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The Character of the Purse: Analyzing tax records and administrative policy from the perspective of Christology in 7th-8th Century Egypt Kurt Gustav Peter Schimke Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Theology at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Dr. Retief Müller April 2019 1 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. April 2019 Copyright © 2019 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved 2 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This dissertation is a qualitative study of literary and documentary evidence driven by a proposition: “Did Historical-Contextual Christological perspectives in seventh and eighth century Egypt have a direct impact on the economic and political relationship with Arabs, specifically as it relates to taxes, and if so, how, and to what extent?” This is a study of historiographical and papyri evidence that answers this question via ecclesiastical discourse involved with the economic (tax) policy of Arab rule from 641 to ~720 with the hope of making the connection between theology and practice. This is a logical expectation, as theologians and administrators of this time period were classically trained in Christology, and so have an identifiable logic or pattern so as to connect ideas to practice. Therefore, the progressive development of both Chalcedonian and Miaphysite Christologies are examined in this study with their direct relationship to the State both before and after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Then in turn the administrative policy of tax administration is evaluated in structure and documentation, with a view towards discovering internal Christological language that indicates motive for action. To further develop the comprehension of this work, case analysis in comparative historical method is used with contemporary Syrian experience. With a holistic view of the internal comparison of available data, I pursue secondary sources in order to analyze primary evidence with extant papyri available. What was also anticipated by looking at this evidence was path dependence, for there was evidence of a persistent administrative structure for government taxes/finances. This study further utilized the construct of ideal- type narrative comparison, by comparing Syria as a value-rational ideal type. This method is used for testing the hypothesis in order to determine the original meaning in context of Egyptian Christology and taxes. Religious statements are indicators of a state of political conflict, as well as for both continuity and change. By observing the conflict via the interaction between disparate theological communities, the precise points of Christological debate identify a points of contact between Christology, the State, and practice. Internal evidence of Syria and Egypt point to a sacerdotal focus of the Eucharist as the point of contact in conflict between Christological confessions. There is also an implied connection from this sacrament to the political world encountered, for resistance in its many forms to a heavy tax burden is passive in nature. The question then remains as to why. The study concludes in the findings that the majority Miaphysite Christology did not have a world and life view (Weltanschauung) which provided an ethic for self-defense in direct opposition to the State, for the Muslim State continued to be viewed as a divine sanction for the activities of the church and its members. The point of resistance then was in seeking political change via the power of the Christ encountered in the sacrament. 3 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I would like to thank the many people and institutions who made this dissertation possible. First and foremost, many thanks to my wife and children for allowing their husband and father to disappear into his “Hobbit Hole” in order to complete this work for such a long period of time. Without their patience, support, and endurance this simply would not have been completed. Also, I would like to thank the administration and staff of the African Bible University of Uganda for their kind permission to take an extended leave, who also encouraged me to take on this work. It was the mutual hope and understanding with the University that this project would benefit the institution and its students, and such a goal gave me a focus on which to persist and endure. No project of this sort is possible without the encouragement of other professionals in the field. In this light I would like to especially thank Dr. Retief Müller for his consistent and enduring encouragement over the years. His advice and comments made the burden lighter and gave me encouragement when I needed it most. Research is impossible without the kindness and generosity of our many supporters who have given faithfully throughout the years in order for our work in Uganda to continue. Without their faithful giving we could not have maintained the family through this period and complete the degree process. I would also like to thank Mr. James Solis, for I have benefitted from his many years of study of the Eastern mindset, and to grasp the dynamic of this particular world of theology. I am indebted to him for his many insights and generosity of his time. To the Lord Jesus Christ, who is the primary focus and subject of this study, “For he is before all things, and by Him all things consist” (Col. 1:17). 4 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 Glossary 7 Introduction 13 1.0 The State of the State in the Stature of Christ: The State of Chalcedonian Christology in 7th Century Egypt 23 1.1 Unity by any Means (and Menas) necessary 38 1.2 Post Conquest Response of the Chalcedonian community to the new State 46 1.3 Worship as measured action in Christology 52 2.0 The State of the State in the stature of Christ: 7th Century Miaphysite Theology in practice 54 2.1 The Focus Point of Offense at Chalcedon 55 2.2 Does the definition of Union in Christ bring about Unity? 68 2.3 The ‘State’ of Unity in the Emperor’s Instrument: The Henotikon 75 2.4 The Middle Voice of Egypt to Justinian, and the Imperative Voice from Justinian 78 2.5 Reacting to Imperial Authority and Creating parallel Hierarchy 88 2.6 Benjamin I: The Separate Hierarchy comes into its Own 101 2.7 Next Crisis: Hierarchy handling few Resources 117 2.8 Monk as Mediator: Spiritual and Material Resources 121 2.9 Managing the Mantle: Clergy and Laity Share the Burden 131 3.0 The State of Understanding of Arab Policy by the Coptic Church 137 3.1 Introduction of System and Response 137 3.2 The System in Broad Context 139 3.3 The Main Point of it all: Military Vigilance 140 3.4 Uncovering a Regional Tax Policy 144 3.5 Dividing the Period by State response to Christian reactions 154 3.6 The Guarantee to Build Trust 166 3.7 Chora and Church with the same Quota 171 5 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.8 Adjusting the Policy and adjusting to it 172 3.9 Communes and Communality: Shared land, Shared taxes 176 3.9.1 A Pious Payment: “First Fruits” tithe guarantee 178 3.9.2 Child Donations: In service to Christ 183 4.0 Narrative comparison with the Syrian Palestinian Experience. 199 4.1 The Arabian Peace? 209 4.2 The Last Byzantine Attempt at Christological Unity in Syria- Monenergism 214 4.3 Post Conquest management of divisions 221 4.4 Holy Bishops Handling Money 239 4.5 Nessana: The Bishop, the State, and the Village: integrated 243 4.6 From South to North: The Flexible Frontier 254 4.7 The Unfriendly Canons: Jacob of Edessa 261 4.8 Conclusion: the non-ideal ideal type 268 5.0 Summary and Analysis: The Eastern Christian mind, and implications of that on Economy and State. 274 5.1 Results and Analysis [part 1]: The Coptic Connection between Theology and Economy. 320 5.1.1 Cyril’s Incarnational Application 321 5.1.2 Severus of Antioch and the Spiritual Via Media 329 5.2 Results and Analysis: [Part 2]: Das Mitte: The Subtle Influence of Subordinationism 332 5.2.1 Caveat Concerns 346 Bibliography 352 6 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Glossary of Terms Acepheloi (“headless ones”): Miaphysite groups who did not recognize the authority of the Patriarch and chose not to appoint their own. Anchoritism/Anchorite: “One who has retired from the world.” A form of Ascetic Monasticism where the monk chooses to live in complete self-sufficient isolation, for the purposes of prayer and meditation. Their cells might be attached to a church or monastic community, but were considered dead to the world, and thus a living Saint. Andrismos: A poll tax on males of a certain age, aner (man) being the Greek root of the term. Aparché: “first fruits” The term has its origin in the Old Testament understanding of bringing the first produce from the harvest of your land to the church or monastery (Lev.23:40; Deut. 26:1-10). The term is euphemistically applied to the tax-rent collection. Aphthartodocetism: Promoted by Julian of Halicarnassus, who denied that Christ’s humanity was precisely our own, perhaps even a phantasm. His guiding presupposition is that for there to be one property of Christ’s nature, then it must be uncorrupted in every sense.
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