary In thiscasethechurch of worship. andassumedhouseholdismeasuredtotheirplaceof interview relation isshown infi gure27wherethedistancefrompersonspointof relationwas madeandexpressedinmeterstokilometers.percentage This Consequently, relation,adistancetodensityand tothedensitypercentage church &mosque Distance travelled to 65 away (seefi 25and26). gures inimmediateproximity tothemarket are mosqueandoneisslightlyfurther percentages theblocks marked bythese of 100-700meterstotheirmosquesincetwo traveled canbeseenintheblocks inhabited75%byMuslims where people A slightdifference 26). (seefi worship 25and theirhousetoplaceof gures 700-900metersfrom in between travel 400metersto1kilometerandMuslimswould inbetween travel Christians would 24 showthatintheblocks inhabited50-50%byOrthodox ChristiansandMuslims, showninfi ormosque.Theresults toeitherthe church interview gure eachpointof from lines pathmarked bycalculatingtheshortest colored The distancewas bytwo determined 7

answer of interviewee P, interviewee Christiangroup. Orthodox answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 25. Figure Appointed % of inhabitants of the same Appointed % of inhabitants of the same religious group per block to interviewee religious group per block to interviewee Distance travelled to place of worship Distancetravelled toplace of 100 100 % % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 P2 200 200 P11 P13 300 300 P7 P8 P4 400 400 P3 Distance toMosque Distance toChurch P5 P6 500 500 P3 600 600 P2 700 answer of interviewee P, interviewee Muslimgroup.answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 26. Figure 700 P1 P6 P12 P9 P5 800 800 P1 P4 Distance travelled to place of worship Distancetravelled to place of 900 900 1km 1km P10 1.5km 1.5km Km Km 66

Analysis100 of case studies 25 50 75 67 68

P13

P4

P8 P9

P7 St. Mary St. Michael Legend P6 P5 P5 P4 P11

P6

Bata P3 P10 Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies Main streets P12 P3 P2

Secondary streets

P1

Notes P2 ** The distance was P1 calculated in meters to kilometers from each point of interview (assuming it was the interviewee’s place of residence) to their church Jamial Kebir or mosque.

Figure 27. Shortest path or distance from point of interview to church or mosque. Analysis of case studies religious groups andsacredplacesestablishthemselves sidebyreligious groups side. settlements inEthiopiaarepolyethnicandmultireligious hubswhere many sinceurban tendstobemorehomogenous urban settlementsthispattern landby thestateandindenser been mentionedbeforepeoplearegranted Gondar doesn’t amongst followers. promotespatialsegregation Asithas worship in placesof itcanbeconcludedthatthelocationof Therefore, religious affiliationcouldbecreated. by aspatialpattern andassumingtheyarecorrect, religious socialgroup peopleinhabitingthisarea by was assignedtherespective of percentages each block interview. if Therefore, assignedbypercentages each pointof thecity, accordingtothe of thespatialpattern be drawn out,todetermine perblock could religiousgroups theconcentrationof map thatportrays In additiontotheresultsobtainedfromanalyzingdensityanddistance, a groups religious Concentration of 69 aei oto teubnhge-cl eteet fEthiopialike AddisAbaba. theurbanhigher-scalesettlementsof case inmostof andcoexistsidebyside, seemtolive asit is the religions different Nowadays peopleof thecity(Ahmed,2006). of relegated totheoutskirts foralongtimeandMuslimswere theChristianempire ed sinceitwas the capital of Gondarinthepastwas highlysegregat- tonotethatthecityof Itisimportant before. mentioned themosquethatisalsocausedbyhistoricalsettlementreasons surrounding Muslimsinthearea isindeedahigherconcentrationof There gation adherents. between spatialsegre socialgroups, showingnosignsof settlement layout bothreligious between 30showsahomogenous drawninfigure Gondar, thepattern thecityof In thecaseof - Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Alejandra Urrutia 28. Figure Jamial Kebir Mosque, Gondar, Ethiopia, Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 29. Figure Orthodox ChristianChurch, Orthodox Gondar, Sacred typologies of Gondar: Church & Mosque 70

Analysis of case studies 71 72

St. Mary St. Michael Legend

Orthodox Christians

Muslims

Unknown Bata Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies

Notes ** Note that these results derive from the answers the interview- ees gave according to how many neighbors in their block follow the same religion as they do, assuming that most people living in this sector follow either Islam or Orthodox Christianism. Even though I dont deny the possibility Jamial Kebir of other religious social groups living in this sector aside from the previously mentioned ones.

Figure 30. Concentrations of religious social groups per block. Mixed urban/rural settlement

Province: West Gojjam Area: 19 km2 Projected Population: 35,541 inhabitants

Mer’Awi is a city located south of Lake Tana, 35 kilometers away from Medium Scale the capital of the Amhara Region Bahir Dar and it holds the status of Mer’Awi the seat of “Mecha”, one of the administrative zones of West Gojjam. According to Chanie Mer’Awi was founded around 1941 by Dejazmach Abere Yiman, who was in this time the governor of the city and his brother Fitawrari Admasu Yimam (Chanie, 2012). It is a Christian set- tlement with a high population of Orthodox Christians over the Mus- lim population which remains a very low percentage of its inhabitants. Nowadays it appears to be a city which started as an organic settlement merged with a newer planned layout, developed by the government. This urban contrast represents the mix of rural/urban city where one can easily determine how much that city has grown by separating the old settlement with the new one. It is also home to the Koga Inte- grated Irrigation Dam Project which supplies surrounding neighbour villages and boosts the economy of the city. Thus, its new planned growth since its expected to be one of the primary food baskets in the Amhara region (Chanie, 2012). Aside from its commercial activity and importance as a supplier administrative city, little is known about the spatial religious development of this town aside from the concluding observation that will be mentioned on the final analysis of this report regarding the collected data. Analysis of case studies people interviewed (seesocialareaanalysisforMer’Awi).people interviewed overChristians interviewed Muslims, which is81%over 19%from27 Orthodox ed citysector, aresultthatcanbesustainedby of thepercentage Christiansintheselect- Orthodox demonstratesahigherpresenceof This densitycalculations. response, alongwithfurther percentage and interview adherents, marked by circlesaccordingtothelocationof (see fi gure33). Asitisshown in of gure34itisassumed bytheresponse fi thecity itants living inhouseholds perhectareintheselectedsectorof betweenwhere thepeopleperhectarecalculatedranged 40to360inhab- Mer’Awi densityamongthethreecasestudies holdsthesecondlargest mediumscale-settlement. ments isMer’Awi, asarural/urban categorized settle- of secondcitywithinthethreebeforementionedcategories The affiof liation Density &percentage 75 one of the blocks located to the right east of the church (seefi thechurch theblocks 31and 32). locatedtotherighteastof gure one of in residents asmall25%of Ethiopian Orthodox andMuslims represent Church the of mainlyfollowers are 100-290peopleperhectare arangeof In thisarea, where theOrthodox islocated. church thecity fi of area vastly inthesouthern result thatdiffers 33and34)A gures Orthodox ChristiansandMuslims.(see thepeopleare mosque a50-50%of tothe north Muslim,andinthearea, themosque75%are surrounding area inthe Mer’Awiapproximately 100-200peopleperhectare That inthecityof

dox Christian group. P, theinterviewee Ortho- according totheanswer of appointed 31.Densityrelationto percentage Figure Density per block Density per block p/ha p/ha 100 200 300 400 100 200 300 400 10 10 20 20 P4 P5 30 P10 30 religious group perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of 40 40 50 50 P1 P2 60 60 70 70 Muslim group. P., the interviewee ed accordingtothe answer of 32. Figure P1 P3 P2 80 P3 P19 P21 P5 P20 P14 P8 P6 P4 P9 P7 P15 80 90 Density relation to percentage appoint- Densityrelationto percentage 90 100 100 P18 P12 P16 P17 P22 P11 P13 % % 76 100 25 50 Analysis75 of case studies 100 25 50 75 77 78

Legend Mer’Awi Mosque ha

300-350

200-240

100-200

Analysis of case studies 90-100 Analysis of case studies

10-90

Notes ** Refer to notes on fi gure 23. Kidus Gebrel

Figure 33. Density per block, measured in people per hectare. 79 80

Legend Mer’Awi Mosque

100

75

50

25 Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies %

Kidus Gebrel

Figure 34. Percentage appointed according to the answer of interviewee P per block. Analysis of case studies Mer’Awi, EthiopiaJune 2019. with Muslimadherentsatmosque. 8. Interview away fromtheirhomes. and friendshave attendedfortheirwholelives even thoughitwould befar reasons like notwanting thechurch tochange andmosquethattheirfamily several but alsoarewillingtotravel toit.Becauseof longdistancesto get worship andreligiouscommunity out theylike tobeclosetheirplace of infl settlementinthiscase sincealsopeoplepointed of uencetheirpattern worship doesnot concluded thatthedistancepeoplehave totheirplaceof fore thereisnoneedtobeintheimmediatevicinityit.To which canbe worship, there- could alsomeanthattheyalreadylive closetotheirplaceof the peoplesaidthattheydidnotwant tobecloserit which ysis, mostof do want tobeclosetheirchurch ormosque. Butinthesocialareaanal- worship which would reflrelative proximity totheirplaceof ectthatpeople arein theinterviewees mostof As itcanbeseenonthemapsandgraphs peers. worship andfellow religious decide tosettleinproximity totheirplaceof people ers andadensitytodistancerelationwas drawn out.To if observe follow- same religionastheydointheirblock, of adistanceto percentage neighborsfollowing the ents pointingoutanapproximate of percentage adher- Accordingly, tothedensityrelationobtainedfromresponseof church &mosque Distance travelled to 81 8 between 100-300meterstotheirmosque (seefibetween 36). gure intheblocks in inhabitedin75%byMuslimstravel And thatpeopleinterviewed (see fi 35). gure theirhomestochurch 200to800metersfrom Orthodox from Christianstravel thatbelongtotheblocks inhabitedina100%and75%by thepeopleinterviewed of showthatmost Theresults theinterviewee. of residence tobetheplaceof interview of which socialgroup, assumingthispoint worship ismappedbyreligious to theirplaceof wascalculated interview As itisshowninfi pointof every pathfrom 37theshortest gure

answer of interviewee P, interviewee Christiangroup. Orthodox answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 35. Figure Appointed % of inhabitants of the same Appointed % of inhabitants of the same religious group per block to interviewee religious group per block to interviewee Distance travelled to place of worship Distancetravelled toplace of 100 100 % % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 P2 P3 P19 P1 200 200 P11 P20 300 300 P18 P4 P12 P13 400 400 P1 Distance toMosque Distance toChurch P22 P14 500 500 P21 P16 P15 P17 600 600 700 answer of interviewee P, interviewee Muslimgroup.answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 36. Figure 700 800 800 P2 P3 Distance travelled to place of worship Distancetravelled toplace of 900 900 P10 P5 1km 1km P4 P8 P5 P9 1.5km 1.5km P7 P6 Km Km 82

Analysis100 of case studies 25 50 75 83 84

P4

P5 P4 P6 P3 P3 P8 P7 P2 P9 P10 Legend Mer’Awi Mosque P2

P1

P1

P18 P17 Analysis of case studies P12 P11 P16 Analysis of case studies Main streets P19 P5 P21 Secondary streets P13 P20 P15 Kidus Gebrel P22

Notes P14 ** Refer to notes on fi gure 27.

Figure 37. Shortest path or distance from point of interview to church or mosque. Analysis of case studies Ethiopia June 2019. with Muslimimamatmosque. Mer’Awi,9.Interview withvarious religious groups.living inharmony even thoughsociallypeopleclaimedtobe spatial segregation of is adegree andMuslim households, Orthodox towhich Iwould say thatthere tion of through thedataexpressedin maps, thereseemstobeaclearsepara toadifferentreligionthantheirown. However,many friendsthatbelonged otherreligionsandclaimedtohave with thecelebrationsandbeliefsof hereexpressedthattheyagree in thistown sincethepeopleinterviewed thatthereisspatialandsocialsegregation conclude itishardtodetermine Christiansinthisareaandregion. To and thehistoricalpredominanceof thecity Christiansinthistown Orthodox influenced by thescaleof of ahigherconcentration thatdepicts Which meansthatthereisjusta pattern the church area. inthesouthern Christiansresidingcloseto thesectorandmoreOrthodox areaof northern Muslimsinproximity tothemosquelocatedin higher predominanceof Christians intheoverall selectedcitysector. mapinfigure40shows a The Orthodox Mer’Awi thereisahigherconcentrationof group. Inthecaseof peopleliving totheirsamereligious intheirblock thatbelonged of age out fromtheanswers given thepercent concerning by theinterviewees concentrationsperblock, drawn religiousgroups Finally addingamapof groups religious Concentration of 85 permission to settle by the state, not by religious choice. tosettlebythestate, notbyreligious permission granted peoplesettlewhere theyare ownershiptoit.Therefore, isnorightof since there thelandbelongstostate,And asitwas which mentionedbefore loanslandtopeople presence of a mosque there is relatively new isrelatively amosquethere of presence Christiansinthecitysince isahigherconcentrationof course, there settlement, of Mer’Awi,which asaChristian started theestablishment of of considerthehistory we Butif thecityintoanOrthodox ChristianandMuslimarea. thissectorof dividing orthemosque, seemtosettleinproximity toeitherthechurch socialgroups both religious spatial segregation since isanexistingcaseof At firstsightonecouldassumethatthere . 9 - - Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 38. Figure Sacred typologies of Mer’Awi Church & Mer’Awi Mosque, Mer’Awi, Mosque Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 39. Figure KidusGebrelChurch, Mer’Awi, 86

Analysis of case studies 87 88

Legend Mer’Awi Mosque

Orthodox Christians

Muslims

Unknown Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies Notes ** Refer to notes on fi gure 30. Kidus Gebrel

Figure 40. Concentrations of religious social groups per block map. Rural settlement

Province: North Wollo Area: 1.18 km2 Projected Population: 4291 inhabitants

Kon is a small town in the rural highlands of Ethiopia, which is in a Small Scale canyon-like terrain, home to many circular Orthodox church con- Kon structions, which I could observe on my visit there. Since there is little historical information on the account of this settlement, I will describe it intuitively from personal experience. In my field observation research the settlement of Kon seemed to be mainly a town sustained on agri- cultural activity, its date of foundation is unknown to me but I could tell it is also a highly Christian settlement, here the population is not so homogenous as the other two examples presented in this work due to the scale and location of this development. It is surrounded by various rock-hewn churches and its home to the Church of Kiros, located to the south of the town. This church seemed to be an important place of worship for the residents of Kon and represented a place of reflection and spirituality because of its immense and ancient church forest which overlooks the canyon in which Kon is located. The Muslim population in this town is extremely low even though there is a precarious struc- ture that represents the mosque somehow near to the town’s center. With no doubt, it is interesting to study its spatial pattern of religious affiliation due to the high percentage of Orthodox Christians residing there. Analysis of case studies since Orthodox Christianismisstronglyestablishedhere.since Orthodox amongstthe threecities, onesinglereligioussocialgroup glomeration of the threecasestudies. Kon, therefore, isthetown withthehighestcon- from Christiansinterviewed But isthecitywithlowest of percentage hectare living inhouseholds(seefi gure43). from10-140peopleper most isolatedsettlementsvisited.Itsdensityranges the from thethreecasestudiesincludedinthisresearch anditwas oneof town small-scaledsettlement.This hasthelowest density rized asarural Kon, catego- lastcasestudyanalyzedinthisresearchThe isthetown of affiof liation Density &percentage 91 interviewed (see social area analysisforKon). (seesocialarea interviewed 14people over21%Muslimsfrom interviewed 71% Orthodox Christianswere analysiswhere inthesocialarea socialgroup, afactorproved by onereligious Konismainlyinhabited Muslim inhabitants. Thesemapsshowthatthetownof thathold25%of 20-90peopleperhectare fourblocks are witharangeof There and mosque. marked bothchurch as100%inhabitedbyOrthodox Christians, surrounding fi belongtothe blocks 43and44approximately 40-140peopleperhectare gures mainlybelongingtotheEthiopianOrthodox Asshownin Church. are adherents interviewed of assignedinthistownaccordingtotheresponse And thepercentages

Orthodox Christiangroup.Orthodox P, theinterviewee according totheanswer of appointed 41.Densityrelationto percentage Figure Density per block Density per block p/ha p/ha 25 50 100 200 25 50 100 200 10 10 20 20 P4 P3 P2 P1 30 30 religious group perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of perblock tointerviewee religious group thesame inhabitantsof Appointed %of 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 Muslim group. P, theinterviewee according totheanswer of 42. Figure 80 80 90 Density relation to percentage appointed Densityrelationto percentage 90 100 100 P6 P3 P2 P1 P7 P8 P10 P9 P4 P5 % % 92 100 25 50 Analysis75 of case studies 100 25 50 75 93 94

Legend ha

110-140

90-100 Orthodox Church

40-90

Analysis of case studies 20-15 Analysis of case studies

10-15

Notes ** Refer to notes on fi gure 23.

Mosque

Figure 43. Density per block, measured in people per hectare. 95 96

Legend

100

75 Orthodox Church

50

25 Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies %

Mosque

Figure 44. Percentage appointed according to the answer of interviewee P per block. Analysis of case studies Muslims over Christians. ence butwould decidetolive inKon of wherethereisasmallerpercentage prefer- themwould travel distancestoworship longer intheirplaceof of town hasnoinfl uence over thedecisiononpeople’s settlement,sincesome thechurch andthemosqueinthis three casestudiesthatthelocationof Muslimcommunity.bigger itcanbeconcludedasintheother Therefore the Kon, becauseof totravelpreferred 30minutes toamosqueoutsideof Kon but that theywould occasionallyattendthemosquein thetown of thewomen pointedout interviewed But inthesocialareaanalysis, threeof adherents. is anyinflworship onthesettlementof eitherplaceof uenceof there Konto see if the town for of density wasand relation performed also Moreover, asitwas doneinthepreviousexamplesadistancetopercentage church &mosque Distance travelled to 97 in between 450-900meterstotheirmosque(seefiin between 47and46). gure Muslimstravel take we thismosqueasanexamplemostof Kon. If the townof wasdelimit thedistancetraveled theoneinproximity withintheselectedsectorof usedto worship For it’s theMuslimadherents tonotethattheplaceof important (seefi 400metersto1kilometer totheirchurch approximately from 45). gure intheblocks living inhabitedina100%byOrthodox herents Christianstravel fi thead- shown inthemapof 47and45, mostof are gure where The results

answer of interviewee P, interviewee Christiangroup. Orthodox answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 45. Figure Appointed % of inhabitants of the same Appointed % of inhabitants of the same religious group per block to interviewee religious group per block to interviewee Distance travelled to place of worship Distancetravelled toplace of 100 100 % % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 200 200 300 300 400 400 Distance toMosque Distance toChurch P6 P4 500 500 P1 P7 600 600 P2 P8 P9 700 answer of interviewee P, interviewee Muslimgroup.answer of appointed accordingtothe relation topercentage 46. Figure 700 P10 800 800 P2 P3 P4 Distance travelled to place of worship Distance travelled toplace of 900 900 P1 P5 1km 1km P3 1.5km 1.5km Km Km 98

Analysis100 of case studies 25 50 75 99 100

P1 P2

P3

Legend P5 P4

P1 P2 Orthodox Church P3

P6 Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies Main streets P7 P4 P8

Secondary streets

P9 Mosque Notes ** Refer to notes on fi gure P10 27.

Figure 47. Shortest path or distance from point of interview to church or mosque. Analysis of case studies 2019. with FikreHailu.Kon, Ethiopia,June10. Interview Kon. ism fromthesocialcommunities of Christian that didnotbelongtoOrthodox otherreligioussocialgroups of alsopointedoutaboutthemarginalization theinterviewees fact thatoneof meansthatIslamisnotsomuchThis religioninthistown, anaccepted a Lalibela. it’s incloserproximity totheChristiansacredcityof settlement, thistown alsohousesmanyancientchurch canyon forestsand thetown anditsfirstestablishmentasaChristian this isduetothescaleof thetown. Inmy opinion, Christians inalmostthewholeselectedsectorof Orthodox the findingsexplainedbefore, clarifyingthepredominance of and Muslim’s aresettledinKon. mapshown infigure50clearlyshows This how Christian’s Orthodox was of drawn out,tomapavisual-spatialpattern bothreligiousgroups theconcentrationof For thereasonbeingamapof groups religious Concentration of 101 2000). (Ahmad, totheirreligion established inahousewithnosingleout manyare reference thatasAhmad pointed worship inthetown,letaloneanIslamicplaceof gious groups otherreli of theintroduction skeptical of andremain change theirtraditionalreligion bothspatialandsocialsegregation sincepeopledon’t want to of isalevel saythere would andfieldobservations, I interviews Finally statingthatinthistownaccordingtomy times. former andtraditionwithalmostnochangefrom culture the persistenceandfollowingof within deep against settlementsthatremain thecountry, themostrural citiesof bigger withinthe residing groups manyethnicandreligious becauseof tend tobemultireligious urbancentersinEthiopialike Gondar Asitcanbeobserved in thespatialmapping. seenwith isheavily group onereligious of withoutadoubt,thepredominance Therefore, 10 - - - EthiopiaJune 2019. 48. Figure Sacred typologies of Kon Church & Town’s Church, Orthodox Kon, Mosque Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 49. Figure Town MosqueinKon, Kon, 102

Analysis of case studies 103 104

Legend

Orthodox Christians

Muslims Orthodox Church

Unknown Analysis of case studies Analysis of case studies

Notes ** Refer to notes on fi gure 30.

Mosque

Figure 50. Concentration of religious social groups per block map. 105 106

Conclusions

This research and analysis of the religious Where one could say causes internal conflicts landscape in Ethiopia portrays unique patterns between adherents to obtain land to build a of spatial and social behaviors in the three place of worship. Consequently, creating a level different case studies. Even though the settle- of spatial segregation rooted in many social and ment layout in all of them varies greatly still we political struggles, mostly seen in public spaces could observe how the spatial distribution of used for religious holidays or celebrations than religious social groups changes with the scale in the settlement or residential patterns. Which of the city, its history and the social dynamics in my opinion is hard to determine if they are within them that characterize how adherents segregated or not since land nowadays is under of different religions interact and cohabit with the administrative control of the state and this each other. Through the study of related litera- one grants lease permission for people to make ture, mappings and interviews I can determine use of it. Consequently, this causes several that the location and presence of either the religious and ethnic groups to live side by side, church or the mosque as typological represen- a characteristic that can be appreciated more tations of Islam and Orthodox Christianism in cities like Gondar or Addis Ababa than in have influenced the residential pattern of sev- rural settlements like Kon. It is also true that in eral cities more in the past. Since several of the some of the cases studies shown, at first glance cited literature works state that it was one of evident spatial segregation can be seen. the first built elements to be established in the founding of a royal camp or urban center. But I would like to point out that the cause to it could also be because that all the stud- For this reason, many neighborhoods grew ied cities are in the Amhara region, which is around these important landmarks, although predominantly Christian meaning that a higher the situation nowadays seems to be differ- concentration of Orthodox Christians inhabits ent. Since the position of the church in the this region, making Muslims a minority in each foundation and development of settlements of the three case studies.Therefore, I would has changed from what it used to be, and like to highlight that religious space plays an people are settling where they are granted land important role in the dynamics of society and by the state since this entity is separated from their position in space since it is also a catalyst the church and land is a common asset to the to possible conflict and coexistence. For that people of Ethiopia. This doesn’t mean that the reason, if more emphasis is placed on what church and mosque don’t hold important spa- these spaces have the power to do socially and tial hierarchies within the Ethiopian urban land- spatially, they could be essential elements of scape since both are regarded as highly spiritual a solution to the Ethiopian society in times built elements and located in special locations of socio-political struggle. Since in the urban where the community of each town and city factor they affect the behavior of people by deems important to have one. Therefore, if providing them a place of refuge, worship, there is one type of contested land is the one community, and preserve deteriorating ecosys- used for the construction of such religious tems. Consequently, representing the culture typologies. and tradition of a highly religious society. 107 108

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Figure 25. Distance trav- Figure 32. Density relation Figure 40. Concentrations elled to place of worship to percentage appointed of religious social groups List of Figures relation to according to the answer of per block. percentage appointed the interviewee P, Muslim Figure 1. Orthodox Chris- Figure 9. Map of royal Figure 17. Anwar Mosque according to the answer of group. Figure 41. Density relation tians outside of a rock- compund, adopted from in Addis Ababa, Martin Z., interviewee P, to percentage appointed hewn Church, Guebre Sellassie in 2018. Orthodox Christian group. Figure 33. Density per according to the answer of Lalibela, Alejandra Urrutia Pankhurst 1966. block, measured in people the interviewee P, Ortho- 2019. Figure 18. Meskel cele- Figure 26. Distance trav- per hectare. dox Christian group. Figure 10. Church school bration in Addis Ababa, elled to place of worship Figure 2. Religious com- in Lalibela, Ethiopia, Ale- Thomas Landy, 2019. relation to Figure 34. Percentage Figure 42. Density relation position of Ethiopia, 2007 jandra Urrutia, percentage appointed appointed according to the to percentage appointed Population Census. 2019. Figure 19. Kon’s agricul- according to the answer of answer of interviewee P according to the answer of tural land, Kon, Alejandra interviewee P, Muslim per block. the interviewee P, Muslim Figure 3. Importance of Figure 11. Ethiopia’s Urrutia, 2019. group. group. religion in Sub-Saharan Orthodox Church forest, Figure 35. Distance trav- countries, Pew Kieran Dodds, 2019. Figure 20. Kon’s canyon Figure 27. Shortest path elled to place of worship Figure 43. Density per Research Centre, 2010. settlement, Kon, Ethiopia, or distance from point of relation to percentage block, measured in people Figure 12. Gondar map Alejandra Urrutia interview to Church appointed according to the per hectare. Figure 4. Outside of with Church & Mosque, 2019. or Mosque. answer of interviewee P, Mosque building, Kon, Google Earth, 2019. Orthodox Christian group. Figure 44. Percentage Alejandra Urrutia 2019. Figure 21. Density relation Figure 28. Jamial Kebir appointed according to the

List of figures Figure 13. Royal com- to percentage appointed Mosque, Gondar, Ethiopia, Figure 36. Distance trav- answer of interviewee P List of figures Figure 5. Meskel cele- pund landmark and the according to the Alejandra Urrutia elled to place of worship per block. bration in Addis Ababa, surrounding urban area, answer of the interviewee 2019. relation to percentage Thomas Landy, 2019. Gondar, Justin Clements, P, Orthodox Christian appointed according to the Figure 45, 46. Distance 2005. group. Figure 29. Orthodox answer of interviewee P, travelled to place of wor- Figure 6. Meskel’s Demera Christian Church, Gondar, Muslim group. ship relation to percentage in Meskel Square, Agape Figure 14. Rock-Hewn Figure 22. Density relation Ethiopia, Alejandra appointed according to the Co., 2017. Church, Lalibela, Alejandra to percentage appointed Urrutia 2019. Figure 37. Shortest path answer of interviewee P, Urrutia, 2019. according to the or distance from point of Orthodox Christian group. Figure 7. Orthodox Chris- answer of the interviewee Figure 30. Concentrations interview to Church tians followers outside of Figure 15. Church of P, Muslim group. of religious social groups or Mosque. Figure 47. Shortest path Church, Kebran Gabriel Monastery, per block. or distance from point of Mer’Awi, Alejandra Urrutia Lake Tana, R. Figure 23. Density per Figure 38. Mer’Awi interview to Church 2019. Miyake. block, measured in people Figure 31. Density relation Mosque, Mer’Awi, Ethio- or Mosque. per hectare. to percentage appointed pia, Alejandra Urrutia Figure 8. Map of Tigray, Figure 16. Interior of Lake according to the 2019. Figure 48. Town’s Ortho- adopted from Ramos & Tana’s circular Church, Figure 24. Percentage answer of the interviewee dox Church, Kon, Ethiopia Boavida in Alem Alejandra Urrutia, appointed according to the P, Orthodox Christian Figure 39. Kidus Gebrel June 2019. 2011. 2019. answer of group. Church, Mer’Awi, Ethiopia, interviewee P per block. Alejandra Urrutia Figure 49. Town Mosque 2019. in Kon, Kon, Ethiopia, Alejandra Urrutia 113 114

City Mer'Awi AppendixInterviewees of Interest A exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Appendix B Number of People Interviewed 27

Questionnaire City Mer'Awi Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian I. To what Religious Community/Group do you belong to (either Number of People Interviewed 27 Orthodox-Christian or Islam)? II. Were you brought up in this Religion, or was it a Personal Choice? I. Percentage Differentiation III. In a Scale from 1 to 5 - how strongly do you follow the Rules of your Christian-Orthodox 81% Religion? Muslim 19% 1 2 3 4 5 IV. How close do you live to your Place of Worship? Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice V. How do you travel to your Place of Worship? All Interviewees 100% 0% Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other VI. If you had the Opportunity to live closer to your Place of Worship, would you? III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* VII. How much Time do you travel to your current Place of Worship *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest from your Home? 1 2 3 4 5 <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min Christian-Orthodox 0% 5% 27% 5% 63% VIII. How much Time do you spend in your Place of Worship outside of Appendix Muslim 0% 20% 20% 0% 60% Appendix Ceremony Days? 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time IX. How often do you attend Ceremonies at your Place of Worship? IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Daily Weekly Monthly Annually Never Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far X. How much Time do you spend at your Place of Worship during Ceremonies? All Interviewees 52% 30% 19% 0% 0% 15Min 30Min 60Min 90Min >90Mins XI. Do you agree with the Beliefs and Ceremonies of the ‚opposite’ Religion (either Orthodox-Christian or Islam)? V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship Strongly Agree Agree No Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other XII. How many Friends do you have that belong to a different Religion All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% than yours? 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 >20 None XIII. If you do have Friends of a different Religion – how often do you VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship meet them? Yes No Very frequently Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never All Interviewees 22% 78% XIV. In your Street or Block, how many of your Neighbours follow the same Religion as you do? 25% 50% 75% 100% None VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min All Interviewees 56% 19% 15% 0% 0%

VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time City Mer'Awi Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Number of People Interviewed 27

I. Percentage Differentiation Christian-Orthodox 81% Muslim 19%

II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice All Interviewees 100% 0%

III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Christian-Orthodox 0% 5% 27% 5% 63% Muslim 0% 20% 20% 0% 60%

IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far All Interviewees 52% 30% 19% 0% 0%

V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%

VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship Yes No All Interviewees 22% 78%

VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min 115All Interviewees 56% 19% 15% 0% 0% 116

City Gondar VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time Number of People Interviewed 19

All Interviewees 15% 15% 41% 19% 10% I. Percentage Differentiation Christian-Orthodox 68% IX. Frequency of Attendance to Place of Worship Muslim 32% Daily Weekly Monthly Annually Never All Interviewees 70% 30% 0% 0% 0% II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice X. Time spent at Place of Worship during ceremonies* All Interviewees 68% 32% * Muslim Women only on Fridays for an hour 15Min 30Min 60Min 90Min >90Mins Christian-Orthodox 18% 23% 9% 18% 32% III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* Muslim* 60% 0% 40% 0% 0% *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Christian-Orthodox 0% 0% 38% 24% 38% XI. Agreement with Beliefs & Ceremonies of the respective other Muslim 0% 0% 33% 50% 17% Religion Strongly Agree No Disagree Strongly

Appendix Agree Opinion Disagree Appendix Christian-Orthodox 45% 27% 14% 14% 0% IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far Muslim 80% 0% 20% 0% 0% All Interviewees 84% 16% 0% 0% 0%

XII. Number of friends belonging to different Religions 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 >20 None V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship All Interviewees 19% 26% 0% 4% 33% 18% Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%

XIII. Frequency in meeting friends of other religion* *Only if previous Question was answered with >0 VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship Very frequently Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never Yes No All Interviewees 19% 26% 0% 4% 33% All Interviewees 32% 68%

VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min

All Interviewees 58% 11% 31% 0% 0%

VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time

City Mer'Awi Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Number of People Interviewed 27

I. Percentage Differentiation Christian-Orthodox 81% Muslim 19%

II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice All Interviewees 100% 0%

III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Christian-Orthodox 0% 5% 27% 5% 63% Muslim 0% 20% 20% 0% 60%

IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far All Interviewees 52% 30% 19% 0% 0%

V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%

VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship Yes No All Interviewees 22% 78%

VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min 117All Interviewees 56% 19% 15% 0% 0% 118

City Kon VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time Number of People Interviewed 14

All Interviewees 0% 11% 5% 47% 37% I. Percentage Differentiation

Christian-Orthodox 71%

Muslim 29% IX. Frequency of Attendance to Place of Worship Daily Weekly Monthly Annually Never

All Interviewees 63% 37% 0% 0% 0% II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice

All Interviewees 100% 0% X. Time spent at Place of Worship during ceremonies* * Muslim Women only on Fridays for an hour

15Min 30Min 60Min 90Min >90Mins III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* Christian-Orthodox 31% 8% 0% 0% 61% *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest Muslim* 67% 33% 0% 0% 0% 1 2 3 4 5

Christian-Orthodox 0% 0% 10% 30% 60%

Muslim 0% 0% 0% 25% 75% XI. Agreement with Beliefs & Ceremonies of the respective other Religion

Appendix Strongly Agree No Disagree Strongly Appendix IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Agree Opinion Disagree Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far Christian-Orthodox 8% 38% 0% 54% 0% All Interviewees 64% 14% 0% 22% 0% Muslim 0% 50% 0% 33% 17%

V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship XII. Number of friends belonging to different Religions Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 >20 None All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% All Interviewees 0% 16% 0% 5% 79% 0%

VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship XIII. Frequency in meeting friends of other religion* Yes No *Only if previous Question was answered with >0 All Interviewees 29% 71% Very Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never frequently

All Interviewees 79% 5% 11% 5% 0% VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min All Interviewees 29% 50% 21% 0% 0%

VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time

City Mer'Awi Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Number of People Interviewed 27

I. Percentage Differentiation Christian-Orthodox 81% Muslim 19%

II. Personal Approach to Religion Family Upbringing Personal Choice All Interviewees 100% 0%

III. Scale Measure for Following the Rules of Religion* *1 being the Lowest and 5 the Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Christian-Orthodox 0% 5% 27% 5% 63% Muslim 0% 20% 20% 0% 60%

IV. Proximity to Place of Worship Very Close Close Acceptable Far Very Far All Interviewees 52% 30% 19% 0% 0%

V. Means of Transportation to Place of Worship Walk Bajaj Animal Car Other All Interviewees 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%

VI. Preference to Live closer to Place of Worship Yes No All Interviewees 22% 78%

VII. Time traveled from Home to Place of Worship <5 Min 6-15 Min 16-30 Min 31-45 Min >45 Min 119All Interviewees 56% 19% 15% 0% 0% 120

VIII. Time spent at Place of Worship outside of Ceremony Appendix C 10 Min 15 Min 30 Min 60 Min No time

All Interviewees 21% 0% 0% 79% 0%

City Gondar IX. Frequency of Attendance to Place of Worship Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Daily Weekly Monthly Annually Never Number of People Interviewed 19 All Interviewees 50% 50% 0% 0% 0%

X. Time spent at Place of Worship during ceremonies* Estimated Percentage of Shortest Path from Point of * Muslim Women only on Fridays for an hour Inhabitants per Block of Interview to Place of 15Min 30Min 60Min 90Min >90Mins same Religion as Worship Christian-Orthodox 0% 0% 40% 0% 60% Interviewee Muslim* 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% Christian- Muslim Christian- Muslim Orthodox Orthodox XI. Agreement with Beliefs & Ceremonies of the respective other 13 People 6 People 13 People 6 People Religion Appendix Strongly Agree No Disagree Strongly Appendix Agree Opinion Disagree P1 50% 75% 881m 705m Christian-Orthodox 60% 0% 10% 20% 10% P2 50% 75% 615m 118m P3 Muslim 0% 25% 0% 75% 0% 50% 75% 519m 408m P4 50% 50% 379m 883m P5 50% 50% 425m 743m XII. Number of friends belonging to different Religions P6 50% 50% 425m 702m 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 >20 None P7 75% 370m All Interviewees 65% 7% 0% 7% 0% 21% P8 75% 370m P9 50% 712m XIII. Frequency in meeting friends of other religion* P10 50% 1104m *Only if previous Question was answered with >0 P11 75% 210m Very Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never P12 75% 700m frequently P13 75% 270m All Interviewees 50% 0% 29% 7% 14%

121 122

City Mer'Awi City Kon Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Interviewees of Interest exclusively Muslim and Orthodox-Christian Number of People Interviewed 27 Number of People Interviewed 14

Estimated Percentage of Shortest Path from Point of Estimated Percentage of Shortest Path from Point of Inhabitants per Block of Interview to Place of Inhabitants per Block of Interview to Place of same Religion as Worship same Religion as Worship Interviewee Interviewee

Christian- Muslim Christian- Muslim Christian- Muslim Christian- Muslim Orthodox Orthodox Orthodox Orthodox 22 People 5 People 22 People 5 People 10 People 4 People 10 People 4 People

P1 50% 75% 404m 197m P1 100% 25% 533m 872m P2 50% 75% 809m 106m P2 100% 25% 593m 871m P3 75% 75% 867m 135m P3 100% 25% 1018m 872m P4 75% 25% 1048m 310m P4 100% 25% 872m 472m Appendix P5 75% 25% 962m 1120m P5 100% 1010m Appendix P6 75% 1079m P6 100% 462m P7 75% 1033m P7 100% 559m P8 75% 1014m P8 100% 611m P9 75% 1091m P9 100% 633m P10 25% 906m P10 100% 633m P11 100% 241m P12 100% 352m P13 100% 358m P14 75% 483m P15 75% 532m P16 100% 585m P17 100% 596m P18 100% 319m P19 75% 185m P20 75% 280m P21 75% 509m P22 100% 453m

This book portrays the importance of religious typologies in the settlement layout of Ethiopia. Through the study of their position in space, the social dynamics that surround them and the influence religious elements have in future urban planning. As beacons of the Ethiopian culture and tradition, becoming sites that characterize Ethiopia’s urban landscape.

Urrutia