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Research Collection Research Collection Doctoral Thesis Tracing early structure in the high redshift Universe Author(s): Diener, Catrina Publication Date: 2015 Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-010639768 Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library DISS. ETH NO. 23072 Tracing early structure in the high redshift Universe A thesis submitted to attain the degree of DOCTOR OF SCIENCES of ETH ZURICH Dr. sc. ETH Zurich presented by Catrina Diener MSc ETH Physics, ETH Zurich born on 02.03.1987 citizen of Fischenthal ZH accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Simon Lilly, examiner Prof. Dr. Simon Morris, co-examiner 2015 To my family: my mother Ursula and my sister Christina iii iv Abstract Structure and its growth significantly drive the evolution and properties of our Universe. On large enough scales the distribution and extent of structure is mostly seeded by pri- mordial density fluctuations. Its observation therefore constitutes a direct test of our cosmological model and our understanding of how structures form and evolve within the framework of that model. Furthermore galaxies evolve within the context of their sur- rounding dark matter structure: the exact properties this environment and connected with that the proximity to (or absence of) other galaxies has significant impact on this evolution. In this thesis we study tracers of structure in the early Universe, at 2 . z . 3, using two different approaches. On the one hand we focus on overdensities of galaxies, both their identification and properties. On the other hand we study the connection between high redshift galaxies and gas, more precisely HI (believed to closely trace dark matter) by mapping distribution of Lyα-absorption around the galaxies. With these two approaches we detect and characterise structure over a large range of scales, from ∼ 1 comoving Mpc up to around 100 Mpc. In the first part we identify high-redshift overdense systems in the zCOSMOS-deep survey which provides spectroscopic redshifts for ∼ 3500 galaxies at 2 . z . 3 in a 0:92 × 0:91 deg2 field. The rather dense sampling of zCOSMOS-deep and the relative accuracy of the spectroscopic redshifts allows us to conduct a systematic search for these overdensities by applying a friends-of-friends group-finder, a technique commonly used at lower redhift. The parameters for this algorithm, carefully adjusted to encompass the present structure whilst avoiding contamination from the background, are r = 500 kpc (physical, transverse linking length) and ∆v = 700 km/s (line-of-sight linking length). Applying the group-finder to the zCOSMOS-sample yields a catalogue of 42 systems, mostly triplets but also some with 4 or 5 members. In order to understand the nature of the systems identified in zCOSMOS-deep, we take advantage of the dark matter and galaxy connection provided by the Millennium simulation. We use mock catalogues derived from the simulation and match them to replicate the zCOSMOS-deep redshift number densities. By applying the same group- finder to these simulated catalogues we construct a mock sample of overdensities which, through the connection to the simulation, contains the dark matter information as well as the corresponding dark matter merger trees. By studying these mock systems, we find that at the epoch of observation, they are, although significantly overdense, mostly associations of central galaxies. They therefore do v not conform to the definition of galaxy groups where a central and a number of satellites share the same halo. However, by redshift z = 0 the high-redshift systems will mostly (93%) evolve into galaxy groups. We are thus observing proto-groups, i.e progenitors to those z = 0 groups. Furthermore we find that most of these systems evolve into groups 13 14 with ∼ 10 −10 M =h halo masses at z = 0. A zCOSMOS-type survey also catalogues a 14 representative fraction of > 10 M =h haloes if the spectroscopic sampling rate of galaxies was 100%. With the actual sampling of zCOSMOS, still 35% of these high-mass haloes are identified. Using the interpretation of these high-redshift systems as proto-groups, we search for potential effects of environment on their member galaxies, in particular for differences in colour. We find that at fixed stellar masses, the red fraction of proto-group galaxies is indistinguishable from field galaxies at the same redshift. We then present a z = 2:45 proto-cluster as a case study. It has been discovered in a re-observation of the proto-groups discussed above and has to date 11 spectroscopically confirmed members with an estimated overdensity of ∼ 10. We again use the Millennium simulation to understand the likely evolution of this structure. Within mock catalogues 16 proto-clusters are identified that have been selected to mimic the observations. Again, at z ∼ 2:5 most of the member galaxies are still singletons in their own dark matter halo, although some may already have started the assembly process and are sharing a halo. By following the evolution of the mock proto-clusters down to z = 0 we find that they almost 14 15 fully assemble by z ∼ 1 and reach a halo mass of ∼ 10 − 10 M =h by z = 0. We study the progenitor galaxies of the z = 0 mock clusters by tracing all cluster galaxies back to z ∼ 2:5. We find that these progenitors occupy rather large fields, 3- 20 Mpc in diameter, and that the actual proto-cluster galaxies we would identify from spectroscopy are concentrated in a smaller region of this progenitor field. This hints at the presence of a more extended structure in the COSMOS field. Finally we search for differences in the properties of the proto-cluster galaxies with respect to the field. We find no significant evidence for variation in stellar mass, star formation rate or fraction of quiescent galaxies. In the second part we study the connection of the intergalactic medium traced by the Lyα-forest and the zCOSMOS-deep galaxies. Our sample consists of eight QSO sightlines in the zCOSMOS-deep field, with 2:5 . zQSO . 3, which were observed by XSHOOTER. To obtain an estimate for the Lyα absorption distribution along these sight-lines, we use a pixel-optical-depth approach which has the advantage of being automated and and providing a quasi-continuous distribution along the line-of-sight. Two of the QSOs had been re-observed with the high-resolution UVES instrument and we use those to analyse the impact of the lower resolution of XSHOOTER on the optical depth estimates. We find that at XSHOOTER resolution, with the typical signal-to-noise of our data, the impact of varying signal-to-noise is more important and that the effect of resolution is negligible. The distribution of the average optical depths around zCOSMOS-deep galaxies is used to study systematics in the assigned galaxy redshifts as well as their reliability. We find that the zCOSMOS redshifts are systematically blueshifted by ∼ 500 km/s with respect to the Lyα absorption. This shift is explainable by systematics in the wavelength calibration vi of zCOSMOS-deep and galactic winds affecting the lines used for the redshift assignment. We further confirm that the redshift uncertainty of zCOSMOS-deep is of order of a few hundred km/s. As for the reliability of the zCOSMOS-redshifts it is found that redshifts classed as less reliable in the survey itself, indeed have lower average absorption around the corresponding galaxies. We also quantify the fraction of reliable redshifts for different classes of redshifts. This can serve as a guideline when drawing redshift samples from zCOSMOS-deep for other applications. Lastly, we perform a measurement of the Galaxy-Lyα-forest cross-correlation function at 2 . z . 2:5 by estimating the mean overdensity of Lyα-absorption in terms of the optical depth at a distance rp (transverse) and π (line-of-sight) from the galaxies. We are able to cover scales up to rp ∼ 60 Mpc (comoving) and several hundred Mpc along the line of sight, but are limited at scales of rp < 5 Mpc due to small numbers of galaxy-sight-line pairs. The correlation function exhibits the signature of redshift space distortions: a compres- sion in the line-of-sight direction with respect to the transverse direction. The estimated correlation function is then compared with a model for the redshift space distortions that incorporates the compression due to large scale infall of matter. We find no evidence for inconsistency between the observed correlation function and the model; the observed compression is thus explainable by large scale infall. vii viii Zusammenfassung Kosmische Struktur und deren Wachstum praegt die Entwicklung unseres Universums massgeblich. Bei ausreichenden Groessenordnungen ist die Verteilung und die Ausdehnung von Materienansammlungen groesstenteils bestimmt durch primordiale Dichtefluktuatio- nen. Die Beobachtung solcher Strukturen stellt daher einen direkten Test fuer das kos- mologische Modell und unser Verstaendnis fuer Strukturentstehung und deren Evolution im Rahmen dieses Modells dar. Desweitern entwickeln sich Galaxien im Kontext der umgebenden dunklen Materienstruktur. Die genauen Eigenschaften dieser Umgebung sowie die Naehe (oder Distanz) zu anderen Galaxien hat einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die zugehoerigen Galaxien. In dieser Dissertation werden Indikatoren fuer kosmische Struktur im fruehen Univer- sum (bei einer Rotverschiebung 2 < z < 3) untersucht. Einerseits konzentrieren wir uns auf raeumliche Verdichtungen in der Galaxieverteilung, und zwar hauptsaechlich auf deren Identifizierung und Eigenschaften. Andererseits charakterisieren wir die Verknuepfung zwischen fruehen Galaxien und Wasserstoffgas. Wir "kartographieren" die Gasverteilung um Galaxien, der Idee folgend, dass das Gas im Wesentlichen die ansonsten unsichtbare dunkle Materie nachzeichnet. Durch diese zwei Herangehensweisen koennen wir kosmische Struktur ueber weite Groessenordnungen identifizieren und charakterisieren, von ∼ 1 Mpc bis zu etwa 100 Mpc.
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