Mining and Biodiversity: Rehabilitating Coal Mine Sites
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feature article Mining and Biodiversity Rehabilitating Coal Mine Sites John Rolfe The money currently being spent on environmental rehabilitation at mine sites could be better used to meet other goals such as the promotion of biodiversity. oncerns about environmental impacts have discussed below. These differences raise a number of become widespread over the past four decades. questions about the expectations of the Australian C In most of regional Australia, these concerns have community and governments regarding standards of focussed on the activities of the agricultural and mining environmental protection and the approaches to achieve industries, as these are often the only economic activities it. Among them are the broad issues of whether direct in many regions. regulation remains the best way to control mining The mining industry affects only a very small activities, the extent to which flexible offsets are allowed, proportion of Australia’s landmass (less than 0.1%) but and whether different standards should be allowed across the environmental impacts can be very intense on each different populations. These issues are discussed with site without management. Agriculture has very small scale references to the coal industry. impacts but over large areas, so that the cumulative effects of some environmental impacts, such as salinity risks, can The black coal industry also be substantial. Direct regulation has been the Coal mining is a major industry in Australia, with most dominant approach to addressing and preventing activity located in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales environmental problems in the mining industry, while in and the Bowen Basin in central Queensland. Coal accounts agriculture the levels of regulation tend to be low. for approximately 29% of the value of mineral production The mining industry has become a greater contributor in Australia, and around 11% of the total value of to the Australian economy and to exports than the merchandise exports. To achieve efficiencies of scale, mines agricultural sector. Minerals and metals, for example, are usually large operations, with many producing more account for around 31% of national exports, while than three million tonnes of coal a year. In 1997, Australia agricultural produce accounts for some 20%. With produced 271 million tonnes of coal, and overall approximately one-third of the workforce of agriculture, production has continued to rise. Most coal—72% in and higher growth rates, mining can be characterised as 1997—is produced from open cut mines, but many of an industry with relatively high returns per employee. the new developments are in underground mines using These economic strengths partly explain some longwall equipment. differences in public funding for environmental issues. There are environmental tradeoffs associated with coal The mining industry is routinely expected to pay for its mining, particularly with the open cut mines where large environmental costs, but the public purse is usually opened areas of overburden may need to be removed to expose when it comes to solving problems caused by agriculture. the underlying coal seams. Environmental impacts can The current initiatives to cap bores in the Great Artesian be classified into three broad categories: air pollution and basin and to redress salinity problems across Australia are examples of the latter. There are some very good economic and institutional John Rolfe is Research Coordinator at the Emerald campus reasons why such broad differences exist, and these are of Central Queensland University. 8 MINING AND BIODIVERSITY noise, water quality flowing off the mine site, and regulation and government standards arising from the environmental losses at the mine site. politics surrounding environmental issues at that time. By the 1970s, most mining companies in Australia were Mining companies had a poor public image, and were obligated under their mining lease to address air and water often viewed as being driven by profits and exploiting the pollution concerns, and to rehabilitate mine sites. There natural environment.1 The large size of many companies has since been major progress on all fronts. In the Bowen and foreign ownership issues reinforced some negative basin, for example, most new townships have been built images. Mining companies in turn often accepted the some distance from the mine sites to avoid any noise additional costs of regulation because they wanted impacts. Air pollution and water quality issues are certainty at times of major growth. minimised to the extent that most questions about To a large extent, direct regulation has been very environmental impacts are focused on site rehabilitation. successful in ensuring that mining companies addressed Mining companies routinely rehabilitate their worked environmental issues. The coal industry, for example, has areas, although it is usually impractical to completely a good record in complying with the conditions that have restore areas to their previous landform and condition. been set by successive governments, and there are many Site rehabilitation has usually examples of successful rehabilitation involved returning the land to occurring. agricultural use. In the open cut In the Bowen basin But this has come at a cost. In the mines, the spoil piles need to be in central Queensland, Bowen basin, rehabilitation costs reshaped to fill in voids and mirror coal companies are spending have often been around $40,000 per more natural landforms, and then hectare,2 although these may be lower contoured and topdressed with up to 200 times the depending on the mine site and topsoil before pasture or vegetation value of grazing land on schedule of soil movement. By is planted. comparison, prices for adjoining rehabilitation purposes. grazing land are usually in the $200– Regulating rehabilitation $300 per hectare range. Between The preferred approach to controlling environmental 1990 and 1996, 11,000 hectares of mined areas were problems in the mining industry has been one of direct rehabilitated in Queensland, largely in the coal industry.3 regulation by government. There are a number of reasons In economic terms, the downside of direct regulatory for this relating to the size and specific location of approaches is that environmental outcomes are often set environmental impacts. As past disasters have shown, with little regard for the costs and benefits incurred by failure to consider environmental consequences can have different firms in achieving them. For example, similar very substantial and long term effects. The bare hills goals of rehabilitation tended to be set for open-cut coal around Queenstown in Tasmania and the scars of coal mining operations in the Hunter Valley of New South mining at Mt Leigh in South Australia are a case in point. Wales and the Bowen basin of Central Queensland. Both The large potential risks associated with uranium mines were required to be returned to agriculturally productive adjacent to Kakadu National Park, or at other sites where uses, mostly by the establishment of pasturelands.4 Such there may be downstream effects from air and water rehabilitation is very expensive, particularly the reshaping pollution, are other examples. of the spoil piles. The structure of the mining industry makes direct This can be seen from the Bowen basin example, where regulation relatively easy. It is a large industry comprised coal companies are spending up to 200 times the value of a few companies operating at a limited number of of grazing land on rehabilitation purposes. The locations. As a result, direct monitoring and verification incongruous nature of such expenditure is highest at mines are relatively unproblematic. The profitability of the coal where the rehabilitated areas are probably unsuitable for industry (relative to other sectors of the Australian livestock grazing economy) has also made it possible for companies to meet in any case. This is because of the poor characteristics of the costs of complying with environmental standards. the underlying spoil, the limited amount of topsoil available, the elevation and slope of the final landscape, Misguided regulations and the harsh climatic conditions of the region.5 At many The pattern of environmental regulation was set for mine sites, the regulatory imperative to rehabilitate sites mining in the 1960s and 1970s, with the focus on direct for agricultural use appears to have been misguided. Summer 2000–2001 9 MINING AND BIODIVERSITY Flexible tradeoffs Alternative rehabilitation strategies To evaluate the overall value of mine site rehabilitation, it The regulatory approach to coal mine rehabilitation has is normal to weigh up the benefits and costs of different generated three broad deficiencies. First, there are no clear options, even though some of these may be difficult to guidelines for determining what level of rehabilitation and compare. other environmental impacts are demanded by the general It is clear that zero rehabilitation is not an option, community. Second, it is not clear what the benefits of particularly at some of the mines in the Hunter Valley different rehabilitation options are relative to the costs, where there are major aesthetic and landscape impacts. In and, third, it is not clear that rehabilitation should be the addition, some degree of rehabilitation is normally major focus of environmental resources within local necessary to avoid off-site impacts with issues such as water regions. Each of these deficiencies has been addressed by quality. industry and government in recent years, but much more Yet it is also clear that full restoration of landscapes is can be achieved. not an option. The extremely high costs involved in In Queensland, mining operations are required to moving from rehabilitation to full restoration preclude prepare an Environmental Management Overview this as a viable option.6 At some point between these two Strategy (EMOS) which covers the life of a mine. A Plan extremes, companies and regulators must therefore decide of Operations is also required, which focusses on specific what level of rehabilitation is necessary to meet community operations in shorter time frame (one to five years).