an a e Berghe den Van Hanne acVnMeirvenne Van Marc antiquity 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © stefia eeaino uvvr fteFrtWrdWrhsnwpse wy the away, the passed of now witnesses remaining has last War the World as First (Chielens itself rapidly the landscape growing is of the conflict and survivors archaeology of of generation importance final the As Introduction Stichelbaut Birger war of landscape the and photography aerial historical 1914–1918: Salient Ypres The ∗ 4 3 2 1 Keywords: n hi soitdacaooyhsaraybe cnwegd(eMeyer (de acknowledged been landscapes already conflict-marked has these archaeology of associated study the their enable and to photography aerial contemporary eateto olMngmn,GetUiest,Cuuelns63 hn 00 Belgium 9000, Ghent 653, links Coupure Belgium University, 9000, Ghent Ghent Management, S8, Soil 281 of Belgium Krijgslaan Department 9000, University, Ghent Ghent 35, Geography, Pietersnieuwstraat University), of Sint Department Ghent University, & Ghent Museum Archaeology, Fields of Belgium Department Flanders 9000, (In Ghent Photography 35, Aerial Pietersnieuwstraat Archaeological Sint and Historical for Centre uhrfrcrepnec (Email: correspondence for Author Study area 135(07:2529doi: 235–249 (2017): 355 91 egu,FrtWrdWr eilpoorpy oflc rhelg,landscape archaeology, conflict photography, aerial War, World First Belgium, Brussels 1, N ∗ 0 otrGheyle Wouter , 4 ioh Saey Timothy , 3 [email protected] enBourgeois Jean & m100 km 2006 tcebu Chielens & Stichelbaut ; 235 2 4 oilmnt ihrooeloe set of aspects heritage. overlooked landscape records hitherto photographic illuminate aerial to of highlight potential also the but only landscape period, the four-year not that of town over results face The changing the the Belgium. around illustrate nature in struggle shifting Ypres historic of the the on of perspective other offers new archaeology, with a landscape integrated to War, approaches the over World during of taken First Assessment photographs aerial Front. 9000 Western landscape the the into of insights new provide archaeology how can of demonstration the timely a article of is this approach, commemorations Passchendaele of centenary Battle the As ereVnEetvelde Van Veerle , ioa Note Nicolas , ) 2 2016 4 , 10.15184/aqy.2016.260 .Teptnilof potential The ). 3 , 2006 2009; ,

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al.

Stichelbaut 2006). Since the origins of ‘modern conflict archaeology’ at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Saunders 2002), field research on First World War sites and desktop analysis of First World War aerial photographs have become part of mainstream historical archaeology in Flanders (Van Hollebeeke et al. 2014). Appreciation of the application of historical aerial photographs to archaeology is growing (Cowley & Stichelbaut 2012; Hanson & Oltean 2013), and access to archival photographs is being facilitated by means of ongoing digitisation programmes and the development of new discovery aids (Cowley et al. 2013: 21–22). Occasionally, historical photographs are used to document sites of twentieth-century conflict (Gaffney et al. 2004; Kaimaris 2011), but apart from the English Heritage National Mapping Project (Winton & Horne 2010; Horne 2011), there are few examples of regional-scale implementation for archaeological purposes. Even fewer projects focus on the landscapes of past conflicts (Hegarty et al. 2005; Hegarty & Newsome 2007;Gheyleet al. 2013; Passmore et al. 2014; Stichelbaut & Cowley 2016). The thousands of aerial photographs taken between 1914 and 1918 covering the first 30km of the Western Front have already been examined (Stichelbaut 2011). From 2011, we began the exhaustive mapping and analysis of the entire front in Belgium, focusing on the even more challenging conflict landscape near the town of Ypres. The study area includes the Ypres Salient (a bulge in the front line around the town of Ypres), the Wijtschate- Messines ridge, and the Allied and German hinterland: a region of up to 30km wide. The area was the scene of a four-year stalemate in the trenches and witnessed some of the fiercest battles of the First World War. Researchers have initiated mapping projects for heritage- management purposes, investigating parts of the Western Front in Belgium by digitising military features identified on contemporary military maps (de Meyer 2005; de Meyer & Demeyere 2006). Others have used maps to investigate the relationships between trench networks and the terrain (Doyle et al. 2002). This study presents the results of a GIS- aided mapping project using historical aerial photographs for research at a regional scale. In doing so, we demonstrate the potential for integrating remote-sensing data with aerial photography for the study of recent military landscapes. The main research goals addressed by this study are: i) investigation of the extent of the First World War battlefields in Belgium; and ii) quantification of their structural components along with their geographic distribution. In addition, the research aims to: iii) examine the diversity of preserved First World War heritage in Belgium across the landscape; iv) determine if there are any differences between the Allied and German sides of the front; and v) explore how landscapes of different periods of the war overlap each other, and how military structures and sites changed as the war progressed. Study area, historical context and data collection After the First Battle of Ypres (19 October–22 November 1914), the front stabilised and both the Allied and German armies entrenched themselves in an arc around Ypres, between 4 and 8km away from the town. Unlike the stable Belgian army front to the north (Stichelbaut 2011), several large-scale offensives took place in the Ypres Salient. On 22 April 1915, German troops unleashed the first chlorine gas attack of the war. This marked the start of the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April–25 May 1915) in which the Allies were © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

236 pe 3 uy1 oebr11) hc ie odsryteGra umrn bases submarine German the (Edmonds destroy coast to Belgian aimed the of which along Battle 1917), Third November (Passingham the July–10 to attack prelude (31 a Ypres infantry as straightened large-scale successfully was a Salient example Wijtschate-Messines by for crater, followed Spanbroekmolen line, or mines— Peace deep front of Pool 19 the when at commenced case seen Messines be ( a of can as which Battle hundred presented of the of is effects 1917, couple Nose’) the (‘Caesar’s June a battlefield 7 just by small-scale On below. often a resulted study front, such This the of heights. of example position strategic An scale the capturing metres. local in at a changes aimed at minor although often numerous offensives, actions, in major smaller no many were were there 1917 there June and 1915 May between uhdbc k eoedgigi gi (Edmonds again in coverage digging photographic before aerial of 5km area back the pushed lines, front major four the showing Salient Ypres the of andtheextentcoveredby map Overview 1. Figure oebr11,tefie fesv a tpe fe h un fPscedeewere Passchendaele of ruins the ( again after in 10 themselves stopped dug On was sides landscape. both offensive lunar-like and captured failed shell-pocked, a the into 1917, battlefields November the transformed fire artillery iue2 Figure otm—eesmlaeul eoae eet e oiin nteGerman the in positions key beneath detonated simultaneously bottom)—were , iue 2 Figures , 3 and 7 h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The . 1948 .I h olwn ots h anadcontinuous and rain the months, following the In ). 237 iue1 Figure 1928 .Js v otsltr l Allied all later, months five Just ). )( niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © iue1 Figure 1998 .Drn h period the During ). .A eut the result, a As ).

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al.

Figure 2. Example comparison of typical aerial photographs. Top: British aerial photograph of Spanbroekmolen (just west of Wijtschate), taken on 1 June 1915 (reproduced by permission of the Imperial War Museum Box Collection, Box 15 B 588). Bottom: same area photographed by a German air crew on 16 September 1918 (reproduced by permission of the In Flanders Fields Museum). The comparison shows the impact of the war on the landscape and the density of features. gains made in 1917 were relinquished as a result of the German Spring Offensive (9–29 April 1918), which was halted just in front of the town of Ypres. This concise historical overview illustrates the complexity of the Ypres Salient as a stratified, multi-period conflict landscape. © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

238 ol a ntesuyarea. study the in War World ihu ae n date: without htgah ae ewe 0Dcme 94ad1 coe 98(94 ubrof number (1914: 1918 October 14 and 1914 (n) December photographs 30 between taken photographs 2009 one-tak n ucee ncpuigpr fteGra rnhsse,wihthey which (2 system, defences trench field German own the their and of into part German incorporated capturing disorganised in aerial and succeeded An dug and ridges. hastily counter-attacks higher the the along shows ( in trenches 1915 front-line dug April French troops 28 German on the reached and taken front area the photograph study evening, the same of That edge Langemark. the and Steenstraat between released was gas h asrsNs td rai oae ntenrhr ato h pe ain nthe on Salient Ypres the of part northern the in located ( is Ridge area Pilkem study Nose Caesar’s The study case Nose Caesar’s ( Stichelbaut by detail in described and features been the nationality, date has and and photographs map aerial to dating the used typology, methodology on The detailing visible features). the fields map to (i.e. used in metadata photographs visible with in (some resulted annotated features features and 417 visible 162 of of mapping GIS-dataset subsequent the a and photographs aerial the Studying interpretation and Results ffiigadcmuiaintece.O 1Jl 97 h pnn a fteThird the 38 of the day by opening captured the was 1917, area July known types the 31 standardised became Ypres, On more of that with trenches. Battle system line communication trench front and the German firing of of expansion the an in by created accompanied warfare, was ( bulge Nose peculiar Caesar’s as a result, a As nlsso h itrclrmt-esn aaa ielvl eoemvn nt ics the discuss to Ypres on moving the multi-temporal before of for level, research. need part site the the at northern of and data scale the landscape remote-sensing landscape in historical war study the the of case of analysis a complexity on the explaining focus Salient, initially sections following The usadras hl arwgueriwycosstelnsaet nuetesupply the ensure to ( landscape front the the to crosses materials railway and narrow-gauge troops a military of shows while 1918 to February roads, changed in and taken battlefield photograph huts former aerial this An hinterland. of logistical function a the become and Passchendaele, towards shifted front nyb okn aka hs eilpoorpso h ra a a h esnfrits for (see reason land no-man’s the of can area and War former landscape, Great the the the in on located of was isolated also photographs cemetery be aerial The to understood. these appears be at It location back Ypres. looking of Cemetery by Battle Nose Third only Caesar’s the of during exception fell the who with War World First the ( of remains surface no u,mr motnl,wsas hr nuue pnsaehssurvived. has space open unused an where also was importantly, more but, iue3 Figure eerhi h anacie fhsoia eilpoorps(tcebu Bourgeois & (Stichelbaut photographs aerial historical of archives main the in Research iue3 Figure n hi usqetdgtsto eutdi aae f95 ervria aerial near-vertical 9054 of dataset a in resulted digitisation subsequent their and ) ,bto ete.Tdy hscmtr od h ean f6 rts soldiers British 68 of remains the holds cemetery this Today, centre). bottom D, ) hc a ls otelcto hr h odesfl uigteoffensive, the during fell soldiers the where location the to close was which D), iue1 Figure = = iue3 Figure 6) rvdn iuladtxue eodo h rgeso h First the of progress the of record textured and visual a providing 268), ;11:n 1915: 1; .O 2Arl11,drn h eodBtl fYrs chlorine Ypres, of Battle Second the during 1915, April 22 On ). ) hswstesato oeta w er fsal trench stable of years two than more of start the was This B). iue3 Figure = h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The 1;11:n 1916: 717; ) n1 a 95 rnhtop anhdlocalised launched troops French 1915, May 16 On A). iue3 Figure 239 e ) h rsn-a adcp er almost bears landscape present-day The C). i éietd aced Zouaves de Marche de Régiment bis = 87 97 n 1917: 1867; th iue3 Figure es iiin(Munby Division Welsh )ta aebe interpreted been have that D) niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © = 05 98 n 1918: 3015; 2009 1920 = , 1915 2011 .The ). 3186; ). ).

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al.

Figure 3. Example of landscape evolution: ‘Caesar’s Nose’ case study. A) Aerial photograph of 28 April 1915 (reproduced by permission of the In Flanders Fields Museum); B) aerial photograph of 14 March 1916 (reproduced by permission of the In Flanders Fields Museum); C) aerial photograph of 21 February 1918 (reproduced by permission of the Imperial War Museum Box Collection 111-9B-249-1918-02-21); D) orthophoto 2014 (AGIV open data) with mapped war features from the beginning to the end of the war.

The mapping of 81 historical aerial photographs available for this site resulted in a plethora of war features. Archaeological excavations of the Allied and German front-line trenches—just 200m south to the edge of Figure 3—confirmed the preservation of the trenches and shelters below the surface (Verdegem 2007). This small case study illustrates that the concept of the ‘front line’ was, to a degree, ephemeral and vague; and from an archaeological perspective, the whole zone is perhaps better regarded as a complex, multi- layered conflict landscape. The Ypres Salient comprises a superposition of First World War landscapes: battlefields that had become hinterlands and vice versa. This is in stark contrast © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

240 n u oiin) ierfaue tece,riwy n h ie n ufc etrs(i.e. features surface and bunkers like) (i.e. the features and ‘point’ railways the as ease (trenches, table of for features the linear features, extent in positions), polygon presented gun industrial as are and the they mapped overview, are to and features points comparison all of and Although unknown, heritage. previously conflict preserved density was The War. World features First the mapped of landscape of conflict multi-temporal the up make together oryaso afr.Frteproe fvsaiigteemp,adsicinhsbeen has distinction a maps, of course these the visualising ( over of features Salient purposes battlefield Ypres the between the For in made warfare. features of mapped years the four of diversity and distribution h eodlvlfcsso rae rao h adcp.Tegnrldsrbto map distribution general The landscape. the of area broader a ( on focuses level second The Ypres landscape the Salient Ypres and Nieuwpoort between sector Belgian-German the as (Stichelbaut Salient such fronts shelters), stable open-air and to shelters (light map. shelters craters, density kernel mine a as as such shown features are Trenches selected bunkers. with concrete Salient and Ypres emplacements the gun of Map 4. Figure iue 4 Figures & 5 n h al ( table the and ) 2011 ). h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The iue6 Figure iue4 Figure rvd uniaieoeve ftedensity, the of overview quantitative a provide ) 241 n itradsrcue ( structures hinterland and ) niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © iue5 Figure ,which ),

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al.

Figure 5. Map of the Ypres Salient with selected hinterland features. storage depots) (Figure 6). Constraints in the space available here mean that we can only present results for selected categories of features.

Trenches The trenches are the first category of military feature, and of these, more than 3500km were dug. The density of observed features contrasts sharply with the first 30km of the Western Front immediately to the north of this case study area, where only 417km have been identified in an area of comparable size (Stichelbaut 2011). The earliest and most basic trenches are foxholes or slit trenches, which were nothing more than a hole in the ground providing cover for an infantryman. From the beginning of positional warfare in October/November 1914, to the start of the Battle of Messines, trenches were the main components of the defensive system and are among the most frequently excavated war remains in Belgium (Dewilde 2006; Dewilde et al. 2007, 2014; Van Hollebeeke et al. 2014; Gheyle et al. 2016). Trench systems comprised a combination of firing trenches, arranged in successive defensive positions, and communication trenches leading towards them. In © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

242 ysotsrthso rnhsadselhlsta eeue ssetr n transformed and shelters as used were Headquarters (General that firing holes for shell positions places and many vantage trenches in into replaced of depth, were stretches these greater no and short was lines, in by trench it organised uninterrupted addition, have In were to important. defences necessary increasingly longer and becoming strongholds changed bunker doctrine concrete with military the 1917, mid classes. functional by organised features mapped of Overview 6. Figure h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The 243 1918 niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © .Teeselhlsaevery are holes shell These ).

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al.

Figure 7. Allied and German trench networks in relation to the topography and main front lines. difficult to identify, and it is probable that only a small proportion have been identified (Figure 7). Many typological differences can be noted, but the dominant categories are zigzag trenches (Défense Nationale 1925), which make up 59 per cent of the communication trenches, and trenches with U-shaped traverses (e.g. Stichelbaut & Chielens 2013: 191), which make up 39.4 per cent of the standard firing trenches. The close relationship between the natural topography of the landscape and the location of the trenches is evident in Figure 7. All the higher ridges are marked by clusters of trenches and were heavily contested places on the landscape. Visual dominance over the enemy’s field defences was of the utmost importance, and many places such as Hooge, Bellewaarde, The Bluff and Sint-Elooi became © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

244 fGra ukr a aepsil eas fhayatleyfiedrn h Third the on during visibility fire detection their artillery increasing the camouflage, heavy hand, their of other destroyed because effectively the which possible On Ypres, made doctrine. of was Battle military bunkers defensive German more ( of a line front to the linked of reality, part German ranging positions the defensive on into ( recorded was arranged deep were distribution 15km they spatial to but Their area, up boxes. front-line pill the and to bunkers confined as not such constructions, solid more for etrcvr oehv enecvtd u eyltl ean fte xetfrsome for except them of Archaeology remains War little World la very for de but (Association (Ministère excavated, floors ground been wooden the have in Some holes cover. fire. merely better artillery shelters, even open-air and were shrapnel Guerre parapet, weather, these the the of into against lightest incorporated protection not The of if trenches, levels the varying to provided close constructions of numbers Large dugouts and shelters Bunkers, an (Barton in spots mines hot laid these and of tunnels control created sappers gain whereby to warfare, attempt siege intensive of subject the eutdi 0 ag iecaes( craters mine large 300 in resulted l icmtne rrtknimdaeyi aei hudb eertdb h enemy” under the held by be penetrated to be is should line it first case “the in wherein Headquarters war immediately (General the retaken in or early circumstances doctrine all military the with fits arwzn ftece sefrisac tcebu Chielens a & Ypres—comprising Stichelbaut of instance i) Battle for identified: Second (see clearly the trenches be to of can prior zone fronts line narrow main Two front systems evident. Salient’—the trench are Ypres the Salient ‘outer of Ypres the structure the the of level, extent overview the this at and such other, Even Wood. each Polygon upon near during superimposed those were hands periods as changed different trenches of Allied systems and trench German and offensives, mixed with Areas trenches. mapped the rnhsse,wihwsdvlpdfo pi 95t ue11 n osse fseveral of consisted ( and depth 1917 great June in to arranged 1915 positions April from successive developed was which system, trench rnhsgv a oocpe n otfidselhlsised(..Sihlat&Chielens & Stichelbaut (e.g. instead holes organised front, shell German fortified the and 2013 to occupied the close to in especially way trenches places, ongoing gave blue some trenches the In as lines. visible support front is the to system between trench Paaschendaele area Allied towards the offensive, oriented this to Following all referring offensive. are by walkboards) understood wooden easily most and is period 5 This extensive. Figure less were networks trench elpeevdblwtesrae(atr Stichelbaut & (Masters surface the below preserved well tal. et rao prxmtl 8a hwdta errtersetv rns vr7 e etof cent per (Gheyle 79 preserved over been fronts, have respective photographs aerial the on nearer visible that trenches an showed the (covering 28ha) Salient approximately Wijtschate-Messines the of of area part southern the in Comines-Warneton of h aoto h rnhssescnb enin seen be can systems trench the of layout The ssonb eetgohsclivsiain ntesuyae,tetece r very are trenches the area, study the in investigations geophysical recent by shown As 203; : 2013 1916 hr h hl iiayifatutr ie iiayras arwguerailways, narrow-gauge roads, military (i.e. infrastructure military whole the where , iue7 Figure 2016 .Lgtsetr,cmrsn ate n odnroe tutrs provided structures, wooden-roofed and earthen comprising shelters, Light ). Dewilde ; iue4 Figure ). 1918 tal. et ) tiigy h raetnme fcnrt hleswas shelters concrete of number greatest the Strikingly, 7). & ) n i h inrYrsSlet—h otelaborate most Salient’—the Ypres ‘inner the ii) and 6); : h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The 2014 iue4 Figure .Acs td ouigo orstsi h village the in sites four on focusing study case A ). Stichelbaut ; 245 iue7 Figure iue6 Figure iue7 Figure tal. et .AtrteTidBtl fYrs the Ypres, of Battle Third the After ). .Ti ol ersn historical a represent could This ). 2009 tal et 2004 2007a hc hw h ainlt of nationality the shows which , . niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © Stichelbaut ; .Wti h td ra this area, study the Within ). 2016 ) oceewsused was Concrete b). & 2013 ). 06,6) which 69), 60–61, : tal et tal et . 2016 . 2011 ). ;Saey

Research Birger Stichelbaut et al. aerial photographs. Hundreds of deep dugouts (Barton et al. 2004) provided extensive cover at a depth of 5–15m below the surface (Jones 2010), although only a few entrances have been detected on the aerial photographs because they were small and extensively camouflaged.

Logistical landscape In addition to the battlefields and field defences, the aerial photographs and GIS mapping revealed an extensive logistical landscape in which the infrastructure of war that existed to support and maintain the fronts was located and could operate. A large network of narrow- gauge railways and military roads ensured the supply of ammunition, building materials and supplies from the areas at the rear towards the front (Figure 5). Troops were not always in the trenches but also spent considerable time in barracks and military camps located at safe distances from the front (Figure 5). Some buildings and tents are identifiable as aid posts or hospital sites. Their location is revealed by red-cross emblems, which were marked on roofs or on the ground to prevent them from being targeted by the artillery. The mapping of huts and barracks reveals a different approach in housing troops near the front. More barracks and huts can be seen on the Allied side than in German territory (Figures 5 & 6). Temporal analysis has shown that this most probably relates to the build-up of massive numbers of troops due to the Allied 1917 offensives. The extent of the extensive Allied network of (plank) roads and duckboard tracks leading from Ypres to Passchendaele also relates to the 1917 offensive (Figure 5). The road network, which was built between September 1917 and March 1918, is an indication of the complete destruction of this landscape. The landscape had become so badly destroyed that it was otherwise untraversable. The front line in the crater fields could only be accessed by means of these roads and wooden plank boards. Hundreds of war cemeteries have been detected, showing the extent of a funerary landscape that far exceeds that of the present day. Hundreds of German war cemeteries have also been relocated in the post-war years, and human remains have been reburied in large aggregated cemeteries (Dendooven 2006). The discovery of this hidden and lost aspect of the battlefields opens up perspectives for further anthropological research of these landscapes. Farther away from the front, other sites can be identified, such as exercise trench systems mimicking front-line trenches and the battlefield environment by recreating no-man’s land with artificial shell holes. These other hinterland sites include large numbers of ammunition and supply storage dumps and airfields.

Conclusions and future perspectives This article is the first to present collated information from more than 9000 historical aerial photographs focusing on one of Belgium’s most contested landscapes during the First World War. The sheer number of features mapped points to the industrial level of this military landscape and its associated archaeological heritage. The results of our research show, with unprecedented detail, the spatial extent of this war landscape in Belgium and the distribution of a variety of military features, while the data shows clear differences between © Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2017

246 Chielens 2 Barton at: Available Farm. Turco at Excavations 2007b. – Cross 2007a. Archaeology. War World for Association lnesFed uemadtePoic fWs-lnesfrec udn at fti research. References this of paper, parts this funding of each content for West-Flanders the In of on the Province 11/49996), remarks the Subvention their and (SPW for government Museum Walloon Fields reviewers the Flanders anonymous 01G00214), Grant two (GOA the University thank Ghent and to like would authors The be to expected the are of War areas World the First to the limited too only of are Hollebeeke (Van still remains sites have found War is material categories World where It First war-feature themselves into before. mapped battlefields investigations never that the sometimes case of or the Many often sporadically War found. documented World First be archaeologically the to been of remains expected archaeological be where indicates might all of above landscapes and War landscape this World First how identifies also overlap. It periods landscapes. time different Allied and German the Acknowledgements and history places. between meaningful gap literature into the locations historical bridging aerial geographic link remains, thematic converting The material to and for war-feature. actual archaeology, potential the point of the to starting has categories narratives Front and a specific Western sources and on the project heritage to detail mapping approach greater this this photographic much managing of in results for focusing The basis research recognised. robust not a behind or areas provide hinterland overlooked the will ignored, in features are other while front trenches, of the density large the on often too e i éietd aced oae.11.Journal 1915. Zouaves. de Marche de Régiment bis h itrclara htgahcapoc dpe eepoie nudrtnigof understanding an provides here adopted approach photographic aerial historical The Lannoo. Vlaanderen in 1 Wereldoorlog van & (ed.) Dendooven Decoodt D. H. Chielens, P. in ooit, dan meer Spellmount. Staplehurst: lnesFed:tetnelr’wr1914–1918 war tunnellers’ the Fields: Flanders oebr2016). November http://www.a-w-a.be/eng/a19.html 2016). November 11 (accessed at: site. Available excavation dugouts Canadian and roads 2016). fam=3&ref=6&le_id=4273 fr/en/arkotheque/inventaires/ead_ir_consult.php? http://www.memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.gouv. at: Available France. Terre, 837/5. N 26 1915. UnpublisheddocumentheldbytheArméede Juillet Janvier–31 3 marche de , P. , , P. .Doyle P. 06 eLaseGtie e Landschap Het Getuige. Laatste De 2006. http://www.a-w-a.be/eng/index2.html & eLaseGtie e Landschap Het Getuige. Laatste De .Vandewalle J. tal et acse 1November 11 (accessed . –1 Tielt: 9–11. : 2014 2004. . acse 11 (accessed h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The .Ti rae iclragmn hrb h ou sall is focus the whereby argument circular a creates This ). Beneath . 247 06 uhft’ i eErt eedolg Vroeger Wereldoorlog: Eerste de uit Luchtfoto’s 2006. – eMeyer de 1925. Nationale. Défense Cowley Cowley Lannoo. Vlaanderen in 1 Wereldoorlog van (ed.) & Decoodt Dendooven H. D. Chielens, P. in Nu, en of century information A 2003. archaeology & (ed.) photography Meganck M. & in Bourgeois maps, J. trench and photography on aerial based wartime heritage I War World of inventory Nationale. aériennes photographies archives Oltean I. & (ed.) Hanson W. in collection, aerial photographic global a archives: reconnaissance aerial //dx.doi.org/10.1179/1461957112Y.0000000010 uoenJunlo Archaeology of Journal European archaeology. European for archives photographic , , rhelg rmhsoia eiladsatellite and aerial historical from Archaeology D. D. , 33.NwYr:Springer. York: New 13–30. : M , & .Ferguson L. 05 otus n h A19-Project: the and Houthulst 2005. . 79.Get Academia. Ghent: 87–99. : .Stichelbaut B. niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © eLaseGtie e Landschap Het Getuige. Laatste De oiesrléuedes l’étude sur Notice rxle:Défense Bruxelles: . & .Williams A. 02 itrcaerial Historic 2012. . 5 217–36. 15: 4–6 Tielt: 143–46. : Aerial 03 The 2013. . http:

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248 01 h rttit ioerso h etr Front Western the of kilometres thirty first The 2011. – an photography: aerial One War World 2009. – Stichelbaut Stichelbaut Saunders Saey Saey eevd 3Dcme 05 cetd 6Mrh21;Rvsd 1Mrh2016 March 21 Revised: 2016; March 16 Accepted: 2015; December 23 Received: :231–40. 3: Photogrammetrie—Fernerkundung—Geoinformation landscape archaeology. and conflict for a source One: War unique World of imagery aerial overlooked itrclrmt esn data. sensing remote with historical approach archaeological aerial an 1914–1918: University. Ghent dissertation, PhD Unpublished perspective. archaeological http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00093339 Belgian the images. archaeology: to photography aerial War http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/arp.397 Prospection http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00089857 101–08. 1914–2001. War, Great the and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.11.020 .Bourgeois J. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/arp.1437 Prospection War. Archaeological Great the of archaeology landscape to approach non-invasive interdisciplinary Eetvelde WIrlcsadtesi niomn tthe at environment front. soil Western the and relicts between I interaction WW the for account to technique Meirvenne , , T. T. , , .Note N. Stichelbaut B. , N. Antiquity , , B. B. & 02 xaaigmmre:archaeology memories: Excavating 2002. 8 57–66. 18: 06 M sannivsv survey non-invasive a as EMI 2016. . & 06 h plcto fFrtWorld First of application The 2006. .VnMeirvenne Van M. , , .VnEetvelde Van V. Geoderma .Gheyle W. .Bourgeois J. 0 161–72. 80: , .Bourgeois J. 6:39–52. 265: 0 39–44. 20: , .Stichelbaut B. 09 The 2009. . Archaeological Antiquity & 03 An 2013. . .Van M. , h pe ain 1914–1918 Salient Ypres The .Van V. 76: , 249 Stichelbaut context: museum a in perspective aerial The 2016. – Stichelbaut Winton Verdegem a Hollebeeke Van Stichelbaut Stichelbaut rhelg rmabove from archaeology Stichelbaut B. &D.Cowley(ed.) in 1914–1918, Fields Flanders above 1914–1918 Mercator. Fields: Fonds Flanders Bruxelles: In air. the from seen h itrcenvironment and historic photographs the aerial lens: (ed.) the Abicht through M. Landscapes & Standring R. Cowley, in D. Collection, Photograph Aerial Heritage the English and NMP Programmes: Survey National nulse Adsetto,GetUniversity. Ghent dissertation, MA Unpublished Ieperboog. de langs Oorlogspatrimonium van Onderzoek Archeologisch .Bourgeois J. //dx.doi.org/10.1179/1461957114Y.0000000065 Archaeology of Journal (Belgium). European Flanders in archaeology I War professional World of years ten report: archaeological http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.11.020 Salient. Ypres Geography the Applied in craters mine aerial and Historical photographs below. and above from War World Berghe den Eetvelde 6–3 uaet Archaeolingua. Budapest: 265–73. management heritage archaeological (ed.) for Cowley sensing D. in EMI, and aerial photography historical combining Belgium: in heritage Meirvenne Van M. Ashgate. above from archaeology and landscapes , H. , S. & , , , , , B. B. B. B. 07 asrsNs,1914–1918. Nose, Caesar’s 2007. .VnMeirvenne Van M. .Horne n r o H P. , , & & & , 04 rmlnsaeo a to war of landscape From 2014. . niut ulctosLd 2017 Ltd, Publications Antiquity © .Gheyle W. .Saey T. Y .Cowley D. .Chielens n e l e i h C P. .Bourgeois J. ., .Stichelbaut B. 6 64–72. 66: oflc adcpsand landscapes Conflict 01 ol a One War World 2011. . , 00 ainlAcie for Archives National 2010. . 7–1 ana:Ashgate. Farnham: 279–91. : .Meeuws F. –8 xod Oxbow. Oxford: 5–18. : , .Saey T. 2016. . 2013. . 06 h First The 2016. . , 7 702–19. 17: .Note N. , , & .Bourgeois J. .Van V. Conflict h ra War Great The Farnham: . , Remote .Van H. : http: . &

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