Appendices Appendix a Convict Ships Embarked for Mauritius

Appendices Appendix A Convict Ships Embarked for Mauritius

CONVICT SHIPS EMBARKED FOR MAURITIUS

The following tables list all vessels transporting convicts from the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies to Mauritius between 1815 and 1836, in chronological order. They have been compiled from convict ship indents reproduced in the IOL P (Bengal and Bombay criminal and judicial proceedings) series and, to a lesser extent, the MA Z2D (passenger lists inwards) records.

A 1: Convict ships from Bengal, 1815±28

Vessel Date of Departure Embarked

Lady Barlow 10.9.1815 130 Helen 10.9.1815 106 Charlotte 25.9.1815 15 Po 5.10.1815 40 Susan 20.10.1815 32 Lady Sophia 31.10.1815 40 Greyhound 11.11.1815 40 Lady Elliott 22.1.1816 40 Lord Minto 16.2.1816 40 Union 19.3.1816 16 Po 26.4.1816 12 Swallow 21.7.1816 27 Union 15.9.1816 14 Jessie 27.9.1816 25 Greyhound 16.12.1816 16 Friendship 8.1.1817 11 Magnet 12.2.1817 40 Ceres 28.2.1817 25 Union 21.4.1817 32 John Bull 15.6.1817 5 Charlotte 23.7.1817 40 Ruby 30.8.1817 38 Union 17.9.1817 26 Magnet 14.10.1817 24 Friendship 26.11.1817 36 Anna Robertson 27.1.1818 31 Lord Amherst 19.6.1828 40 Reliance 19.6.1828 39 TOTAL 981

127 128 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

A 2: Convict ships from Bombay, 1826±36

Vessel Date of Departure Embarked

Constance 4.11.1826 16 Constance/Deux Charles 21.11.1827 7 Nerbudda 20.11.1828 2 Royal George n.d. 1829 4 James & Thomas 26.2.1830 27 La Maly n.d. 1830 10 La Navarine 31.5.1831 30 La Navarine 10.3.1832 37 Le Emmee n.d. 1832 7 Deux Sophie n.d. 1832 18 Elphinstone 10.1.1833 32 Le Balguerie 5.6.1833 22 Parkfield 25.10.1833 29 William 13.12.1833 11 Sarah 24.6.1834 32 Le Emmee 7.10.1834 19 Amelia Thompson 23.4.1835 37 Harriet n.d. 1835 18 Le Emmee n.d. 1835 19 Palmira 14.4.1836 48 Mahomodee n.d. 1836 9 TOTAL 534

n.d. ± no exact date of departure recorded.

A 3: Sentences of the Bengal Supreme Court, 1816±27

Year Sentences of Transportation or Life Imprisonment

1816 297 1817 291 1818 260 1819 353 1820 322 1821 278 1822 167 1823 125 1824 156 1825 129 1826 176 1827 154

Source: PP (1831±2) XII. Sentences of the Nizamat Adalat, 1816±27. Appendix B Socio-economic Origin of the Convicts

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ORIGINS OF THE CONVICTS

Ship indents accompanied convicts from Bengal and Bombay, though the former provide by far the most detailed data. The tables below represent an analysis of all available data and, reflecting the originals, are far more complete for Bengal than Bombay convicts. Whilst columns do not always round up to 100, totals have been rounded up to 100 per cent.

CONVICT CRIMES

Although details of almost 100 offences were recorded in the indents (in varying detail) they have been summarised and then collapsed into ten categories for ease of analysis. Where offences were accompanied with actual, as opposed to attempted, murder they have been grouped in the latter category, reflecting the seriousness of the crime.

Burglary: burglary, burglary & attempted theft & wounding, burglary & robbery, burglary & theft & wounding, burglary & wounding. Dacoity (gang robbery): accomplice dacoity, accomplice gang robbery, aggravated gang robbery, associate/member of gang of robbers, dacoity, dacoity & escaping from jail, dacoity & personal injury, dacoity & personal violence, dacoity & handling of stolen goods, dacoity & wounding, gang robbery, gang robbery & personal injury, gang robbery & wounding, gang robbery with violence, gang robbery by night with force, opposing police by force & plundering cattle. Highway robbery: accomplice highway robbery, highway robbery, highway robbery & wounding, highway robbery by open violence. Murder: accomplice murder, accomplice murder & robbery, accomplice theft & murder, aiding & abetting in murder & robbery, aiding in gang robbery & murder, assisting in an attack & accessory to death, attempted gang robbery with murder, concealment of murder, dacoity & murder, gang robbery & murder, gang robbery by night with murder & wounding, highway robbery & murder, manslaughter, multiple charges of gang robbery & murder, murder, robbery & murder, murder & wounding, robbery by night & murder, theft & murder, wilful murder, wilfully & maliciously instigating to commit murder. Piracy: piracy. Robbery: accessory to robbery, accomplice robbery, repeated robbery, robbery, robbery & receiving stolen goods, robbery & wounding. Robbery by open violence: accomplice robbery by open violence, robbery by open violence, robbery by open violence & wounding, robbery by open violence & receiving stolen goods. Thuggee: being a thug, being a thug & performing the office of carrying away & burning the strangled bodies.

129 130 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

Theft: accomplice theft & wounding, theft & attempted murder, theft & wounding. Other: arson, attempted robbery, contumacy, embezzlement, escaping jail, escaping road, harbouring gang robbers, returning from transportation, strangling & attempted murder, treason.

B 1: Comparison of Crimes of Bengal and Bombay Convicts

Bengal Convicts Bombay Convicts Crimes No. % No. %

Burglary 26 2.8 0 0.0 Dacoity/gang robbery 295 31.8 38 17.8 Highway robbery 198 21.3 0 0.0 Murder 28 3.0 98 46.0 Piracy 0 0.0 7 3.3 Robbery 154 16.6 25 11.7 Robbery by open violence 179 19.3 0 0.0 Theft 29 3.1 29 13.6 Thuggee 0 0.0 11 5.2 Other 19 2.0 5 2.3 TOTAL 928 100 213 100

Source: Convict indents.

B 2: Bengal Convicts Convicted in Gangs

No. in gang No. of gangs (no. of convicts)

2 78 (156) 3 45 (135) 4 15 (60) 5 10 (50) 6 7 (42) 7 9 (63) 8 2 (16) 9 4 (36) 10 2 (20) 11 2 (22) 12 2 (24) 14 1 (14)

TOTAL 177 (638)

Source: Convict indents. Socio-economic Origin of the Convicts 131

B 3: Sentences of Bombay convicts

Sentence of Transportation No. %

Life 227 54.9 Life and hard labour 12 2.9 Death commuted to life 4 1.0 14 years 83 20.0 7 years 87 21.1 TOTAL 413 100

Source: Convict indents.

PLACE OF TRIAL

Due to missing values in the original indents, it is only possible to present an analysis of the place of trial of Bengal convicts.

B 4: Bengal Convicts' Place of Trial The distribution has been grouped according to modern Indian states; the figures in brackets denote the number of convicts tried in each.

Bangladesh: Backergunge (44), Dhaka (9), Dhaka Jalalpur (13), Jessore (1), Mymen- singh (3), Rajashahi (74), Rangpur (34), Sylhet (6), Tripura (14). Bihar: Bhagalpur (5), Bihar (13), Patna (3), Purnea (51), Ramgarh (10), Saran (12), Shahabad (6), Trihut (4). Orissa: Cuttack (8). Uttar Pradesh: Agra (33), Aligarh (32), Allahabad (13), Benares (6), Bareilly (22), Bundelkhand (24), Etawa (20), Gorakhpur (8), Jaunpur (9), Kanpur (16), Mirzapur (14), Moradabad (38), Sahabad (1), Saharanpur (40). West Bengal: 24 Parganas (32), Alipore (1), Birbhum (39), Burdwan (5), Hughli (48), Midnapur (35), Murshidabad (5), Nadia (10), districts/suburbs (4). West Bengal/Bangladesh: Dinajpur (87). West Bengal/Bihar: Jangal Mahals (24).

Place of Trial No. %

Bangladesh 198 27.5 Bihar 104 14.4 Orissa 8 1.1 Uttar Pradesh 276 38.3 West Bengal 179 24.8 West Bengal/Bangladesh 87 12.1 West Bengal/Bihar 24 3.3 TOTAL 721 100

Source: Convict indents. 132 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

B 5: Correlation of Bengal Convicts' Place of Trial and Ascribed Caste This graph excludes those convicts for whom either caste or place of trial was not recorded and all convicts described simply as `hindu'. Figures below denote the number of convicts whose place of trial was recorded; those in brackets denote the number of convicts whose caste status was also ascertained and who provide the basis for the following figure. The convicts' places of trial have been grouped together on the basis of their distribution within modern Indian states.

Place of Trial No.

Bangladesh 198 (197) Bihar 104 (66) Orissa 8 (0) Uttar Pradesh 276 (234) West Bengal 179 (127) West Bengal/Bangladesh 87 (75) West Bengal/Bihar 24 (22)

TOTAL 721 Socio-economic Origin of the Convicts 133

ASCRIBED CASTE

The ascribed caste of convicts has been placed in modern caste varna, for ease of analysis, with reference to Risley, The People of India and K. S. Singh, The Scheduled Tribes and The Scheduled Castes; People of India National Series, Volumes III±IV (New Delhi, Oxford University Press: 1994±5). Brahmin (priests & teachers) Kshatriya (rulers & warriors): baidya, bhat, jat, rajput. Vaishya (merchants): abkar, bania/baniya, chhatri, halwai, jogi/jugi, kharwar/kher- war. Shudra (peasants & village servants): ahir, badhi/badi, bagdi, bhar, bharbhunja, chootar/chutar, dhanuk/dhanak, dholi, goala, ghasi, gujjar, haburah, hajjam, hari, kandu, kahar, kaibartta, kamar, kori, kotal, kurmi, lohar, mal, mali, manjhi, maratha, nai, nuniya, pasi, patni, pod, rajbanshi, rajwar, tanti, teli. Dalit (low caste, formerly `untouchable'): chamar, chandal, dhoba/dhobi, dum/dom, koli, lingayat, mahar, mala, muchi, wadi. Adivasi (tribals): bauri, berad, bhil, bhil mussulman, bhumij, bhunjia, bhuimya/ bhuiya, budduck, dhangar, dosad/dusadh, kangar, khoree/kura/kora, kunbi, lodha, mang, matea, mina, naek, pardhi. Muslim: mussulman, afghan, meewatee, mohadund, mughal, pathan, sheikh, syed/sayad.

B 6: Comparison of Bengal and Bombay Convicts' Ascribed Caste

Bengal Convicts Bombay Convicts Religion or caste varna No. % No. %

`Hindu' 72 8.5 3 2.2 Brahmin 33 3.9 3 2.2 Kshatriya 60 7.1 2 1.5 Vaishya 12 1.4 0 0.0 Shudra 264 31.0 9 6.7 Dalit 25 2.9 55 40.7 Adivasi 99 11.6 36 26.7 Muslim 286 33.6 27 20.0 TOTAL 851 100 135 100

Source: Convict indents. 134 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

CONVICT AGES

It should be noted that these ages were often approximations. Of the 434 Bengal convicts aged between 20 and 30 years, for example, the given age of almost two- thirds (282) was either 20, 25 or 30 years old. Of the 134 Bombay convicts for whom age is recorded, 100 were aged either 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 or 60. Numerous convicts brought before the courts for secondary offences after their transportation stated that they did not know their age.

B 7: Comparative Age Distribution of Bengal and Bombay Convicts

Bengal convicts Bombay convicts Age Group No. % No. %

< 21 59 6.3 7 5.2 21±30 211 22.5 59 44.0 31±40 408 43.4 46 34.3 41±50 237 25.2 16 11.9 51±60 21 2.2 4 3.0 61 3 0.3 2 1.5 TOTAL 939 100 134 100

Source: Convict indents. Appendix C Demographic Data

CONVICTS IN MAURITIUS: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

C1: Convict Death Rates, 1815±26

Year No. of convicts at No. of deaths % Total start of year remaining

1815 325 9 2.7 316 1816 580 53 9.1 527 1817 781 59 7.6 723 1818 790 55 7 735 1819 735 49 6.7 686 1820 686 23 3.4 663 1821 663 14 2.1 649 1822 649 10 1.5 639 1823 639 21 3.3 618 1824 618 17 2.8 601 1825 601 18 3 582 1826 582 17 2.9 565

Source: IOL P/139/32 (20 October 1829). Numerical Return of Bengal Convicts, 31 July 1829. There is only scant data on convict death rates after this date. No returns were printed between 1837±40; returns after 1841 are largely incomplete. C2: Convicts' Religious Status

No. of convicts Hindu Muslim Adivasi TOTAL

Bengal 466 286 99 851 Bombay 72 27 36 135 TOTAL 538 313 135 986

Source: Convict indents. C3: Convicts Found Guilty of Secondary Offences

Offences No. of convicts found guilty

Against the person murder 4 attempted murder 3 assault 3 attempted poisoning 1 Against property aggravated robbery 1 robbery 4

135 136 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

(Contd ).

Offences No. of convicts found guilty

Against property robbery & poisoning 1 robbery by violence 2 robbery by night 3 gang robbery 7 gang robbery by violence 1 gang robbery by night 6 attempted gang robbery 1 theft 19 handling stolen goods 2 forgery 3 Arson 1 Selling marijuana 3 Rebellion 16 TOTAL 81

Source: MA JA/JB series: refers to all convicts brought before the Police Correctionelle or Court of Assizes after 1815.

C4: Punishment of Convicts Found Guilty of Secondary Offences

Punishment No. of convicts

Execution 3 Transportation life 1 20 yrs 2 15 yrs 1 10 yrs 2 Hard labour 25 yrs 2 20 yrs 3 12 yrs 1 10 yrs 1 7 yrs 1 5 yrs 2 2 yrs 2 Prison 2 yrs 1 1yr 3 6 months 7 4 months 1 3 months 9 2 months 1 1 month 2 15 days 1 £2 fine 1 Total 47

Source: MA JA/JB series: refers to available data for convicts punished by the Police Correctionelle and Court of Assizes after 1835. Demographic Data 137

C5: Number of Convicts in Mauritius, 1815±48

Year No. of convicts Year No. of convicts

1815 316 1832 unknown 1816 527 1833 unknown 1817 723 1834 986 1818 735 1835 unknown 1819 686 1836 unknown 1820 663 1837 730 1821 649 1838 674 1822 639 1839 640 1823 618 1840 603 1824 601 1841 537 1825 582 1842 497 1826 565 1843 468 1827 548 1844 438 1828 607 1845 406 1829 591 1846 372 1830 611 1847 unknown 1831 unknown 1848 315

Source: IOL P/139/32 (20 October 1829). Return of Bengal Convicts, 1815±29, Department of Roads & Bridges, 31 July 1829; PRO CO167/ 287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847; and, MA RA975. Proceedings of the Medical Board and Classification of the 315 Convicts attached to the Surveyor General's Department, 1 November 1848. These figures record the number of convicts in Mauritius at the end of each year and exclude lepers and maroons. Notes

Chapter 1

1 Anthony J. Barker, Slavery and Antislavery in Mauritius, 1810±33; The Conflict between Economic Expansion and Humanitarian Reform under British Rule (London: Macmillan, 1996); Gwyn Campbell, `Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810±1895', Journal of African History, 22 (1981), 203±27; Marina Car- ter, Ìndian Slaves in Mauritius (1729±1834)', Indian Historical Review, 15, 1±2 (1988±9), 233±47; William Gervase Clarence-Smith, `The Economics of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea Slave Trades in the 19th Century: An Overview', Slavery & Abolition, 9, 3 (December 1988), 1±20; Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993); William Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London: Frank Cass, 1989). 2 McPherson, The Indian Ocean, p. 248. 3 David Eltis, Èuropeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Amer- icas: An Interpretation', American Historical Review, (December 1993), 1408. 4 Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage; White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607±1776 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947). 5 Kenneth Morgan, `The Organisation of Convict Trade to Maryland, Steven- son, Randolph and Cheston', William & Mary Quarterly, 42, 2 (April 1985), 202±4. On convicts in the Americas see also George W. Cable, The Silent South (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1969); A. Roger Ekirch, `Bound for America: A Profile of British Convicts Transported to the Colonies, 1718±1775', William & Mary Quarterly, 42, 2 (April 1985), 184±200; A. Roger Ekirch, Bound for America; The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718±1775 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987); Morgan, `The Organisation of Con- vict Trade'; Kenneth Morgan, `Convict Runaways in Maryland, 1745±75', Journal of American Studies, 23 (August 1989), 253±68; Wilfred Oldham, Brit- ain's Convicts to the Colonies (Sydney: Library of Australian History, 1990), chapters 1 and 2; and, A. G. L. Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland to Australia and Other Parts of the British Empire (London: Faber & Faber, 1966), pp. 21±37. 6 Eltis, Èuropeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Americas', 1408. Eltis calculates that up to 1770, the number of convict arrivals was at least two thirds of the total number of slave arrivals. 7 Deborah Oxley, Convict Maids: The Forced Migration of Women to Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 3. 8 See Clare Anderson, Ùnfree Labour and its Discontents: Transportation from Mauritius to Australia, 1825±1845', Australian Studies, 13, 1 (1998) 116±33 ; Ian Duffield, `From Slave Colonies to Penal Colonies; the West Indians Transported to Australia', Slavery & Abolition, 7, 1 (1986), 25±45; Ian Duffield, `The Life and Death of ``Black'' John Goff: Aspects of the Black Convict

138 Notes 139

Contribution to Resistance Patterns during the Transportation Era in Eastern Australia', Australian Journal of Politics and History, 33, 1 (1987), 30±44; Ian Duffield, `Naming Namoroa', unpublished paper presented at Africans & Caribbeans in Britain: Writing, History & Society. A Conference in Celebra- tion of Paul Edwards, University of Edinburgh: 1994; Leslie C. Duly, ` ``Hot- tentots to Hobart and Sydney'': The Cape Supreme Court's Use of Transportation, 1828±38', Australian Journal of Politics & History, 25, 1 (1979), 39±50; J. Jupp (ed.), The Australian People: An Encyclopaedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins (North Ryde: Angus & Robertson, 1988); and, V. C. Malherbe, `Khoikhoi and the Question of Convict Transportation from the Cape Colony, 1820±1842', South African Historical Journal,17 (November 1985), 19±39. 9 See: Manning Clark, A History of Australia (London: Pimlico, 1998) and Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies. For a critique, see Stephen Nicholas (ed.), Convict Workers; Reinterpreting Australia's Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chapter 1. 10 Nicholas (ed.), Convict Workers and Oxley, Convict Maids. 11 See Joy Damousi, Depraved and Disorderly; Female Convicts, Sexuality and Gen- der in Colonial Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Ian Duffield and James Bradley (eds), Representing Convicts; New Perspectives on Convict Forced Labour Migration (London: Leicester University Press, 1997); Barry Dyster (ed.), Beyond Convict Workers (Sydney: University of New South Wales, 1996); Raymond Evans and William Thorpe, `Power, Punishment and Penal Labour; Convict Workers and Moreton Bay', Australian Historical Studies, 25, 98 (1992), 90±111; and, K. M. Reid, `Work, Sexuality and Resistance; The Convict Women of Van Diemen's Land, 1820±1839', PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh (1996). 12 Stephen Nicholas and Peter R. Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migra- tion', in Nicholas (ed.), Convict Workers, pp. 28±42. 13 Eltis, `Europeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Americas', 1407±11. 14 Nicholas and Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migration', p. 30. On proposals to set up penal settlements on the Gold Coast and in Senegambia during the 1780s, see Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780±1850 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), pp. 88±95. 15 Nicholas and Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migration', pp. 31±2. 16 This figure is based on Nicholas and Shergold's calculations of approximately 4,000±6,000 convicts transported to Bencoolen, 16,500 to the Straits Settle- ments (a conservative estimate), totalled with the 1,500 convicts sent to Mauritius and approximately 75,000±100,000 to the Andaman Islands (Nicholas and Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migration', p. 30) and calculations made by Satadru Sen, `Punishment and Society in Colonial India: The Penal Settlement in the Andaman Islands, 1858±1898', PhD thesis, University of Washington, Seattle (1998). Taken together with the figures for convicts transported to the Americas after 1717, Australia, Gibraltar and Bermuda, the total number of convicts transported by Britain, in 1717±1937 (when transportation to the Andaman Islands ceased), totals at least 325,000. 140 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

17 Little has been published in this field since the early 1980s. See N. Rajendra, `Transmarine Convicts in the Straits Settlements', Asian Profile, 11, 5 (October 1983), 509±17; Kernial Singh Sandu, `Tamil & Other Indian Convicts in the Straits Settlements, A.D. 1790±1873', Proceedings of the First International Tamil Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Volume I (Kuala Lumpur: Interna- tional Association of Tamil Research, 1968), pp. 197±208; Kernial Singh Sandu, Indians in Malaya: Some Aspects of their Immigration & Settlement (London: Cambridge University Press, 1969); and C. M. Turnbull, `Convicts in the Straits Settlements 1826±1867', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Malayan Branch, 43, 1 (1970), 87±103. Another nineteenth-century volume, written by the Superintendent of Convicts in Singapore, provides some interesting insights: J. F. A. McNair, Prisoners Their Own Warders: A Record of the Convict Prison at Singapore in the Straits Settlements established 1825, Discontinued 1873, together with a Cursory History of the Convict Establishments at Bencoolen, Penang and Malacca from the Year 1797 (Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co., 1899). H. L. Adam's The Indian Criminal (London: John Milne, 1909) also discusses the settlements in some depth. 18 See S. N. Aggarwal, The Heroes of Cellular Jail (Patiala, Punjab: Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, 1995); F. A. M. Dass, The Andaman Islands (Ban- galore: Good Shepherd Convent Press, 1937); L. P. Mathur, Kala Pani; History of Andaman and Nicobar Islands With a Study of India's Freedom Struggle (New Delhi: Eastern Book Corporation, 1985); R. C. Majumdar, Penal Settlement in Andamans (New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, 1975); and N. Iqbal Singh, The Andaman Story (New Delhi: Vivek, 1978). On convicts in the Andamans during the nineteenth century, see Sen, `Punishment and Society in Colonial India'. Additionally, several early twentieth-century travelogues mention the convicts. See Mrs Talbot Clifton, Pilgrims to the Isles of Penance; Orchid Gathering in the East (London: John Long Ltd, 1911) and C. Boden Kloss, Andamans and Nicobars (Delhi: Vivek, 1971 [first published 1902]). Perhaps the most important contemporary account is M. V. Portman, A History of Our Relations With the Andamanese: Compiled from Histories and Travels, and from the Records of the Government of India, Volumes I and II (Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1899). Portman was Officer in Charge of the Andamanese at the time. Primarily concerned with a history of the indigenous population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Portman writes extensively about the convict settlement there. 19 See Robert Miles, Capitalism & Unfree Labour, Anomaly or Necessity? (London: Tavistock, 1987), pp. 172±3, for a discussion of the importance of convict labour in the colonies. He argues unfree labour of various kinds was necessary for capitalist expansion. 20 David Meredith, `Full Circle: Contemporary Views on Transportation', in Nicholas (ed.), Convict Workers, p. 23. 21 Barker, Slavery and Antislavery, chapter 3. 22 Auguste Toussaint and P. J. Barnwell, A Short History of Mauritius (London: Longmans, 1949), pp. 14±15. 23 H. Ly-Tio-Fane and D. Harah, `Indian Convicts in Mauritius 1816±1853', in Uttam Bissoondoyal (ed.), Indians Overseas: The Mauritian Experience (Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Gandhi Institute Press, 1984), p. 205. Notes 141

24 B. Bissoondoyal, The Truth about Mauritius (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1987), p. 25. 25 Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834±1874 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 7. The figure of 100,000 non-white convicts is a conservative estimate. 26 PRO CO172.42. Baron d'Unienville, Tableaux de Statistiques, tableau no. 6. 27 Nora Barlow (ed.), Charles Darwin's Diary of the Voyage of the H. M. S. `Beagle' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933), p. 403. Darwin calculated sugar production had increased 75-fold during the period of British administration. 28 Nicholas and Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migration', p. 32. 29 PP 1875 XXIV. Mauritius (Treatment of Immigrants): Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Treatment of Immigrants in Mauritius, 27. 30 Barlow (ed.), Charles Darwin's Diary, pp. 401±2. 31 Barlow (ed.), Charles Darwin's Diary, p. 402. 32 Mrs Bartrum, Recollections of Seven Years Residence at the Mauritius, or Isle of France; By a Lady (London: James Cawthorn, Cockspur-Street, 1830), pp. 123±4. Mrs Bartrum lived in the colony between 1820 and 1827. 33 Jyotsna G. Singh, Colonial Narratives/Cultural Dialogues; `Discoveries' of India in the Language of Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 2±3. 34 Mary Louise Pratt, `Scratches on the Face of the Country; or, What Mr Barrow Saw in the Land of the Bushmen', in Henry L. Gates (ed.), `Race', Writing & Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 139. 35 Patrick Beaton, Creoles and Coolies; Or, Five Years in Mauritius (New York: Kennikat Press, 1971 [first published 1849]), p. 179. 36 Johann Lavater's eighteenth-century Physiognomische Fragmente (1775±8), translated as Essays on Physiognamy, claimed `optic power' in reading the face. For an illuminating discussion of Lavater and his detractors, see: Michael Shortland, `Skin Deep: Barthes, Lavater and the Legible Body', Eco- nomy & Society, 14, 3 (1985), 273±312. 37 See: Crispin Bates, `Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: the Early Origins of Indian Anthropometry', in P. Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 219±57. There is an extensive literature on the importance attached to `race' in the recruitment and utilisa- tion of labour. See, for example, Syed Hussein Alatas, The Myth of the Lazy Native: A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos, and Javanese from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century and its Functions in the Ideology of Colonial Capitalism (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Crispin Bates and Marina Carter, `Tribal and Indentured Migrants in Colonial India: Modes of Recruitment and Forms of Incorporation', in P. Robb (ed.), Dalit Movements and the Mean- ings of Labour in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 159±85; Jan Bremen, Taming the Coolie Beast: Plantation Society and the Colonial Order in Southeast Asia (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989); C. C. Crais, White Supremacy & Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa: The Making of the Colonial Order in the Eastern Cape, 1770±1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); David Dabydeen and Brinsley Samaroo (eds), India in the Carribean (London: Hansib, 1987); and, P. C. Emmer, `The Meek Hindu; the Recruitment of Indian Indentured Labourers for Service Overseas, 142 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

1870±1916', in P. C. Emmer (ed.), Colonialism and Migration; Indentured Labour before and after Slavery (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986), pp. 187±207. 38 Personal communication from Lady F. Cole to Lady Florence Balfour (first letter from Mauritius), 28 June 1823, cited in Maud Lowry Cole and Stephen Gwynn (eds), Memoirs of Sir Lowry Cole (London: Macmillan, 1934), p. 206. 39 FrancËois Jacques Marie Auguste Billiard, Voyages aux Colonies Orientales, Ou Lettres Ecrit des Ãõles de France et de Bourbon pendant Les AnneÂes 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820 (Paris: Librarie FrancËaise de l'Advocat, 1822), pp. 30±1. 40 James Backhouse, A Narrative of a Visit to the Mauritius and South Africa (London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1844), p. 35. 41 Charles Pridham, England's Colonial Empire: An Historical, Political and Stat- istical Account of the Empire, its Colonies, and Dependencies; Vol. 1, The Mauritius and its Dependencies (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1846), p. 99. 42 PP 1875 XXIV. Report of the Royal Commissioners, 26±7. 43 Sturma argues that the characterisation of `lewd conduct' amongst convicts in the Australian colonies originated in the conflict between bourgeois sens- ibilities and working-class practices. See M. Sturma, Vice in a Vicious Society: Crime and Convicts in mid-Nineteenth Century New South Wales (London: Uni- versity of Queensland Press, 1983). For a recent exploration of the `picar- esque' lifestyle of transported convicts in Sydney, see Grace Karskeens, The Rocks: Life in Early Sydney (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1997), chapters 6±8. On the `bawdiness' of female convicts, see Damousi, Depraved and Disorderly, chapters 2±3. 44 Moonindra Nath Varma, Indian Immigrants and their Descendants in Mauritius (Vacoas, Mauritius: published by the author, 1973), pp. 16±17. 45 Bissoondoyal, The Truth about Mauritius, pp. 19±23. 46 A. R. Mannick, Mauritius: The Development of a Plural Society (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1979), p. 39. 47 K. Hazareesingh History of Indians in Mauritius (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 20. 48 Moomtaz Emrith, History of the Muslims in Mauritius (Vacoas, Mauritius: Editions le Printemps, 1994), pp. 20±2.

Chapter 2

1 IOL P/132/13 (7 November 1815). J. Eliot, Magistrate of Calcutta, to M. H. Turnbull, Registrar of the Nizamat Adalat, 18 September 1815. 2 Nicholas and Shergold, `Transportation as Global Migration', p. 30. 3 IOL P/128/7 (20 December 1793). H. Barlow, Registrar of Nizamat Adalat, to E. Hay, Secretary to Government, 20 November 1793. 4 See, for example: IOL P/128/12 (25 July 1794). J. Duncan, Resident Benares, to G. M. Barlow, Secretary to Government, 10 July 1794. 5 Jorg Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of the Bengal Criminal Law, 1769±1817 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1983), pp. 53, 61 and 72. 6 Ibid. After a case in 1821, it was discovered that this regulation contained a loophole. Those apprehended after the two-month period prescribed by the proclamation could only be tried for contumacy, and not for a specific Notes 143

offence of dacoity. Thus they could only be transported for life, not sentenced to death as they would have been if liable to the specific crime. This was amended by Regulation V (1822). PP 1824 XXIII. Regulation V (Bengal) 1808: A Regulation for amending certain provisions of Regulation IX, 13 June 1822. 7 Tapas Kumar Banerjee, Background to Indian Criminal Law (Calcutta: R. Cam- bray & Co., 1990), pp. 93±4 and 362. 8 Resolution of the Government at Fort William, 10 December 1811, cited in Banerjee, Background, pp. 94±5. 9 Clause Third, Section II, Regulation IX, 1813, cited in Fisch, Cheap Lives,p. 78. 10 PP 1819 XIII. Papers relating to East India Affairs: Viz. Regulations Passed by the Governments of Bengal, Fort St. George and Bombay, in the Year 1816: Regulation XV, 18 May 1816. 11 See Appendix A 1. 12 PP 1819 XIII. Regulation XVII (Bengal) 1817: a regulation to provide for the more effectual administration of criminal justice in certain cases, 16 Septem- ber 1817. See also Fisch, Cheap Lives, pp. 73 and 95. 13 PP 1829 XXIII. Regulation I (Bombay): a regulation for forming into a regular code all rules that may be enacted for the internal government of the territories subordinate to the Presidency of Bombay, 1 January 1827. See also Teresa Albuquerque, Bombay: A History (New Delhi: Rashna & Co., 1992), pp. 59±60. 14 See Appendix A 2. 15 IOL P/401/32 (21 September 1836). Memorandum by the Secretary to Gov- ernment ( J. P. Willoughby) 10 August 1836. 16 Thomas R. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 6. 17 Fisch, Cheap Lives, pp. 125 and 135. 18 Metcalf, Ideologies, pp. 9, 17, 93, 103±4 and 172. See also Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 31±4. 19 Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800±1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 4. See also Peter Robb, `Introduction: South Asia and the Concept of Race' and Susan Bayly, `Caste and ``Race'' in the Colonial Ethno- graphy of India', in Robb, ed., The Concept of Race, pp. 1±76 and 165±218. For some observers, castes were `races'. 20 See, for example, Bates, `Race, Caste and Tribe'; Lucy Carroll, `Colonial Perceptions of Indian Society and the Emergence of Caste(s) Associations', Journal of Asian Studies, 37, 2 (February 1978), 233±51; Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); and, Nicholas B. Dirks, `The Invention of Caste: Civil Society in Colonial India', Social Analysis, 25 (1989), 42±53. For an analysis of caste mobility, see Pradip K. Bose, `Mobility and Conflict: Social Roots of Caste Violence in Bihar', in Dipankar Gupta, ed., Social Stratification (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 369±86. 21 Michael R. Anderson, `Islamic Law and the Colonial Encounter in British India', in David Arnold and Peter Robb, eds, Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader (Richmond: Curzon Press, 1993), p. 180. 144 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

22 IOL F/4/534. Extract Judicial Letter from Bengal, enclosing: Act 53 George 3rd Cap 155-Sec 121, 7 October 1815. 23 See Appendix B 4. 24 IOL P/400/34 (10 March 1830). List of convicts per General Barnes, 26 February 1830 and IOL P/400/54 (14 March 1832). H. Roper, Marine Department, to J. Bax, Secretary to Government Bombay, 10 March 1832. 25 MA Z2D/4 no. 285. Passenger lists inwards, 31 August 1829; IOL P/400/45/65 (31 May 1831, 13 June and 6 November 1833). Lists of convicts per La Navarine, Le Balguerie and Parkfield, 31st May 1831, 5th June and 25th Octo- ber 1833; and, IOL P/401/4 (8 October 1834). List of convicts per Emmee,7 October 1834. 26 IOL P/400/65 (6 November 1833). List of convicts per Parkfield, 25 October 1833. 27 Kala pani: the sea, literally `black water'. Convict ships were referred to as jeta junaza: `living tombs'. 28 David Arnold, `The Colonial Prison: Power, Knowledge, and Penology in 19th Century India', in David Arnold and David Hardiman, eds, Subaltern Studies VIII; Essays in Honour of Ranajit Guha (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 175. This might be contrasted with the belief, in the British context, that transportation was an effective punishment because convicts feared expatriation. David Meredith, `Full Circle: Contemporary Views on Transporta- tion', in Nicholas (ed.), Convict Workers, pp. 16±18. 29 Fisch, Cheap Lives, pp. 59±62. 30 IOL P/129/6 (31 May 1804). S. M. Threipland, East India Company Counsel, to J. A. Grant, Secretary to Government Bombay, 4 May 1804. Of course, in the British context, fears of the unknown and of expatriation were central to transportation as a punishment. Meredith, `Full Circle', pp. 16±18. 31 Adam, The Indian Criminal, p. 52. 32 On the formation of British perceptions, see Robb, `Introduction', in Robb, ed., The Concept of Race. 33 N. Majumdar, Justice and Police in Bengal, 1765±1793; A Study of the Nizamat in Decline (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1960), pp. 236±43 and 329±31. It is worth noting that the first batch of convicts sent to the Andamans in 1794 included a large number of Brahmins whose sentences of death had been commuted to transportation. 34 Fisch, Cheap Lives, p. 49. 35 Radhika Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 102±3. 36 PP 1819 XIII. Regulation XVII (Bengal) 1817, 16 September 1817. 37 PP 1829 XXIII. Regulation XIV (Bombay) 1827: A Regulation for defining crimes and offences and specifying the punishments to be inflicted for the same, 1 January 1827 (section iv, clause 5th). 38 Robb, `Introduction', in Robb, ed., The Concept of Race, pp. 51±6. 39 Arnold, `The Colonial Prison', pp. 151±3. See also Anand Yang, `Disciplining ``Natives'': Prisons and Prisoners in Early Nineteenth-century India', South Asia, 10, 2 (1987), 29±45. 40 IOL P/400/73 (2 April 1834). J. P. Willoughby, Political Agent Katty- war (Gujarat), to C. Norris, Secretary to Government Bombay, 10 March 1834. Notes 145

41 PP 1830 XXVIII. A Regulation for empowering the Governor-General to commute Sentences of Imprisonment for Life in the Allypore Gaol, to Trans- portation for Life to any of the British Settlements in Asia, in certain cases, 10 April 1828. See also MA RA341. J. Master, Superintendent of Alipore Jail, to H. Shakespear, Chief Secretary to Government Bengal, 27 May 1828. 42 The interplay between western and Indian ideologies of caste is the starting point of Bayly's essay `Caste and ``Race'' ', in Robb, ed., The Concept of Race. 43 See Appendix B 6. 44 25,000 (one-sixth) of the 160,000 convicts transported to the Australian colonies were women. See Alastair Davidson, The Invisible State; The Formation of the Australian State 1788±1901 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 49. For a detailed study of the transportation of women to New South Wales, see Oxley, Convict Maids. 45 David Arnold, `Dacoity and Rural Crime in Madras, 1860±1940', Journal of Peasant Studies, 6 (1979), 166±7. My own ongoing research suggests that the overwhelming majority of female convicts transported to Southeast Asia were convicted of infanticide. On colonial regulation of infanticide, see Singha's excellent discussion of the domestic sphere: A Despotism of Law, pp. 130±6. 46 Fisch, Cheap Lives, p. 106. 47 IOL E/4/695 (2 February 1819). R. T. Farquhar, Governor of Mauritius, to the Earl of Moira, Governor-General of India, 27 May 1815. 48 IOL E/4/695 (2 February 1819). Paragraphs 108±9. 49 IOL E/4/695 (2 February 1819). Earl of Moira to R. T. Farquhar, 11 September 1815. 50 IOL P/132/13 (20 November 1815). List of convicts per Susan, 20 October 1815. 51 IOL P/401/1 (25 June 1834). List of convicts per Sarah, 24 June 1834. See also her petition for liberation: MA RA1148. The Petition of Ragoo, a Female Convict, 13 January 1851. 52 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 53 IOL P/401/26 (20 April 1836). List of convicts per Palmira, 14 April 1836. 54 In an earlier pamphlet, Suggestions, Arising from the Abolition of the African Slave Trade, for Supplying the Demands of the West India Colonies with Agricul- tural Labourers (London: John Stockdale, 1807), Farquhar suggested that Chinese labourers be imported into the West Indies at the expense of the plantation owners who would, he argued, realise that it was in their interests to pay their passage. 55 IOL E/4/695 (2 February 1819). Paragraphs 112±13. 56 MA RA301. Governor's Minute no. 26, 19 February 1825. 57 PRO CO167/123. Commission of Eastern Enquiry 1828: Departments of Government & Finance, 15 December 1828. 58 IOL P/401/3 (17 September 1834). G. F. Dick, Secretary to Government Mauritius, to W. H. Wathen, Secretary to Government Bombay, 17 September 1834. 59 IOL P/400/45 (25 May 1831). Abstract of a Petition from Meryum Wife of Shaik Looffee of Malabar a convict, 1 May 1831 and J. Bax, Secretary to Government Bombay, to Meryum, 19 May 1831. 146 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

60 There are no further details of the trial. 61 IOL P/139/57 (14 December 1830). Death Certificate of Emma Davis, 3 June 1830. 62 PRO CO170/2. Minutes of Council of Government, 15 and 22 October 1828. 63 IOL P/139/23 (17 March 1829). G. A. Barry, Secretary to Government Mau- ritius, to H. Shakespear, 7 August 1828. 64 IOL P/139/23 (17 March 1829). W. H. Smoult, Clerk of the Supreme Court, to H. Shakespear, 12 March 1829. 65 MA RA417. J. Finniss, Chief of Police Mauritius, to G. A. Barry, Colonial Secretary Mauritius, 19 November 1829. 66 MA RA416. H. Hart, Surgeon to Police, to J. Finniss, 22 October 1829. 67 MA RA431. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, 5 June and 7 September 1830. 68 For a re-evaluation of his contribution, see Anthony Webster, `British Expansion in South-East Asia and the Role of Robert Farquhar, Lieutenant- Governor of Penang, 1804±5', Journal of International & Commonwealth History, 23, 1 (January 1995), 1±25. 69 Sandu, Indians in Malaya, pp. 132±40; Sandu, `Tamil and Other Indian Convicts', p. 203; and, Rajendra, `Transmarine Convicts', pp. 510±11. 70 PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 18 July 1818, enclosing: Minute on the Employment of Convicts from India. 71 IOL F/4/534 (29 December 1814). R. T. Farquhar to the Earl of Moira, 20 September 1814. 72 See Anthony J. Barker, `Distorting the Record of Slavery & Abolition: The British Anti-Slavery Society Movement & Mauritius, 1826±37', Slavery & Abolition, 14, 3 (December 1993), 185±207; Barker, Slavery and Antislavery; and, Moses D. E. Nwulia, The History of Slavery in Mauritius and the Seychelles, 1810±1875 (New Jersey: Associated University Presses, 1981), p. 71. 73 The term `inhabitants' signifies planter (landowning) interests in Mauritius. 74 IOL F/4/534 (29 December 1814). R. T. Farquhar to the Earl of Moira, 20 September 1814. 75 Similarly, it has been argued that, in attempting to establish political authority, Farquhar connived with French planters to allow an illegal slave trade to continue in Mauritius. See Barker, Slavery and Antislavery. 76 IOL E/4/695 (2 February 1819). Paragraph 111. 77 IOL P/131/59 (18 April 1815). J. Eliot, Magistrate of Calcutta, to W. B. Bayley, Secretary to Government Bengal, 17 April 1815 and IOL P/132/13 (7 Novem- ber 1815). J. Eliot to M. H. Turnbull, 18 September 1815. 78 IOL P/132/13 (7 November 1815). J. Eliot to M. H. Turnbull, 18 September 1815. 79 MA RA137. F. Rossi, Head of Convict Department, to G. A. Barry, 5 June 1820. 80 IOL P/132/13 (7 November 1815). J. Eliot to M. H. Turnbull, 18 September 1815. 81 IOL P/132/20 (22 March 1816). List of convicts per Union, 19 March 1816. 82 IOL P/132/1 (23 May 1815). R. T. Farquhar to the Earl of Moira, 6 April 1815. 83 IOL P/133/22 (10 March 1818). R. T. Farquhar to Marquis Hastings, 28 October 1817. 84 Ibid. R. T. Farquhar to Marquis Hastings, 10 November 1817. Notes 147

85 IOL P/133/24 (14 April 1818). W. B. Bayley to C. R. Barwell, Acting Magis- trate Suburbs of Calcutta, 6 April 1818. 86 IOL P/139132 (20 October 1829). `Numerical Return of Bengal Convicts showing the Casualties that have occurred from the year 1815 to 31st July 1829 inclusive', Department of Roads & Bridges Mauritius, 31 July 1829. This relatively low rate might be connected to the high rates in the Indian prisons, in that only those convicts who had survived their experience in jail were embarked. 87 Nicholas and Shergold, `Convicts as Migrants', p. 47. 88 Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers, pp. 133±4. 89 Albert Pitot, L'IÃle Maurice: Esquisses Historiques, Vol. I (1810±1823) (Port Louis: Coignet FreÁres & Cie, 1910), p. 187. 90 See Appendix C 1. Indentured labour followed the convict mortality pat- tern. Approximately 14 per cent of adult male migrants died within five years of arrival in Mauritius. Thereafter, survival rates improved dramatic- ally. Marina Carter, Voices from Indenture; Experiences of Indian Migrants in the British Empire (London: Leicester University Press, 1996), p. 51. 91 MA RA168. R. T. Farquhar to Marquis Hastings, 31 August 1820. 92 On the frequency of sentences of transportation passed in the Bengal Pres- idency, see Appendix A 3. 93 IOL P/136/65 (5 May 1825). G. A. Barry to W. B. Bayley, 21 February 1825. 94 IOL P/324/3 (20 December 1825). G. A. Barry to J. M. Macleod, Secretary to Government Fort St. George, 14 June 1825. 95 IOL P/324/3 (20 December 1825). J. Stokes, Secretary to Government Fort St. George, to G. A. Barry, 20 December 1825. 96 MA RA65. D. Greenhill, Acting Secretary to Government Bombay, to G. A. Barry, 8 November 1826. 97 IOL P/400/8 (15 August 1827). W. Blanc, Acting Chief Secretary to Govern- ment Mauritius, to D. Greenhill, 17 February 1827. 98 IOL P/399/62 (19 July 1826). H. H. Glass, Second Registrar of Nizamat Adalat, to D. Greenhill, 7 July 1826. 99 MA RA301. Governor's Minute no. 26, 19 February 1825. 100 IOL P/399/58 (19 April 1826). Criminal Judge of Tannah to D. Greenhill, 5 April 1826. 101 Following sentencing to transportation to Australia in the UK, there were attempts at further selection in the hulks, to weed out the elderly, unfit and, in the case of women, those beyond menopause. It has been calculated that 56 per cent of the convicts transported to the Australias were aged between 16 and 25 years. Nicolas and Shergold, `Convicts as Migrants', p. 47. 102 See Appendix B 7. 103 IOL P/401/3 (17 September 1834). G. F. Dick to W. H. Wathen, 14 August 1834. The reference to mutilation also reveals prior offences, not usually recorded in the ship indents. 104 IOL P/401/19 (27 October 1835). G. F. Dick to C. Norris, 29 August 1835. 105 IOL P/401/32 (21 September 1836). Memorandum by the Secretary ( J. P. Willoughby), 30 August 1836. 106 PRO CO54/46. Governor R. Brownrigg to the Earl of Liverpool, 21 January 1813 and R. Brownrigg to Lord Minto, 18 September 1812. 148 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

107 Ibid. R. Brownrigg to the Earl of Liverpool, 21 January 1813, enclosing a letter from W. Coke, Puisne Justice, 13 September 1812. 108 PRO CO54/70. R. Brownrigg to Lord Bathurst, 2 February 1818, enclosing extract of a General Letter from the Court of Directors to Prince of Wales Island, 28 May 1817. 109 PRO CO54/74. R. Brownrigg to Lord Bathurst, 2 August 1819. 110 PRO CO54/77. Governor E. Barnes to R. T. Farquhar, 3 October 1820. 111 PRO CO54/89. R. T. Farquhar to E. Barnes, 10 February 1821. 112 MA RA59. Secretary to Government Ceylon, to G. A. Barry, 17 December 1825. 113 No ship indents survive. 114 MA RA387. W. Staveley, Head of Department of Roads & Bridges Mauritius, to G. A. Barry, 8 December 1828. 115 MA RA198. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, enclosing `Nominative List of Convicts from Ceylon, 7 February 1822' and MA RA59. G. Luiden to G. A. Barry, 13 May & 17 December 1825. 116 MA RA59. G. Lusignan, Secretary Kandyan Provinces, to G. A. Barry, 13 May 1825, enclosing `Warrant for the transportation of Nial Gullia Lokuralle and his wife Hude to Mauritius, 10 October 1822'. 117 An almost complete set of these indents exists in the IOL P. Bengal series. 118 IOL P/132/07 (13 September 1815). Convicts per Lady Barlow, 10 September 1815. Godna was the tattooing/branding of convicts on the forehead with their name, crime and date of sentence, in the vernacular language. For a fuller discussion, see my own `Godna: Inscribing Indian Convicts in the Nineteenth Century', forthcoming in Jane Caplan, ed., Writing on the Body: the Tattoo in European and North American History (London: Reaktion, 2000). 119 IOL P/132/29 (22 July 1816). Convicts per Swallow, 21 July 1816. 120 IOL P/400/49 (19 October 1831). W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 25 July 1831. 121 IOL P/400/49 (19 October 1831). J. Bax to G. A. Barry, 18 October 1831. 122 Unfortunately, many of these indents are not recorded in the IOL P. Bombay series. 123 For a discussion of the emergence of the `criminals by birth', see Bates, `Race, Caste and Tribe'; Bayley, `Caste and ``Race'' '; Sanjay Nigam, `Disciplining and Policing The ``Criminals by Birth'', Part 2', Indian Economic and Social History Review, 27, 3 (July±September 1990), 260±3; Radhika Singha, ` ``Providential'' Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation', Modern Asian Studies, 27, 1 (1993), 92±3; and, Singha, A Despotism of Law, chapter 5. 124 Photography was not used for such purposes until the 1850s. See John Falconer, `Photography in Nineteenth-Century India', in C. A. Bayly, ed., The Raj: India and the British 1600±1947 (London: National Portrait Gallery Publications, 1990), pp. 264±77. The Superintendent of convicts in Singa- pore, J. McNair, stated that, on arrival, Indian convicts were photographed: Prisoners Their Own Warders, p. 89. During the 1870s, there was a brief experiment in photographing all convicts sent to the Andamans. It was, however, abandoned after it was decided it would not facilitate the capture of convicts who escaped back to India, only their recognition after capture. Christopher Pinney also discusses the relationship between photography, ethnography and criminality. See Camera Indica: Notes 149

The Social Life of Indian Photographs (London: Reaktion, 1997), especially chapter 1. 125 For a full discussion of the significance of `bio-data' in the Mauritian convict context, see my own `The Genealogy of the Modern Subject: Indian Con- victs in Mauritius, 1814±1853', in Duffield and Bradley, eds, Representing Convicts, 164±82. 126 Regulation XVII (1817): a regulation to provide for the more effectual administration of criminal justice in certain cases, 16 September 1817. 127 See, for example, MA RA566. J. A. Lloyd, Surveyor General Mauritius, to G. F. Dick, 20 May 1837. 128 See Appendix B 1. 129 See Appendix B 2. 130 Fisch, Cheap Lives, p. 105. 131 Despite such a construction, as Thomas R. Metcalf argues, thuggee `was never a coherent set of practices, nor could thugs easily be differentiated from other armed robbers'. See Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, pp. 41±2, and Singha, A Despotism of Law, Chapter 5. 132 See Appendix B 1. 133 See Appendix B 3. 134 David Washbrook, `Land and Labour in late Eighteenth- Century South India: the Golden Age of the Pariah?', in Peter Robb, ed., Dalit Movements and the Meaning of Labour in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 68±86. 135 John McLane, `Bengali Bandits, Police and Landlords after the Permanent Settlement', in Anand A. Yang, ed., Crime and Criminality in British India (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1985), p. 29. He argues that the emergence of banditry in Bengal was `undoubtedly a consequence of the Cornwallis administrative reforms of the early 1790s'. 136 Bernard S. Cohn, `Law and the Colonial State in India', in June Starr and Jane F. Collier, eds, History and Power in the Study of Law: New Directions in Legal Anthropology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), p. 134. (This chapter is also reproduced in Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge.) This reflected responses to the transition to capitalist relations of production in Britain. See, for example, Douglas Hay et al., Albion's Fatal Tree; Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England (London: Harmondsworth, 1975) and Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1991). 137 McLane, `Bengali Bandits', pp. 27±33. 138 See Arnold, `Dacoity and Rural Crime in Madras', 141±2; Sandria B. Freitag, `Crime in the Social Order of Colonial North India', Modern Asian Studies, 25, 2 (1991) 227±61; McLane, `Bengali Bandits', p. 35; and, Nigam, `Disciplining and Policing The ``Criminals By Birth'' ', 260±3. 139 Nigam, `Disciplining and Policing The ``Criminals By Birth'' ', 260±3. 140 Kazaucks (rohillas) were natives of Kazakstan. 141 See Stewart Gordon, The Marathas, 1600±1818 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 175±7; M. P. Roy, Origin, Growth and Suppression of the Pindaris (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1973), pp. 4 and 320; and Singha, ` ``Providential'' Circumstances', 92±3. 150 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

142 Stewart N. Gordon, `Bhils and the Idea of a Criminal Tribe in Nineteenth- Century India', in Yang, ed., Crime and Criminality, p. 130. 143 F. Bruce Robinson, `Bandits and Rebellion in Nineteenth Century Western India', in Yang, ed., Crime and Criminality, p. 55. 144 Convicts' own statements about their alleged `criminality', made after their transportation to Mauritius, are especially revealing. If convicts broke the Mauritian law, they were tried at the Court of Assizes, in the same way as free citizens. They were almost always asked why they had originally been transported and often answered in some detail. During their trials, Kehuree, for example, said that he had been involved in a robbery; Maddow stated that he had burgled a house and stolen money. Equally, convicts petitioning for liberation sometimes referred to their original crime. Whilst such statements are to some extent problematic (convicts had a motive, whether as defendants or petitioners, to underplay the seriousness of their offence), to deny them their voice would be seriously misguided. For convict statements, see, for example: MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 13±16 August 1817 & MA JB136. Trial of the Boisgard Convicts. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 5 May 1820. Chapter 6 discusses convict petitions in some detail. On recovering the subaltern voice, see Rosalind O'Hanlon, `Recovering the Subject; Subaltern Studies and Histories of Resistance in Colonial South Asia', Modern Asian Studies, 22, 1 (1988), 189±224. 145 IOL P/132/7 (13 September 1817). List of convicts per Lady Barlow,10 September 1815. 146 IOL P/400/73 (16 April 1834). J. Williams, Political Commissioner Gujarat, enclosing Extracts from the Trial of Goree Dada Seyjun and Solunky Noor Jaffor, 10 February 1834. 147 IOL P/132/63 (2 September 1817). List of convicts per Ruby, 30 August 1817. 148 IOL P/401/26 (20 April 1836). List of convicts per Palmira, 14 April 1836. 149 MA JB180. Trial of Cassal. Interrogation of Cassal, Court of First Instance, 27 June 1827. 150 See IOL F/4/534 (8 September 1815). List of convicts per Lady Barlow,8 September 1815; IOL P/132/9 (27 September 1815). List of convicts per Charlotte, 25 September 1815; IOL P/132/12 (7 November 1815). List of convicts per Greyhound, 31 October 1815; and, IOL P/132/32 (20 September 1816). List of convicts per Union, 15 September 1816. 151 Mark Poffenberger, `The Resurgence of Community Forest Management in the Jungle Mahals of West Bengal', in David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha (eds), Nature, Culture and Imperialism: Essays on the Environmental History of South Asia (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 337. 152 Swapan Dasgupta, Àdivasi Politics in Midnapur, c.1760±1924', in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies IV; Writings on South Asian History and Society (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 102. 153 Poffenberger, `The Resurgence', pp. 339±40. 154 Poffenberger, `The Resurgence', p. 342. See also Dasgupta, Àdivasi Politics', pp. 101±35. 155 Dasgupta, Àdivasi Politics', p. 118. 156 McLane, `Bengali Bandits', p. 35. Notes 151

157 Poffenberger, `The Resurgence', p. 343 and Mark Poffenberger, `The Struggle for Forest Control in the Jungle Mahals of West Bengal, 1750±1990', in Mark Poffenberger and Betsy McGean (eds), Village Voices, Forest Choices: Joint Forest Management in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 132±61. 158 Poffenberger, `The Resurgence', in Arnold and Guha (eds), Nature, Culture and Imperialism, pp. 343±4. 159 Neeladri Bhattacharya, `Pastoralists in a Colonial World', in Arnold and Guha (eds), Nature, Culture and Imperialism, pp. 71±2. 160 Nigam, `Disciplining and Policing', 273. 161 The language of `infestation' as a representation for the actions of oppressed groups stands for what Ranajit Guha calls `the voice of committed colonialism'. See Guha, `The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', in Ranajit Guha (ed.) Subaltern Studies II; Writings on South Asian History and Society (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 14. (A pargana was an administrative district in the Indian Presidencies.) 162 IOL P/132/9 (27 September 1815). List of convicts per Charlotte, 25 Septem- ber 1815. 163 IOL P/133/20 (27 January 1818). List of convicts per Anna Robertson,27 January 1818.

Chapter 3

1 MA RA151. W. May, Court of Assizes Judge, to R. T. Farquhar, 6 September 1820. 2 There are strong parallels here with the `carrot and stick' management used in the Australian colonies. See Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, ` ``I could not blame the rangers''; Tasmanian Bushranging, Convicts and Convict Man- agement', Tasmanian Historical Research Association; Journal & Proceedings, 42, 3 (1995), 109±27 and `Convict Workers, ``Penal Labour'' and Sarah Island: Life at Macquarie Harbour, 1822±1834', in Duffield and Bradley (eds), Repres- enting Convicts, pp. 142±62. 3 PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 18 July 1818, enclosing: Minute on the Employment of the Convicts at Mauritius. 4 Evans and Thorpe argue that in the Australian context, convicts were con- stituted by the state to be simultaneously punished and worked. See `Power, Punishment and Penal Labour', 109. 5 Michael Ignatieff, `State, Civil Society and Total Institutions: A Critique of Recent Social Histories of Punishment', in S. Cohen and A. Skull (eds), Social Control and the State: Historical and Comparative Essays (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1983) p. 83. 6 On the conflicting nature of the penal and economic aims of transportation in the British-Australian context, see Meredith, `Full Circle', p. 24. 7 MA Z2A7. R. T. Farquhar to J. M. M. Virieux, Procureur GeÂneÂral and Head of Police Department, 30 November and 23 December 1815. 8 MA RA73. W. Burke, Chief Medical Officer, to G. A. Barry, 11 April 1816. For a history of the civil hospital, see L. H. de Froberville, La Grande-RivieÁre de Port Louis: Souvenirs et Paysages (Port Louis: General Printing and Stationery Company Ltd, 1933), pp. 35±6. 152 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

9 MA RA68. E. O'Brien, Civil Engineer and Surveyor General, to E. A. Draper, Chief of Police, 11 December 1815. 10 MA RA66. E. O'Brien to G. A. Barry, 5 December 1815. 11 PRO CO172/42. Baron d'Unienville, Tableaux de Statistiques, tableau no. 6. 12 Margaret Maynard, Fashioned From Penury (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1998), chapters 1±2. 13 For a general history of penal tattooing and branding in India, see Anderson, `Godna'. 14 Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge, p. 111. 15 Rossi entered the British army as ensign in the Anglo- Corsican battalion in 1795. He left Mauritius in 1823, taking up a post as Superintendent of Police in New South Wales, where he later became a Sydney magistrate. A. G. L. Shaw and C. M. H. Clark (eds), Australian Dictionary of Biography: Volume II, 1788±1850 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1967), pp. 399±400. 16 Recueil Complet des Lois et ReÂglemens de l'Ile Maurice, ou Ile de France. Tome Premier. CinquieÁme Partie (Port Louis, Mallac: 1823), Proclamation 193, 24 January 1816. 17 As argued, in the Australian context, by Evans and Thorpe, `Power, Punish- ment and Penal Labour', 101±2. 18 PRO CO415/15. Memorial of R. T. Farquhar, 28 October 1817. Unfortunately, no punishment books detailing the incidence of flogging survive. 19 Raymond Evans and Bill Thorpe, `Commanding Men: Masculinities and the Convict System', Journal of Australian Studies, 56 (1998), 22±4. 20 PRO CO415/15. Memorial of R. T. Farquhar, 28 October 1817. 21 MA RA437. Prosper d'Epinay, Procureur GeÂneÂral, to G. A. Barry, 28 June 1830. 22 MA JB221. Trial of John Marian. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 3 April 1830 and MA JA41. Police Correctionelle, 13 July 1830. 23 MA JB266. S. Goss to J. A. Lloyd, 13 July 1834. 24 PRO CO169/2. Ordinance Five 1835. Ordinance for the purpose of regulating the internal order and discipline of the prisons, 24 February 1835 (Article 52). 25 MA JA64. Trial of Cassim and Ruffee. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 30 September 1839. 26 See Appendix C 3. 27 See Appendix C 4. 28 Of the 297 cases not involving convicts tried before the Court of Assizes between 1832 and 1837, for example (with the exception of 1833, for which incomplete records exist), 75 defendants (26 per cent) were acquitted of the charges against them. See verdicts of the Court of Assizes in the MA JA series: JA45 (1832), JA52/55 (1834), JA55 (1835), JA51/56 (1836) and JA58/59 (1837). 29 MA RA71. E. O'Brien to G. A. Barry, 8 January 1816. 30 MA RA93. List of convicts originally attached to the quarry at Parc aux Boeufs, 6 August 1817 and MA RA107. Weekly Report of Convicts Employed on the Public Works, 27 April±2 May 1818. 31 MA RA92. C. H. Tuleman, Civil Engineer, to G. A. Barry, 5 May 1817 and PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 18 July 1818. 32 MA RA106. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 5 April 1818. 200 convicts were diverted from the roads to work on the bazaar during another intensive three day period of labour. Notes 153

33 MA RA78. D. Mackay, Civil Storekeeper, to G. A. Barry, 12 September 1816. 34 MA RA99. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 5 December 1817. 35 See Appendix C 1. 36 MA HC29. TroisieÁme SeÂance du Conseil de Commune, 15 December 1817. 37 PRO CO167/29. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 1 November 1816. 38 PRO CO167/37. Major-General Hall to Lord Bathurst, 28 January 1818 and PRO CO167/41. Minute on the Employment of Convicts in Mauritius, 18 July 1818. 39 PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 18 July 1818. 40 PRO CO415/15. G. A. Barry to F. Rossi, 14 January 1818. 41 PRO CO167/29. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 1 November 1816. 42 MA JB337. Trial of Limbah Poonjah. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 17 March 1843. 43 MA RA498. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 8 May 1833. 44 MA Z2A127. J. A. Lloyd, Surveyor General, to G. F. Dick, 4 May 1840. 45 MA RA566. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 25 March 1837. 46 MA RA708. H. J. Savage, Civil Engineer, to G. F. Dick, 23 February 1842. 47 PRO CO167/47. Major-General Hall to Lord Bathurst, 28 May 1819. 48 PRO CO167/40. Return showing the number of convicts employed with individuals during the months of February, March, April, May, June and July 1817. 49 MA RA89. M. Marcenay to R. T. Farquhar, 22 January 1817. 50 PRO CO167/40. Return showing the number of convicts employed with individuals during the months of February, March, April, May, June and July 1817. 51 MA RA102. W. Barclay, Director of Internal Revenues, to G. F. Dick, 13 January 1818. Between 1810±25, the amount of sugar cane planted more than doubled. Nigel Worden, `Diverging Histories: Slavery and its Aftermath in the Cape Colony and Mauritius', South African Historical Journal, 27 (1992), 11. 52 MA RA138. Governor's Minute, 10 February 1818. 53 MA RA130. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 4 June 1819. 54 PRO CO172/47. Civil & Judicial Establishments 1827 (Department of Roads & Bridges: Blue Book 1825±7). 55 MA RA306. Governor's Minute, no. 18, 1 September 1823. 56 PRO CO167/67. Sir Lowry Cole to Lord Bathurst, 30 August 1823. 57 MA IB9/14. Original Evidence Given Before the Commissioners of Inquiry, 5±8 February 1827. 58 MA RA770. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 12 June 1840. 59 MA RA567. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 25 November 1837. 60 MA Z2A29. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, n.d. 61 MA JA51. Police Correctionelle, 16 September 1834. 62 Richard Walsh, `The Birth of Bushranging in New South Wales; Its Meanings and Contexts in a Contested Landscape, 1788±1810', MSc thesis, University of Edinburgh (1996), 10. 63 MA RA414. W. L. Melville, Government Inspector, to G. A. Barry, 5 August 1829. 64 PRO CO172/49. Civil & Judicial Establishments for 1827 (Medical Depart- ment: (Blue Book 1826±9). 154 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

65 MA RA567. Memorandum showing the several duties for which the servants are required for the Civil Hospital, 3 September 1837. 66 MA RD43. G. A. Barry to F. Rossi, 27 April 1823. 67 MA RA231. W. Burke to G. A. Barry, 27 October 1823. 68 PRO CO167/107. C. Colville to Lord Murray, 20 May 1829. 69 PRO CO170/5. Minutes of Council, 8 October 1833. 70 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 71 PRO CO167/147. Mr Harrison, Acting Government Agent Seychelles, to G. A. Barry, 14 September 1829. 72 MA RA1118. W. Burke to C. J. Bayley, Colonial Secretary Mauritius, 26 January 1851. 73 PRO CO170/34. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Council of Government, 28 January 1852. 74 PRO CO167/123. Commissioners of Eastern Enquiry 1828, Government and Finance, 15 December 1828. 75 PRO CO167/24. Commissioners of Eastern Enquiry 1828, Volume I, Finances and Establishments: Appendix No. 23: Return of the number of Indian Con- victs at Mauritius 30 October 1828, distinguishing their trades and the number who have left families in India. 76 MA RA240. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 30 May 1823. 77 MA RA287. H. Bates to G. A. Barry, 4 July 1825. 78 MA RA915. Report of the Committee on Convicts: Memorandum, 30 August 1847. 79 PRO CO170/13. Letter from H. J. Savage to G. F. Dick, 18 April 1840. 80 MA Z2A96/113. Overseer A. Van Hilten to J. A. Lloyd, 4 April 1836 and 28 November 1838. 81 MA RA240. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 30 May 1823. 82 MA RA601. A. Montgomery, Surgeon-in-Charge of the Civil Hospital, to C. St. John, Chief Medical Officer, 21 October 1840. 83 MA RA772. W. R. White, Chief of Medical Department, to G. F. Dick, 12 October 1842 and MA RA1043. A. Montgomery to G. F. Dick, 13 November 1849. 84 MA RA915. Report of the Committee on Convicts: Memorandum, 30 August 1847. 85 McNair, Prisoners Their Own Warders, pp. 53±4 and 123. 86 For details of the Kandyan prisoners in Mauritius, see Millewa Adikarange Durand Appuhamy, Rebels, Outlaws & Enemies to the British (Columbo: Guna- sena, 1990) and The Kandyans' Last Stand Against the British (Columbo: Gunasena, 1995). 87 In 1825, preferential tariffs on West Indian sugar entering British markets were ended. This boosted Mauritian production: between 1814 and 1832, the proportion of land under sugar cane cultivation rose from 15 per cent to 87 per cent. Worden, `Diverging Histories', 11. 88 MA RA201. E. A. Draper, Civil Engineer, to G. A. Barry, 14 May 1822. 89 MA RA229. E. A. Draper to G. A. Barry, 21 August 1823. 90 MA RA231. W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 25 October 1823. Notes 155

91 PRO CO167/212. C. A. Mylius, Civil Commissioner and Government Agent Seychelles, to G. F. Dick, 10 April 1839 and its reply, 31 May 1839. 92 PRO CO172/49. Return of all Public Works, Civil and Military Roads, Canals, Bridges, Fortifications &c. now constructing or under repair in the colony of Mauritius on the 31st day of December 1826 (Blue Book). 93 PRO CO172/56. Return of Public Works in the Year 1830 (Blue Book). 94 PRO CO172/64. Return of Public Works in the Year 1835 (Blue Book). 95 PRO CO167/204. Governor W. Nicolay to Lord Glenleg, 14 September 1838. This is also discussed by Marina Carter and Joe Chan Chiang, `Fort Adelaide: The Citadel of Mauritius', unpublished paper presented at the International Conference on Fortifications, Mauritius: 1996, pp. 8±9. 96 PRO CO172/61. Return of Public Works and Measurement in Running Feet of Roads Repaired &c. by the convicts in the Year 1835 (Blue Book). 97 MA RA916. Return of Employment of Convicts, July 1848. 98 MA RA973. Return of Employment of Convicts, January 1849. 99 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 100 MA RA1006. S. Brownrigg, Postmaster General, to C. J. Bayley, 19 October 1849. 101 MA RA1064. G. F. Dick to S. Brownrigg, 31 October 1849. 102 MA RA1161. S. Brownrigg to C. J. Bayley, 5 January 1852. 103 MA RA1132. Committee on Convicts: First General Report, 3 April 1851. 104 MA RA973. Minute on the Employment of a Convict at Government House Stables, 29 February 1848. 105 MA RA 1182. Weekly state of Overseers and Convicts, 14±19 June 1852. 106 Tristan de Chazal, Histoire geÂneÂalogique de la famille de Chazal (unpublished Manuscript, 1993), p. 6. 107 PRO CO172/12. Mauritius Times, 9 June 1849. 108 PRO CO167/40. Return showing the number of convicts employed with individuals during the months of February, March, April, May, June and July 1817. Chazal had just ten convicts until May. During that month that total was increased to 28. 109 PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 18 July 1818, enclosing: Minute on the Employment of Convicts in Mauritius. 110 MA RA146. Report of the Committee on the state of the silk and opium manufactory of Mr Chazal, 4 October 1820. 111 PRO CO167/51. R. T. Farquhar to H. Goulburn, 13 December 1820. 112 PRO CO167/45. Acting Governor R. Darling to Lord Bathurst, 20 April 1819. 113 MA RA99. T. A. de Chazal to F. Rossi, 17 December 1818. 114 MA RA99. T. A. de Chazal to F. Rossi, 24 December 1818. 115 MA RA118. T. A. de Chazal to G. A. Barry, 16 December 1818. 116 MA RA146. Report of the Committee on the state of the silk and opium manufactory of Mr Chazal, 4 October 1820. 117 MA RA138. Governor's Minute, 10 February 1818. 118 MA RA146. Report of the Committee on the state of the silk and opium manufactory of Mr Chazal, 4 October 1820. 119 PRO CO167/45. R. Darling to Lord Bathurst, 20 April 1819. 156 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

120 On the `provision ground' system in the Caribbean, see Sidney Mintz, Carribean Transformations (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1974), pp. 131±250. 121 De Chazal, Histoire geÂneÂalogique,p.7. 122 MA RA275. Governor's Minute, no. 24, 3 January 1824. 123 MA RA306. Governor's Minute, no. 155, 27 October 1826. 124 These were the same principles as those laid down in the Charter of the Australian Agricultural Company, established in 1824 for the growth of wool and the cultivation of waste lands in New South Wales. 125 PRO CO168/8. Lord Bathurst to Lowry Cole, 5 July 1825. 126 IOL P/137/50 (11 July 1826). Letter from H. Shakespear to G. A. Barry, 10 July 1826, enclosing a letter from J. Master to H. Shakespear. 127 MA RA408. W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 31 January 1829. 128 MA RA408. Extract from F. Shearman's report, 26 January 1829. 129 MA RA408. W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 31 January 1829. 130 PP 1819 XIII. Paper relating to East India Affairs: Bengal, Madras and Bom- bay Regulations 1816. Regulation XV, 18 May 1816. 131 See Campbell, `Madagascar and the Slave Trade'. 132 MA RA93. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 7 August 1817. 133 MA RA144. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 11 November 1818. 134 MA RA415. R. Lyall, Government Agent Madagascar, to G. A. Barry, 1 September 1829, enclosing: Memorandum respecting the Sepoys in Mada- gascar. 135 MA RA144. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 11 November 1818, enclosing: List of convicts returned from Madagascar on the ship showing the casualties and those who have remained. 136 MA RA198. J. Hastie, Government Agent Madagascar, to G. A. Barry, 7 February 1822. 137 MA HB7. R. Bussey, Chief Secretary to Government, to J. Hastie, 24 April 1822. 138 MA RA284. J. Hastie to G. A. Barry, 23 June 1825 and MA HB4. G. A. Barry to J. Hastie, 30 June 1825, enclosing: List of Indian Convicts at Madagascar. 139 For a French translation of his diary, see G. S. Chapus and G. Mondain, Le Journal de Robert Lyall (Tananarive: Imprimerie Officielle, 1954). 140 MA RA387/415. R. Lyall to G. A. Barry, 26 December 1828 and 1 September 1829, enclosing: Memorandum respecting the Sepoys in Madagascar. 141 MA RA415. R. Lyall to G. A. Barry, 1 September 1829. 142 MA RA415. Governor W. Nicolay to R. Lyall, 1 September 1829. 143 PRO CO172/44. Establishment of the Convict Department for 1823 (Blue Book). My emphasis. 144 PRO CO167/124. Commissioners of Eastern Enquiry 1828, volume I. Mau- ritius Finances and Establishments. Appendix 31: Returns of the Duties Performed by Each individual in the respective departments of the colonial government at Mauritius 1827 (no. 9). 145 PRO CO167/37. Acting Governor Hall to Lord Bathurst, 28 January 1818. 146 MA Z2A70. W. Staveley to J. Finniss, 4 September 1832. 147 MA Z2A92. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 25 October 1835. 148 PRO CO167/230. Report of the Committee of Council, 17 February 1841. 149 MA RA916. Return of Employment of Convicts, 20 September 1848. 150 MA RA915. W. H. Rawstone, Surveyor General, to G. F. Dick, 31 August 1847. Notes 157

151 MA RA1010. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 11 December 1849. 152 MA RA135. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 13 May 1820. 153 MA Z2A92. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 25 October 1835. 154 IOL P/139/32 (20 October 1829). Numerical Return of Bengal Convicts showing the Casualties that have occurred from the year 1815 to 31st July 1829 inclusive', Department of Roads and Bridges, 31 July 1829. 155 MA RA137. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 14 June 1820. 156 MA RA108. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 12 June 1818. 157 MA RA114. B. Mason, Assistant Superintendent of Convicts at Mahebourg, to F. Rossi, 16 November 1818. 158 MA RA143. F. Rossi to G. F. Dick, 1 November 1819. 159 MA RA181. F. Rossi to G. F. Dick, 3 July 1821. 160 MA RA205. F. Rossi to G. F. Dick, 2 September 1822. 161 MA Z2A59. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 5 February 1840. 162 MA JB270. Trial of Nallaqui. Letter from overseer S. Thatcher to J. A. Lloyd, 13 September 1833. 163 MA JB183. Declaration of Pirhally, 7 January 1827. 164 MA RA566. Departmental Order, J. A. Lloyd, 8 April 1837. 165 See MA RA708/770. W. Clover to G. A. Barry, 31 January, 6 May 1842 and 10 August 1844. 166 MA RA1010. Overseer W. H. Graham, Surveyor of Roads Ville Bagne, to J. A. Lloyd, 21 July 1849. 167 MA RA1010. M. Carey, Surveyor of Roads Grand River N.W., to J. A. Lloyd, 1 January 1849. 168 Edward Said established the concept of an East±West oppositional duality in Orientalism (London: Pantheon, 1978). The problem of referring to `colonialism' in the singular is raised by Frederick Cooper and Ann Stoler in `Ten- sions of Empire: Colonial Control and Visions of Rule', American Ethnologist, 16, 4 (November 1989), 609. Nicholas B. Dirks also argues that colonialism was not monolithic, intentional or systematic, but diffuse, disorganised and contradictory. See Colonialism and Culture (Michigan: University of Mich- igan Press, 1992), pp. 7 and 12. John MacKenzie takes a similar line in Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995). 169 MA Z2A50. Mme Didier to G. A. Barry, 15 March 1829. 170 MA RA512. Police report, 12±13 June 1833. 171 MA Z2A88. Mme Julius Defosses to J. Finniss, 17 October 1835. (`There are [supposed to be] overseers in charge of supervising the convicts working on the main road . . . Mistake, monsieur, mistake; there's no overseer. Here's your overseer, monsieur; you know as well as I that the convict with the rattan [stick, cane], in charge of the gang, is the only one supervising the others. Some surveillance!') 172 Recueil Complet des Lois, Proclamation 193, 24 January 1816. 173 PRO CO415/15. G. A. Barry to F. Rossi, 27 January 1816. 174 MA RA87. C. H. Tuleman to G. A. Barry, 27 January 1817. 175 MA RA93. C. H. Tuleman to G. A. Barry, 23 August 1817. 176 MA RA170. E. A. Draper to G. A. Barry, 21 February 1820. 177 MA RA525. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 27 October 1832. 178 MA RA592. C. St. John to G. F. Dick, 3 March and 22 October 1839. 158 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

179 MA RA234. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 8 November 1823. 180 PRO CO167/45. R. Darling to Lord Bathurst, 6 May 1819, enclosing a letter from the Civil Engineer's Office, 11 March 1819. 181 MA JB234. Trial of Gitoo. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 22±3 December 1831. 182 MA JB211. Trial of Mooktaram Goindah. Evidence and verdict of the Court of First Instance, 12±13 March and 3 April 1830. 183 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 184 PRO CO415/15. W. Staveley to W. Clover, 30 August 1824. 185 MA Z2A96. G. M. Elliott, Assistant Surveyor General and Civil Engineer, to G. F. Dick, 28 June 1836. 186 McNair, Prisoners Their Own Warders, pp. 18, 28 and 40. 187 See Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers, pp. 215ff. 188 Davidson, The Invisible State, p. 100. 189 PRO CO172/47. Civil and Judicial Establishments for 1827 (Department of Roads and Bridges Blue Book 1825±7). 190 MA RA507. Police report, 28 November 1833. 191 MA JB136. Trial of Ruttunah, Ramsook, Sobah, TureÂe, KehureÂe and Madow. Interview of commander Bijenauth, 21 February 1819. 192 MA JB167. Trial of Joidore. Interview of overseer William Blackburn, 5±6 July 1825. 193 MA JB173. Trial of Harsa. Letter from Sr Drieux to J. Finniss, 22 January 1826; police report, 23 January 1826; and, verdict of the Court of Assizes, 2 February 1826. 194 MA JB266. Trial of Rughobursing. Report of overseer John Hewitt and commander Ghunna, 10±11 July 1834. 195 MA RA1118. W. A. Rawstone to C. J. Bayly, 20 May 1851. 196 MA JB183. W. Clover to J. Martindale, n.d. (1826). 197 MA JB266. Trial of Rughobursing. Report of John Hewitt, 10 July 1834 and MA RA1118. W. A. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 17 January 1851. 198 MA JB266. Trial of Rughobursing. Report of John Hewitt, 10 July 1834. 199 MA JB136. Trial of Ruttunah, Ramsook, Sobah, TureÂe, KehureÂe and Madow. Interview of commander Bijenauth, 21 February 1819. 200 MA JB136. Trial of Ruttunah, Ramsook, Sobah, TureÂe, KehureÂe and Madow. Interview of Gopaul and Roshun Mullick, 21 February 1819. 201 MA JB299. Trial of Manoel Joss Louis & Ramsamee. Police report, 8 September 1839; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 23 September 1839; and, statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, Court of Assizes, 20 November 1839. 202 MA JB138. Trial of Same. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 8 September 1821. 203 MA JB205. Trial of Ghama. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 10 June and 22 October 1829 and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 19 December 1829. 204 MA RA708. W. H. Rawstone to G. A. Barry, 21 March 1842. 205 MA RA708. Overseer M. Carey to G. A. Barry, 5 May 1842. 206 MA JB173. Trial of Harsa. Sr Drieux to J. Finniss, 22 January 1826; police report, 23 January 1826; and, verdict of the Court of Assizes, 2 February 1826. Notes 159

207 MA JB316. B. Mason to F. Rossi, 30 January 1819. 208 MA JB136. Trial of Ruttunah, Ramsook, Sobah, TureÂe, KehureÂe and Madow. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 5 May 1820. 209 MA RA135. G. F. Dick to F. Rossi, 20 May 1820. 210 MA RA183. R. T. Farquhar to Marquis Hastings, 28 October 1817. 211 MA RA306. Lord Bathurst to Governor L. Cole, 28 July 1825. 212 PRO CO167.56. W. May to R. T. Farquhar, 6 September 1820. 213 PRO CO167/41. R. T. Farquhar to Lord Bathurst, 18 July 1818, enclosing: Minute on the Employment of the Convicts at Mauritius. 214 PRO CO167/45. R. Darling to Lord Bathurst, 6 May 1819, enclosing: report of the Civil Engineer, 30 April 1819. 215 PRO CO167/56. Memorial of F. Rossi, 30 December 1820. 216 Guha, `The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', pp. 23±4.

Chapter 4

1 Michel Foucault has been highly influential in this area, with much subs- equent work extending his largely undeveloped maxim, `where there is power there is resistance', to the colonial context. See, for example, Carol A. Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer (eds), Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- vania Press, 1993), pp. 4±5; Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley and Sherry B. Ortner (eds), Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton, NJ: University of Princeton Press, 1994), p. 18; and, E. R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. x. 2 Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordon, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974), pp. 589±90. Such a perspective implicitly posits that the only subalterns who can be genuinely `political' are industrial proletarians. 3 There were more than a dozen slave revolts in eighteenth- century Jamaica, culminating in the Christmas rising of 1831. In 1816, 60 plantations in Barbados felt the impact of a general slave revolt. Between 1731 and the abolition of slavery, there were at least 18 revolts in the Guianas. See Michael Craton, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (London: Cornell University Press, 1982); Michael Craton, `Forms of Resistance to Slavery', in Franklin W. Knight (ed.), General History of the Caribbean; Volume III, The Slave Societies of the Caribbean (London: UNESCO Publishing, 1997), pp. 222±70; Richard Hart, Slaves Who Abolished Slavery, Vols I & II ( Jamaica: Institute of Social & Economic Research, 1980±5); Evelyn O'Callaghan, The Earliest Patriots; being the true adventures of certain survivors of `Bussa's Rebellion' (1816), in the island of Barbados and abroad (London: Karia Press, 1986); and, Richard Price (ed.), Maroon Societies; Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). 4 See F. D. Colburn (ed.), Everyday Forms of Resistance (New York: M. E. Sharp, 1989); D. Haynes and G. Prakash (eds), Contesting Power: Resistance to Every- day Social Relations in South Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Resistance 160 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

5 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and, James C. Scott and Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet (eds), Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance in South-East Asia (London: Frank Cass, 1986). 5 There is a growing body of literature on resistance to the colonial state. In the Australian convict context, see Alan Atkinson, `Four Patterns of Convict Pro- test', Labour History, 37 (1979), 28±51; Sandra J. Blair, `The Revolt at Castle Forbes: A Catalyst to Emancipist-Emigrant Confrontation', Royal Australian Historical Society; Journal and Proceedings, 64, 2 (1978), 89±107; Duffield, `The Life and Death of ``Black'' John Goff'; Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, `The Bushran- gers and the Convict System of Van Diemen's Land, 1803±1846', unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh (1990); and, Maxwell-Stewart, ` ``I could not blame the rangers'' '. The negotiation of a gendered social order is equally important in any discussion of resistance and has been discussed, for example, by Oxley, Convicts Maids; K. M. Reid, ` ``Contumacious, Ungovernable and Incorrigible'': Convict Women and Workplace Resistance; Van Diemen's Land, 1820±1839', in Duffield and Bradley, eds, Representing Convicts, pp. 106±23; and, Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans (eds), Gender Relations in Aus- tralia: Domination and Negotiation (London: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1992). 6 Ranajit Guha, `Dominance without Hegemony and its Historiography', in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies VI; Writings on South Asian History and Society (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 210±309. 7 See Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Govern- ment (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994). 8 Cooper and Stoler, `Tensions of Empire', 609. 9 Maxwell-Stewart, `The Bushrangers', 151. 10 IOL P/401/10 (25 February 1835). Session Judge, Poona, to L. R. Reid, 28 January 1835. 11 See Appendices A 1 and A 2. 12 IOL P/400/14 (9 January 1828). W. Sheffield, Collector and Magistrate Mala- bar, to C. Norris, 21 December 1827. 13 Ibid. Declaration of Mr ReÂgnaud of the English ship Constance, 21 December 1827. 14 IOL P/400/16 (8 April 1828). W. Sheffield to C. Norris, 16 March 1828, enclosing: H. M. Blair, Assistant Magistrate Tellicherry, to W. Sheffield and C. M. Whish, Joint Criminal Judge Tellicherry, 14 January 1828. 15 IOL P/400/15 (9 April 1828). Lists of the Police Officers who effected the apprehension of the six Arab convicts who escaped from Tellicherry Jail, 9 April 1828. 16 Ibid. F. C. Gardiner to W. Sheffield, 8 April 1828. See John McLane, `Bengali Bandits', pp. 42±3, on the role of goinda in capturing the leaders and members of dacoit gangs. Up to 500 rupees was offered for the capture of a dacoit sirdar. 17 MA Z2D/3 no.88. Passenger lists inwards, 15 April 1828. Although the convicts were ordered to face trial at the Mauritian Court of Admiralty, there is no surviving evidence they were either tried or imprisoned. Nor was any further mention made of the affair. When surviving convicts were inspected in 1847, the conduct of Mullallah Ibrahim (Mal Allah) and Sultan Seedee (Sultan) was said to be `very good', with the former having gained employment as a groom to overseer William Hill. PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Notes 161

Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 20 1847: Appendix 1 (List of Surviving Convicts in April 1847). 18 IOL P/400/54 (14 March 1832). Jahangheira Vasservanjee to C. Malcolm, 9 March 1832. 19 Maxwell-Stewart, `Convict Workers', p. 155. 20 MA RA151. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 11 September 1820. 21 See also: MA Z2A113. A. Van Hilten to J. A. Lloyd, 3 December 1838. 22 MA RA115. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 2 October 1818. 23 MA RA137. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 5 June 1820. 24 MA JB136. Trial of Ruttunah, Ramsook, Sobah, TureÂe, KehureÂe and Madow. Interrogation of ToreÂe. Court of First Instance, 5 May 1820. 25 See Duffield, `The Life and Death of ``Black'' John Goff', on a similar raid made by John Goff on the Superintendent of the Plantation Establishment in Macquarie Harbour Penal Station. In another case, a revolt took place at Castle Forbes on the Hunter Valley property of James Mudie in New South Wales. Six assigned convicts robbed Mudie's house and tried to kill the overseer, John Larnach. They then took to the bush. After they were arrested, an enquiry followed in which the convicts complained that they had been given `seconds' (low-grade flour), had been brutally flogged and their tickets- of-leave refused. The revolt assumed significance because it was `indicative of the relationship between convicts and masters in that area' and the convicts' attempts to redefine that relationship. The enquiry ordered that five of the convicts be executed and one transported to Norfolk Island for life. See Blair, `The Revolt at Castle Forbes'. 26 MA RA137. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 14 June 1820. 27 PRO CO167/40. Return showing the number of convicts employed with individuals during the months of February, March, April, May, June and July 1817. 28 Ibid. Interview of William Clover by F. Rossi, 21 September 1818. 29 Ibid. Acting Governor Hall to Lord Bathurst, enclosing a letter from Dr R. Erskine, 18 September 1818. 30 Ibid. Interview of William Clover by F. Rossi, 21 September 1818. The Court of Enquiry was composed of Lieutenant Jenkins and `a man of police' whose name Clover could not remember. 31 Ibid. Acting Governor Hall to J. PeÂpin, Acting Attorney General, 13 Septem- ber 1818. 32 MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. `Liste des dix Galeriens absents de chez Mess. Telfair et Waugh et rentreÂs au Bagne de la Grande RivieÁre le 10 aouÃt 1817'. 33 Maroon slave communities emerged shortly after the French colonised ÃIle de France. They were perceived to pose a serious threat to `life, limb and property', especially if they were able to create and maintain their own communities. Marronage was thus countered with extreme violence. The Code Noir (1723) decreed that first offenders would lose both ears and be branded on the shoulder; on their third marronage, offenders would be executed. Ma- roon slaves were also commonly shot on sight. See Richard B. Allen, `Marron- age and the Maintenance of Public Order in Mauritius, 1721±1835', Slavery & Abolition, 4, 3 (April 1993), 214±15. 162 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

34 Shahid Amin, `Approver's Testimony, Judicial Discourse: The Case of Chauri Chaura', in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies V; Writings on South Asian History and Society (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 168±78 and Event, Metaphor, Memory: Chauri Chaura 1922±1992 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 74±94. 35 MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. Evidence of the Court of First Instance. Miseraly's testimony recorded: `ayant observu un congeÂ pour se rendre chez lui il y trouva un homme nommeÂ Bessharut Kan qu y etait venu avant lui le fut craint ainsi d'avoir voleÂ et qu'il a suspecteÂ qu'on l'assistait'. 36 Ibid. J. M. M. Virieux to J. PeÂpin, 14 August 1817. 37 Ibid. Report of Jean Louis Desnoyeur, Medical Officer Savanne, 9 August 1817. 38 Ibid. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 13 December 1817. 39 Ibid. Governor R. T. Farquhar to J. M. M. Virieux, 11 August 1817. 40 Allen, `Marronage and the Maintenance of Public Order', 216. 41 MA JB127. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 13 August 1817. In many ways, the convicts' actions exemplify what has been described, in the context of New South Wales, as a `mapping of boundaries between perceptions of legality and illegality'. See Paula J. Byrne, Criminal Law and Colonial Subject: New South Wales, 1810±1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 7. 42 MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 13 August 1817. 43 Ibid. Interrogation of Kiesour and Kalooa, 10 August 1817. Unfortunately, these were the only two pre-trial interviews carried out. 44 John D. Rogers, Crime, Justice and Society in Colonial Sri Lanka (London: Curzon, 1987), p. 41. 45 PRO CO167/40. Acting Governor Hall to J. PeÂpin, 13 September 1818. The convicts were charged under Articles I & II of the 1793 Napoleonic Code. Article 1 stated: `Toutes compirations et complots tendant aÁ troubler la colonie par une guerre civile, en armant les citoyens les uns contre les autres, ou contre l'exercise de l'autoroÃleÂ leÂgitime, seront punis de mort.' Article 2: `toute attaque ou reÂsistance enveÁrs la force publique agissant contre l'eÂxeÂcu- tion des dits complots . . . seront punis de mort.' 46 MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 13 August 1817. 47 Ibid. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 13 December 1817. 48 PRO CO167/40. Acting Governor Hall to J. PeÂpin, 13 September 1818. 49 MA JB127. Trial of the Bel Ombre Convicts. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 13 December 1817. 50 MA RA135. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 19 May 1820. 51 MA RA99. E. A. Draper to G. A. Barry, 27 December 1817, enclosing a letter from F. Rossi, 24 December 1817. 52 MA RA127. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 8 January 1819, enclosing a letter from M. Mignot, ConcieÁrge of the Civil and Criminal Prisons, 5 January 1819. 53 PRO CO167/40. J. PeÂpin to Acting Governor Hall, 16 September 1818. 54 MA RA127. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 8 January 1819, enclosing a letter from M. Mignot, 5 January 1819. 55 PRO CO167/40. Acting Governor Hall to J. PeÂpin, 13 September 1818. Notes 163

56 Guha, `The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', 1±2 and 38±9. 57 MA RA592. A. Montgomery to G. F. Dick, 23 August 1839. 58 MA Z2A29. Overseer W. Hill to J. A. Lloyd, 2 January 1840. 59 MA Z2A113. Overseer Van Hilten to J. A. Lloyd, 3 December 1838. 60 MA JB266. Trial of Rughobursing. Police report: interview of Ghunna, 11 July 1834. 61 Ibid. Evidence of Rughobursing, Court of First Instance, 11 August 1834. 62 MA JA52. Trial of Rughobursing. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 1 April 1834. 63 MA JB266. Trial of Rughobursing. Letter from overseer S. Goss to J. A. Lloyd, 13 July 1834. 64 Ibid. Letter from H. Bury, Clerk of the Crown, & G. Leffray, Assistant Judge, to G. F. Dick, 29 October 1834. 65 It has been argued: `strictly speaking, only insurrection represented political action, which some choose to define as the only genuine resistance since it alone directly challenged the power of the regime. From that point of view, those activities which others call ``day-today resistance to slavery'' ± stealing, lying, dissembling, shirking, murder, infanticide, suicide, arson ± qualify at best as prepolitical and at worst as apolitical'. Genovese, Roll, Jordon, Roll,p. 598. 66 Barker, Slavery and Antislavery, pp. 114±19. 67 Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers, pp. 222±30. 68 M. D. North-Coombes, `From Slavery to Indenture: Forced Labour in the Political Economy of Mauritius 1834±1867', in Kay Saunders, ed., Indentured Labour in the British Empire 1834±1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), pp. 107±9. 69 See, for example, Atkinson, `Four Patterns of Convict Protest' and W. Nichol, `Malingering and Convict Protest', Labour History, 47 (1984), 18±27. Evans and Thorpe, in `Power Punishment and Penal Labour', have called for more convict historiography which takes such `day-to-day class struggle' into account. 70 MA HC29. TroisieÁme SeÂance du Conseil de Commune GeÂneÂrale, 15 Decem- ber 1817. 71 MA RA77. E. A. Draper and J. M. M. Virieux to G. A. Barry, n.d. 72 James Holman, A Voyage Around the World, Including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, etc. etc. from MDCCCXXVII to MDCCCXXXII, Vol. III (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1834), p. 129. 73 Charles John Boyle, Far Away; Or, Sketches of Scenery and Society in Mauritius (London: Chapman & Hall, 1867), p. 109. 74 See Genovese, Roll, Jordon, Roll, p. 298: `the notion that black slaves, being intrinsically lazy, would work only under compulsion . . . reinforced a devel- oping Euro-American racism, the roots of which lay in centuries of ruling-class European attitudes toward their own labouring poor.' On racial stereotyping, see also Alatas, The Myth of the Lazy Native. 75 McNair, Prisoners Their Own Warders, pp. 152±5. 76 MA RC4. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 27 March 1832. 77 MA RA1164. M. Carey, Surveyor of Roads, to W. A. Rawstone, 12 October 1852. 78 MA RA1068. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 15 July 1850. 79 MA RA1068. M. Carey to W. H. Rawstone, 12 July 1850. 164 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

80 Maxwell-Stewart, `Convict Workers', 154 (n. 62). 81 MA RA1068. A. Montgomery to C. J. Bayley, 16 July 1850. 82 J. Mills, `If Madness is a Foreign Country, What of Madness in a Colony?; The Asylum Population in British India after 1857', unpublished paper presented at the Centre for South Asian Studies, Edinburgh: 1996, pp. 1±5. 83 MA JB211/221. Trial of Rughobursing. Police and medical reports, 7 Decem- ber 1829 and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 13 March 1830; MA JA41. Police Correctionelle, 9 July 1830. 84 MA RA431. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, 21 August 1830. 85 MA RA431. W. Staveley to J. Finniss, 9 September 1830. 86 PRO CO172/1. Le CerneÂen, 8 June 1832. 87 This usage was unlike `marronage' as understood in the West Indies and Spanish America. Maroons there were able to establish villages in inaccessible locations and then reproduce their communities, materially, socially and biologically, over time. While it is clear that Mauritian maroons (whether slave or convict) formed camps in the mountains and woods, these appear to have been short-lived. The size of the island and rapid clearing of land for cane cultivation in the 1820±1830s must have made life very difficult for maroons in such temporary hideaways. 88 Richard B. Allen, `Marronage & the Maintenance of Public Order', 214±31. 89 It has been argued that the bushranging convict in New South Wales was essentially a social phenomenon, actually created by local perceptions and the interpretations of those in authority. The response to the perceived threat included innovations in policing methods which embraced the rival econom- ies of informing and reward. This legitimised the activities of the bushranger and created a `culture of bushranging', with bushranging created as `a movement against the whole structure of society'. Byrne, Criminal Law, pp. 129± 39. 90 Similarly, it has been argued in the American south: `[runaway slaves] remained a small portion of the total, but their significance far transcended their numbers'. Genovese, Roll, Jordon, Roll, p. 598. 91 See Byrne, Criminal Law; Maxwell-Stewart, `The Bushrangers'; and Walsh, `The Birth of Bushranging'. 92 Maxwell-Stewart, `The Bushrangers'. 93 This included the lure of the illegal trade in kangaroo meat in the early economy of Van Diemen's Land. See Walsh, `The Birth of Bushranging', p. 4. 94 Allen, `Marronage & the Maintenance of Public Order', 227. 95 Barker, Slavery and Antislavery, 124±9. 96 See Gad Heuman (ed.), Out of the House of Bondage; Runaways, Resistance and Marronage in Africa and the New World (London: Frank Cass, 1986) and B. W. Higman, Slave Population and Economy in Jamaica, 1807±1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 178±9. 97 This figure has been compiled from reports made by convict overseers, the Superintendent of Convicts and the police. These may understate the extent of convict marronage. 98 MA RA411. Half-yearly Statement, Department of Roads and Bridges, 15 May 1829. 99 MA RA567. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 1 August 1837. Notes 165

100 Allen, `Marronage and the Maintenance of Public Order', 219 and 229. 101 PP 1875 XXIV. Mauritius (Treatment of Immigrants): Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Treatment of Immigrants in Mauritius, pp. 329±30. 102 MA Z2A11. Police reports, 3 April and 26 June 1816. 103 MA Z2A11. Police reports, 9 May 1817. 104 MA Z2A19/20. Police reports, 23 September 1821. 105 MA Z2A19. Police reports, 24 February 1822. 106 MA Z2A8. F. Rossi to E. A. Draper, 4 April 1816. 107 MA Z2A20. F. Rossi to E. Byam, Chief of Police, 24 September 1821. 108 MA Z2A83/93/95/100/113/127/137. Police reports, 1835±40. 109 Byrne, Criminal Law, p. 139. 110 MA RA498. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 6 August 1833. 111 MA RA429. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 21 December 1831. 112 See, for example, MA RA83. Police Report Savanne, 9 November 1835. 113 MA RA825. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 22 August 1845. 114 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Letter from J. Finniss to B. Colin, Pre- sident of the Court of First Instance, 29 August 1845. 115 ibid. Police report, 30 August 1845. 116 PRO CO167/286. Letter from James Wilson, Chief Judge, to W. Gomm, 2 August 1846, enclosing: `Trial notes in the case of Kuttoo Ramgee, a native of Bombay, for the Murder of an Indian Child named Bidacy, before an Assize held at Port Louis, Mauritius, on the 28th of July 1846'. 117 MA RA825. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 11 September 1845. 118 MA Z2A90. Civil Commissioner of Police Petite RivieÁre, to J. Finniss, 7 November 1835. 119 MA Z2A91. Overseer J. Symonds to G. Elliott, 11 February 1836. 120 MA Z2A62. W. Staveley to J. Finniss, 13 April 1831. 121 MA Z2A72. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 12 April 1833. 122 MA RA508. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 20 April 1833. 123 MA Z2A99. Civil Commissioner of Plaines Wilhems to J. Finniss, 8 Decem- ber 1836. 124 MA RA1118. W. A. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 10 May 1851. 125 MA Z2A236. Civil Commissioner of Plaines Wilhems to A. Wilson, Acting Inspector General of Police, 13 April 1852. 126 MA Z2A9. Overseer R. Jenkins to G. A. Barry, 9 July 1816. 127 MA JB135. Trial of Kalloo and Nacta. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 15 September 1820. 128 MA JB183. Statement of M. Romefois, Acting Commissioner of Police, 7 January 1827. 129 MA Z2A113. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 4 December 1838. 130 MA Z2A96. Overseer R. Sherlock to J. A. Lloyd, 18 April 1836. 131 MA Z2A8. G. A. Barry, Assistant General Superintendent of the Convict Department, to E. A. Draper and J. M. M. Virieux, Joint Chiefs of Police, 27 June 1816. 132 MA Z2A9. G. A. Barry to E. A. Draper and J. M. M. Virieux, 22 August 1816. 133 MA Z2A12. R. Jenkins, Assistant Convict Department, to G. A. Barry, 4 August 1817. 166 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

134 MA JB183. Letter from Romefois, Acting Commissary of Police, to Prosper d'Epinay, 7 January 1827, enclosing: `declaration of the convict Pirhally'. 135 MA RA151. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 11 September 1820. 136 MA Z2A113. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 15 October 1838. 137 MA Z2A163. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 20 December 1841. 138 MA Z2A40. Civil Commissioner of Black River to G. A. Barry, 22 August 1827. 139 MA JB315/JA72. Trial of Alapa. Statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 21 May and 25 June 1841. 140 MA Z2A222. Police report, 12 July 1850. 141 MA RA1068. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 19 July 1850. 142 MA JB289. Trial of Alexis. Evidence of Sheik Adam, Court of First Instance, 11 June 1838. 143 MA Z2A104. J. Finniss to J. A. Lloyd, 18 January 1838. 144 MA JB289. Trial of Alexis. Evidence of Sheik Adam, Court of First Instance, 11 June 1838. 145 MA Z2A105. J. Finniss to J. A. Lloyd, 27 February 1837. 146 MA RA567. Overseer A. Van Hilten to W. Staveley, 9 December 1837. 147 MA Z2A106. J. A. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 29 January 1838. 148 MA Z2A109. O. Desmarais, Procureur GeÂneÂral, to J. Finniss, 25 January 1838. 149 MA Z2A110. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 9 May 1838. 150 MA Z2A106. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 22 June 1838. 151 MA Z2A108. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 30 May & 5 June 1838. 152 MA Z2A108. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 30 May 1838. 153 A gold Indian coin. 154 MA JB289. Trial of Alexis. Unfortunately, no record of the Court's verdict survives. 155 MA Z2A114. B. Avice, Civil Commissioner of Grand Port, to J. Finniss, 11 October 1838. 156 MA Z2A108. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 6 October 1838. 157 MA Z2A107. Police reports, 16 January and 20 February 1839. 158 MA Z2A108. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 26 February 1839. 159 MA Z2A135. Police report Moka, 28 June 1840. 160 MA JB 307. Trial of Sheik Adam and others. Datura stramonium is commonly called thorn apple. 161 Ibid. Pierre Louis did not report the crime until after Sheik Adam's arrest. 162 Ibid. Poisoners in India were sometimes referred to as `daturias', a reference to this potent herb. 163 Con 41/10 (Sarah Swift); Con 37/1 (Sheik Adam). 164 MA RA507. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 24 October 1833. 165 MA RA509. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 10 August 1833. 166 MA Z2A83. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 15 November 1835. 167 MA Z2A88. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 26 July 1835. 168 IOL P/404/36 (6 September 1848). G. F. Dick to J. G. Lumsden, Secretary to Government Bombay, 10 June 1848. 169 IOL P/404/27 (12 January 1848). A. N. Shaw, Magistrate of Dharwar, to A. R. Grant, Second Assistant Magistrate, enclosing: Statement of the Prisoner, 23 September 1847. Notes 167

170 MA RA567. R. Sherlock to J. A. Lloyd, 18 July 1837. 171 Surendra Bhana and Arvinkumar Bhana, Àn Exploration of the Psycho- Historical Circumstances Surrounding Suicide Among Indentured Indians, 1875±1911', in Surendra Bhana (ed.), Essays on Indentured Indians in Natal (Leeds: Pepal Tree, 1991), p. 168. 172 Bhana and Bhana, Àn Exploration', p. 168. 173 Compiled from data in the MA JI and MA Z2D series. 174 Bhana & Bhana, Àn Exploration', p. 157. 175 MA RA1125. S. Wilson to C. J. Bayley, 7 November 1851. 176 MA RA506. Police report, 8±9 August 1833. 177 MA Z2A14. A. B. Ducoudray, Civil Commissioner of Moka, to J. Finniss, 14 February 1818. 178 MA Z2A13. F. Rossi to Marshall and Journel, Joint Civil Commissioners of Police, 11 May 1818. 179 MA RA144. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 17 November 1818, enclosing: police report, 12 November 1818. 180 MA RA125. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 22 February 1819, enclosing a letter from B. Mason to F. Rossi, 17 February 1819. 181 MA RA130. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 2 June 1819. 182 MA RA256. W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 7 April 1824. 183 MA HA107. Police report, Plaines Wilhems, 18 September 1827 (also reproduced in MA Z2A14). 184 MA Z2A45/46. G. Ducray, Civil Commissioner of Savanne, to J. Finniss, 31 December 1828 and police report, Savanne, 31 December 1828. 185 MA Z2A65. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 21 July 1831. 186 MA RA769. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 23 October 1844. 187 MA RA226. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 16 June 1823, enclosing: police report, 15 June 1823. 188 MA RA234. W. Staveley to G. A. Barry, 17 November 1823, enclosing: police report, 13 November 1823. 189 MA RA507. A. Montgomery to the Officer on Duty, Police Office Port Louis, 28 November 1833. 190 MA JI12. Post-mortem of Renbella, 18 April 1833. (`FatigueÂ de la vie': tired of life.) 191 MA RA229. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 3 August 1823, enclosing: letter from W. Clover to F. Rossi, 2 August 1823 and police report, 3 August 1823. 192 MA RA507. Police report, 28 November 1833. 193 MA RA507. Police report, 28 November 1833 194 MA RA507. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 3 December 1833. 195 MA RA229. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 3 August 1823. 196 MA RA142. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 29 November 1819. 197 MA RA182. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 16 August 1821. 198 MA RA235. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 21 December 1823, enclosing: police report, 20 December 1823. 199 MA RA197. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 10 January 1822, enclosing: police report, 9 January 1822. 200 MA RA170. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 14 February 1820, enclosing: police report, 13 February 1820. 201 MA Z2A76. Police report, 18±19 March 1835. 168 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

Chapter 5

1 Sherry B. Ortner, `Resistance: Some Theoretical Problems in Anthropological History and Historical Anthropology', Comparative Studies in Society and His- tory, 37 (1995), 173±93. 2 John and Jean Comaroff, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination (Oxford: Westview Press, 1992), p. 11 and 15 (emphasis added). 3 Sherry B. Ortner writes: `A Hobbesian view of social life is surely as biased as one that harks back to Rousseau.' See `Theory in Anthropology Since the Sixties', in Dirks, Eley and Ortner (eds), Culture/Power/History, p. 394. These issues are also discussed by Nicholas B. Dirks, `Ritual & Resistance: Subversion as a Social Fact', in Dirks, Eley and Ortner (eds), Culture/Power/History, pp. 483±518 and Jonathon Glassman, Feasts and Riots; Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856±1888 (London: James Currey, 1995). 4 Ortner, `Resistance', 175. 5 Dirks, `The Invention of Caste', 43. 6 Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers, p. 236. 7 Nwulia, The History of Slavery, pp. 59±62. 8 PRO CO167/124. Return of the number of Indian Convicts at Mauritius, 30 October 1824. 9 MA Z2A65. W. Clover to J. Finniss, 12 August 1831. 10 MA RA708. J. A. Lloyd to G. A. Barry, 23 February 1842. 11 This is also evident in the many police reports and criminal trials where convicts answered questions or gave evidence in Creole French. 12 MA RA365. Police report, 12±13 December 1828. 13 MA RA457. Police report, 21±2 November 1831. 14 MA Z2A72. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 26 August 1833. 15 MA JB281. Trial of Abdullah. Police report, 2 October 1835. 16 Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers, p. 237. 17 MA RA365. Police report, 11±12 December 1828. 18 MA RA451. J. Finniss to J. Smith, Acting Chief Secretary to Government, 2 March 1831. 19 MA JB221. Trial of John Marian. Interrogation of Jenny and FeÂliciteÂ, Court of First Instance, 7 September 1829. 20 MA Z2A106. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 6 July 1838. 21 MA Z2A122. G. F. Dick to J. Finniss, 4 May 1837 and Z2A132. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, 25 July 1840. 22 Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers, pp. 89 and 91±2. On the imbalanced sex ratio in Fiji, see Brij V. Lal, `Labouring Men and Nothing More: Some Problems of Indian Indenture in Fiji', in Kay Saunders (ed.), Indentured Labour in the British Empire, 1834±1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 148. 23 See David G. Mandelbaum, Women's Seclusion and Men's Honor; Sex Roles in North India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1988). 24 MA JB180. Trial of Rumuth alias Cassal. Police report, 14±15 April 1827; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 7 and 23 August, 27 June and 29 September 1827; and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 29 September 1827. Notes 169

25 MA JA77. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 29 June 1843. 26 MA JB377. Trial of Limbah Poonjah. Police report, 14±16 March 1843 and evidence of the Court of First Instance, 17±18 March 1843. 27 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Letter to J. Finniss, 12 September 1845. 28 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, Court of Assizes, 17 March 1846. 29 PRO CO167/286. James Wilson, Chief Judge, to Governor W. M. Gomm, 2 August 1846, enclosing: `Trial notes in the case of Kuttoo Ramgee, a native of Bombay, for the Murder of an Indian Child named Bidacy, before an Assize held at Port Louis, Mauritius', 28 July 1846. 30 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 11 September 1845 and statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, Court of Assizes, 17 March 1846. 31 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Autopsy report of Dr H. Rogers, 21 August 1845. 32 MA JB347. Trial of Kittoo Ramjee. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 11 September 1845. 33 PRO CO167/272. W. M. Gomm to J. Wilson, 3 August 1846. 34 Ibid. J. Wilson to W. M. Gomm, 7th May 1847. 35 Ibid. Prosper d'Epinay, Procurer GeÂneÂral, to W. M. Gomm, 25 May 1847. 36 MA RA1198. Governor's Minute on the Liberation of the Indian Convicts, 15 February 1853. 37 MA RA180. F. Rossi to G. F. Dick, 8 June 1821. 38 MA RA262. F. Rossi to G. F. Dick, 26 June 1824 and MA RA411. H. Bates, Head of Kandyan Prisoners, to G. F. Dick, 7 May 1829. 39 MA RA1164. Report of a Medical Committee convened this day by order of Alex. Thom. Esq., Chief of the Medical Department to report upon the state of the undermentioned Emancipated Convicts, 23 November 1852. 40 MA RA973. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 5 April 1848. The characterisations were also common amongst women in the Australian colonies. See Damousi, Depraved and Disorderly; Oxley, Convict Maids, Chapter 8; and, Reid, `Work, Sexuality and Resistance'. 41 MA RA1043. Petition of Gearnoo Dannoo, 22 October 1849. 42 MA RA1118. Petition of Mullala Solimon, 29 January 1851. 43 MA PA6. Petition of Hurry Bappoo, 15 January 1858 and report of the Protector of Immigrants, 14 January 1858. Marina Carter also cites this in Voices from Indenture, pp. 6 & 12. 44 Barlow (ed.), Charles Darwin's Diary, p. 402. 45 See Appendix C 2. 46 MA RA544. A. Montgomery to W. Staveley, 30 August 1835. 47 MA Z2A8. F. Rossi to E. A. Draper, 11 April 1816. 48 MA Z2A70. Gassy Sobdar to J. Finniss, 3 September 1832. 49 MA JB270. Trial of Nallaqui. Police report, 17 January 1833; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 11 July 1834; and, letter from overseer S. Thatcher to J. A. Lloyd, 13 September 1833. 50 Ibid. Petition of Mahamet Baugh Mookeu Mawlackey, 16 September 1833. 51 Carter, Servants, Sirdars & Settlers, pp. 261±2. 52 MA HA105. Police circular no. 264, 19 February 1839. 53 MA HA105. J. Finniss to Plaines Wilhems' police, 2 March 1839. 170 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

54 MA JB332. Trial of Massoobene Ramjee, Sackoo Puddhoo & Aribapou. Statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, 16 September 1843 and medical report of Dr R. Allan, Acting Police Surgeon, 12 February 1843 and MA JA77. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 9 October 1843. 55 Ranajit Guha, `The Prose of Counter-Insurgency', pp. 38±9. 56 MA RA414. W. L. Melville to G. A. Barry, 5 August 1829. 57 MA RA511. Police report, 9±10 January 1833. 58 MA Z2A88. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 12 August 1835, enclosing a letter from Simon Goss, Surveyor of Roads, 4 August 1835; and, Z2A83. Police report, Savanne, 22 August 1835. 59 MA Z2A80. E. B. Patten, Royal Engineers, to Lieutenant Cole, Commander of Royal Engineers, 27 March 1835. 60 MA Z2A79. E. A. Williams, Acting Procureur GeÂneÂral, to J. Finniss, 21 March 1835. 61 MA RA502. Petition of Amerdi, 30 March 1838. 62 MA RA175. Convict petition, 25 January 1821. 63 IOL P/132/7/20. Convicts per Lord Minto, Helen and Lady Barlow, 1 December 1815, 12 April 1816 and 15 January 1817. 64 IOL P/138/65 (12 June 1828). A. W. Blanc to H. Shakespear, 27 February 1828. 65 MA JB291 Trial of Versey Tajea. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 23±5, 28 and 30 August and 1 September 1837 and statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, 26 February 1838. 66 MA JA62. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 28 March 1838. 67 MA JB291. Trial of Versey Tajea. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 25 July 1838. 68 PRO CO167/41. Minute on the Employment of Convicts, 18 July 1818. 69 Herbert Hope Risley, The People of India (London: Thacker Spink, 1915), pp. 2ff. 70 Barker, Slavery and Antislavery, p. 86. 71 MA Z2A40. D. Beaugendrel, Civil Commissioner of Moka, to J. Finniss, 17 September 1827. 72 MA HA107. Police reports, 27±31 December 1830. The contents of the letter are unknown. 73 MA RA433. Police reports, 3±4 February 1831. 74 MA RA511. Police reports, 12±14 January 1833. 75 Guildive was liquor made from sugar cane. The term is said to have originated in the West Indies, where the word kill-devil indicated the strength of this potent brew. 76 MA Z2A59. W. Staveley to J. Finniss, 5 February 1830. 77 MA Z2A76. Police report, 24±5 March 1835. 78 MA Z2A86. A. Hugnin, Civil Commissioner Plaines Wilhems, to J. Finniss, 8 August 1835. 79 MA Z2A83. Police report, 21 February 1835. 80 MA RA429. S. Thatcher to W. Staveley, 7 December 1830. 81 MA RA429. S. Thatcher to W. Staveley, 11 October 1831. 82 MA RA507. Police report, 28 November 1833. 83 MA RA712. A. Montgomery to G. F. Dick, 11 October 1842. 84 MA JB313. Trial of Baker & Alphonse. Evidence of the Court of Assizes, 23 September 1840. Notes 171

85 PRO CO167/221. Governor Colonel Power to Lord John Russell, 30 March 1840, enclosing: Ordinance no. 2 1840 prohibiting the importation, cultivation and sale of the gandia plant. 86 MA Z2A127. J. A. Lloyd to J. Finniss, 25 April 1840. 87 MA JA71. Police Correctionelle, 11 June 1841. 88 MA JA79. Police Correctionelle, 7 July 1843. 89 MA Z2A222. District circular, 16 April 1848. 90 MA Z2A218. Civil Commissioner of Grand Port to C. Anderson, Chief of Police, 6 May 1848. 91 MA Z2A202 C. Anderson to O. Desmarais, 2 February 1849, 12 November 1849 and 27 February 1850. 92 MA Z2A235. A. Wilson, Acting Inspector of Police Moka, to C. Anderson, 16 October 1851. 93 MA JB176. Trial of J. H. Maas. Interrogation of John Herman Maas, Court of First Instance, 17 August 1826. 94 MA RA330/504/506. Police reports, 26±7 June 1826, 24±6 August 1833, 13±16 October 1833 and 13±14 November 1833. 95 MA JA71. Police Correctionelle, 19 February 1841. 96 MA RA708. J. A. Lloyd to G. A. Barry, 23 February 1842. 97 MA JA55. Police Correctionelle, 12 December 1834. No convicts were found guilty of any offence: as it was dark, the police officers could not be certain of who had attacked them. 98 PRO CO415.15. G. Smith, Chief Judge, to G. A. Barry, 20 July 1817. 99 MA RA132. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 23 August 1819. 100 Maxwell-Stewart, `Convict Workers', p. 151. Emphasis added. 101 Holman, A Voyage Around the World, p. 129. 102 MA JB167. Trial of Joidore. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 5±6 July 1825 and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 19 November 1825. 103 MA JB242. Trial of Narahime and Bourdaye. Police report, 12 September 1831; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 17 October 1831; statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, Court of Assizes, 12 April 1832; and, verdict of the Court of Assizes, 17 April 1832. 104 MA RA121. Governor Lowry Cole to Hamilton, 24 October 1832; MA RA492. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 17 September 1832. 105 MA RA818. J. Montagu, Colonial Secretary Cape Colony, to G. F. Dick, 9 October 1845. Also cited in Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery; The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830±1920 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 46. 106 MA JA63. Police Correctionelle, 20 April 1838. 107 MA JA64. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 30 September 1839. 108 MA JA71. Police Correctionelle, 20 August 1841. 109 MA JA71. Police Correctionelle, 26 November 1841. 110 MA JA71. Police Correctionelle, 30 April 1841. 111 MA JA73. Police Correctionelle, 25 February 1842. 112 MA JA73. Police Correctionelle, 24 June 1842. 113 MA JA90. Police Correctionelle, 16 July 1847. 114 MA JA93/101. Police Correctionelle, 3 and 28 April 1848. 115 MA JA103. Police Correctionelle, 1 June 1849. 116 MA RA1208. S. Brownrigg to C. J. Bayley, 15 August 1853. 172 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

117 MA JA69. Police Correctionelle, 21 August 1840. 118 MA JA80. Police Correctionelle, 26 March 1847. 119 MA JB277. Trial of Basarate Can. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 14 October 1830, and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 23 June 1831. 120 IOL P.402.46 (27 May 1840). J. Finniss to J. Burrows, Captain of Police Bombay, 3 October 1839. 121 MA JB334. Trial of Bocary, Saquias and Sommir. Evidence of the Court of Assizes, 13 March 1834. Unfortunately, there is no record of the verdict in this case. 122 MA RA824. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 5 May 1845. 123 MA RA824. Report of J. A. Lloyd, 5 May 1845. 124 MA JA51. Police Correctionelle, 16 September 1834. 125 MA JB332. Trial of Paliandy and Ebdella. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 3 May 1843 and evidence of the Court of Assizes, 7 June 1843. 126 MA JA77. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 29 June 1843. 127 MA JB227. Trial of Sibballi. Police reports, 20 and 26 September 1831; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 26 October 1831; and, verdict of the Court of Assizes, 26 May 1834. 128 MA Z2A30. Police report, RivieÁre Noire, 10 March 1827. 129 MA RA335. Police report, 10±12 March 1827. 130 MA Z2A41. Police report Savanne, 16±21 April 1827. 131 MA Z2A51. J. Finniss to W. Staveley, 23 March 1829. 132 MA RA455. Police report, 31 December 1830±4 January 1831. 133 MA Z2A125. F. Langlois, Civil Commissioner Pamplemousses, to J. Finniss, 14 March 1840. 134 MA RA920. E. Magon, Civil Commissioner Ville Bague, to J. Finniss, 19 July 1847. 135 MA RA884. J. A. Lloyd to C. J. Bayley, 17 July 1846. 136 Similarly, it has been argued that the during the transition to capitalism in Britain there was a clash between the traditional appropriation of goods and new laws designed to protect private property. See Linebaugh, The London Hanged. 137 MA JB138/JA88. Trial of Same. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 16 June, 17 July and 4 October 1820 and 8 September 1821; police report, 11 May 1820; and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 8 September 1821. 138 MA RA540. Police report, 11±12 November 1833. 139 MA Z2A40. Police report, Plaines Wilhems, 28±29 September 1827. 140 MA RA332. Police report, 22±4 December 1827. 141 MA RA456. Police report, 12±13 June 1831. 142 MA RA457. Police report, 8±10 October 1831. 143 MA RA475. Police report, 28±30 July 1832. 144 MA Z2A76. Police report, 27 January 1835. 145 MA Z2A80. M. Carey to J. Finniss, 13 February 1835. 146 MA Z2A82. Police report, 31 March 1835. 147 MA RA276. Police report, 27±28 April 1835. 148 MA RA279. Police report, 24±25 November 1835. 149 MA RA279. Police report, 4±5 July 1825. 150 MA Z2A31. J. M. M. Virieux, Procureur GeÂneÂral, to J. Finniss, 28 November 1825. Notes 173

151 MA RA434. Police report, 14±15 June 1830. 152 MA Z2A60. Police report, 25 December 1830. 153 MA RA504. Police report, 25±26 November 1833. 154 MA Z2A74. Petition of Shake Hosen, 19 December 1833. 155 MA JA42. Police Correctionelle, 16 December 1831. 156 MA JA56. Police Correctionelle, 27 February 1836. 157 MA JA83. Police Correctionelle, 29 August 1845. 158 MA JB176. Trial of John Herman Maas. Proceedings of the Court of First Instance and verdict of the Court of Assizes, 16 August and 23 September 1826. 159 MA RA371. Police report, 14±16 August 1828. 160 MA RA476. Police report, 16±17 November 1832. 161 MA RA506. Police report, 16±17 September 1833 and Z2A74. Overseer G. Le Tourneur to J. Finniss, 13 September 1833, enclosing a list of names of convicts taken up at Grand River on suspicion of false coining. 162 MA JA52. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 4 April 1834. 163 MA JB268. Trial of Lada and Faquira. Police report, 27 August 1833 and evidence of the Court of First Instance, 2, 7, 11, 13 and 15 November 1833. 164 MA Z2A76. Police report, 23±24 January 1835. 165 MA Z2A82. E. Magon to J. Finniss, 4 April 1835. 166 MA RA824. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 12 May 1845. Old immigrants were required to obtain a ticket which acted as proof of having completed their period of service. Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers, pp. 200±1. 167 MA JB270. Petition of Mahamet Baugh Mookeu Mawlackey, 16 September 1833. 168 MA JB239. Trial of Charles & Narcisse. Police Report, 20 July 1831. 169 MA JB183. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 4 January 1827. 170 PRO CO167/45. Acting Governor Darling to Lord Bathurst, 6 May 1819, enclosing a letter from the Civil Engineer's Office, 11 March 1819. 171 MA JB234. Trial of Gitoo. Evidence of the Court of First Instance, 22±23 December 1831. 172 MA JB211. Trial of Mooktaram Goindah. Evidence and verdict of the Court of First Instance, 12±13 March and 3 April 1830. 173 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 174 Mohur: gold coin of British India, worth 15 rupees; marquee: Indian coin, worth 7 1/2d; sicca rupee: coined under the Government of Bengal, of greater value that the Company rupee. 175 MA RA132. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 23 August 1819, enclosing a police report, 23 August 1819. 176 MA RA131. F. Rossi to G. A. Barry, 20 September 1819, enclosing a list of money received from F. Rossi. 177 MA Z2A143. J. Finniss to O. Desmarais, Procureur GeÂneÂral, 5 February 1841. 178 MA Z2A143. J. Finniss to O. Desmarais, 21 September 1841. 179 MA RA506. Police report, 28±30 September 1833. 180 MA Z2A133. J. Finniss to Prosper d'Epinay, Procureur GeÂneÂral, 11 July 1840. 174 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

181 MA Z2A160. M. Hugnin, Civil Commissioner Plaines Wilhems, to J. Finniss, 21 September 1841. 182 MA JA105. Police Correctionelle, 23 March 1849. 183 MA JB183. Police report, 22 December 1827 and evidence of the Court of First Instance, 4 January 1827. 184 MA JB239. Trial of Charles and Narcisse. Police report, 21 May and 1±2 June 1831; evidence of the Court of First Instance, 15±23 June and 20 July 1831; and statement of the Procureur GeÂneÂral, Court of Assizes, 25 April 1832. 185 PRO CO167.287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847.

Chapter 6

1 See Appendix C 5. 2 PRO CO167/287. Report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the present state of the Indian Convicts and the most expedient mode of employing them now that the effectives are so reduced in number, 20 July 1847. 3 MA Z2A101. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 7 November 1836. 4 MA Z2A97. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 9 December 1836. 5 IOL P/402/15 (20 February 1839). J. M. Short, Superintendent of Police Bombay, to J. P. Willoughby, 16 May 1838 and Memorandum by the Secret- ary ( J. P. Willoughby), 21 May 1838. 6 IOL P/403/13 (23 November 1842). J. Burrows, Captain & Superintendent of Convicts Bombay, to J. P. Willoughby, 19 November 1842. 7 PRO CO170/7. Minutes of Council of Government, 8 June 1837. 8 PRO CO170/12. Minutes of Council of Government, 13 May 1839. 9 PRO CO170/15. Minutes of Council of Government, 8 February 1841. 10 Nicholas & Shergold, `Convicts as Migrants', p. 49. 11 IOL P/400/27 (24 June 1829). Petition of Onitaye, Allac, Tayet, Achom, Apps, Avon, Ahon, Acum, Achon, Finquorn, Ayon & Agnait, 15 April 1829. 12 MA RA403. Police report, 6±7 October 1829. 13 IOL P/402/32 (27 March 1839). F. W. Howard, Acting Advocate General Bombay, to J. P. Willoughby, 21 February 1839. 14 PRO CO167/223. L. Smith to Lord Russell, 17 October 1840 and Russell's reply, 12 July 1841. 15 MA RA624. Petitions of Bhurut-see (Bhorutsee), 28 March 1840 & 5 March 1842. 16 MA RA721. Petition of Nouratane, 2 December 1842. 17 MA RA724. Major Savage to G. F. Dick, 7 November 1842; MA Z2A177. J. Snell to Major Savage, 9 November 1842; and, IOL P/403/20 (26 July 1843). W. Savage to William Gomm, 23 May 1843. 18 MA RA865. Petition of Housah, enclosed in a letter from J. A. Lloyd, 31 December 1846. 19 MA RA1045. Report of J. A. Lloyd, 28 March 1848. 20 IOL P/403/7 (21 April 1842). J. A. Lloyd to S. Brownrigg, 6 March 1842. Notes 175

21 IOL P/403/8 (25 May 1842). Minute of the Governor of Mauritius (G. W. Anderson), 24 March 1842. 22 IOL P/403/18 (14 June 1843). Resolution on the Honourable Court's Despatch, 11 April 1843. 23 MA SD23. W. Gomm to Lord Stanley, 28 April 1844. 24 MA RA756. Petition of Sheik Abib, 17 February 1843. 25 MA RC21. Petition of Sa Adrekan, 22 August 1844. Marina Carter also argues that the authorities were keen to provide passages back to India for elderly or infirm indentured Indian labourers, as there was little value in Indians rendered unproductive through accident or age: Voices from Inden- ture, p. 130. 26 PRO CO167/279. W. Gomm to Earl Grey, 1 February 1847. 27 PRO CO168/33. Earl Grey to W. Gomm, 15 January 1848. 28 MA RA916. W. H. Rawstone to G. F. Dick, 18 November 1848. 29 MA RA975. Proceedings of the Medical Board and Classification of the 315 Convicts attached to the Surveyor General's Department, 1 November 1848. 30 MA RA916. Report of the Medical Board on the Convicts, 18 December 1848. A `bubble-bubble' was also known as a huqqa (tobacco pipe). 31 MA RA916. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 18 December 1848. 32 IOL P/143/8 (2 March 1848). G. A. Bushby, Secretary to Government of India, to F. J. Halliday, 26 February 1848. 33 PRO CO167/303. G. A. Bushby to G. F. Dick, 19 August 1848. 34 MA RA1010. W. H. Rawstone to G. F. Dick, 28 November 1849. 35 MA RA1164. W. Carey to W. H. Rawstone, 15 November 1852. 36 Marina Carter has shown that plantation owners were unwilling to employ ex-slaves on the plantations. Instead they looked to indenture as a new source of cheap, unfree labour. See Servants, Sirdars and Settlers. 37 MA RA1035. Petition of eight Bengal convicts, 25 June 1849. 38 IOL P/143/44 (13 March 1850). J. Thornton, Secretary to Government N. W. Provinces, to J. E. Grant, Secretary to Government Bengal, 18 February 1850. 39 MA RA1118. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 15 February 1851. 40 MA RA1043. Petition of Gearnoo Dannoo, 22 October 1849. 41 MA RA1043. C. J. Bayley to W. H. Rawstone, 8 April 1840. 42 MA RA1118. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 29 January 1851. 43 MA RA1148. Petition of Ragoo, 13 January 1851. 44 MA RA1224. E. O. Frome to C. J. Bayley, 30 December 1852. 45 PRO CO167/344. E. O. Frome to C. J. Bayley, 21 June & 7 July 1852. 46 PRO CO170/37. Report no. 341 of the Finance Committee on the Minute of the Governor, 12 June 1853 & correspondence on the subject of the liberation of the Indian convicts now remaining in Government Service, 28 June 1853. 47 PRO CO167/344. C. J. Bayley to the Duke of Newcastle, 12 August 1852. 48 MA RA1198. Minute on the liberation of the Indian convicts, 12 June 1853. 49 MA RA1225. Petition of 65 convicts, 14 November 1853. 50 MA RA1164. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 14 October 1852. 51 MA RA1206. W. Carey to C. J. Bayley, 4 January 1853. 52 MA RA1045. Report of the Surveyor General, 3 October 1849. 176 Convicts in the Indian Ocean

53 MA RA1068. W. Carey to W. H. Rawstone and his reply, 3 May 1850. 54 MA RA1068. W. H. Rawstone to C. J. Bayley, 8 June 1850. 55 MA RA1161/2. S. Brownrigg to C. J. Bayley, 5 January and 1 April 1852. 56 MA RA387. W. Staveley to G. F. Dick, 11 December 1828. 57 MA RA708. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 22 March 1842. 58 MA RA709. J. A. Lloyd to G. F. Dick, 2 November and 24 December 1842. 59 MA RA981. M. Carey to G. F. Dick, 4 April 1848. 60 MA Z2A83. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, 6 January 1835. 61 MA Z2A84. J. Finniss to G. A. Barry, 3 February 1835. 62 MA RA544. W. Stewart to G. F. Dick, 9 February 1835. 63 MA Z2A106. G. F. Dick to J. A. Lloyd, 31 May 1838. 64 MA RA604. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 28 January 1840. 65 MA Z2A159. J. Snell, Assistant Colonial Secretary, to J. Finniss, 20 September 1841. 66 MA RA1020. W. H. Rawstone to G. F. Dick, 24 October 1849. 67 MA RA1069. A. Montgomery to F. Siewright, Chief Medical Officer, 17 Feb- ruary 1849. 68 MA RA1192. Petition of Mamode Nolachi, 18 May 1852. 69 MA RA1125. Petition of Sododdy and Rotton of Grand River, 21 November 1853. 70 MA Z2A97. G. F. Dick to J. A. Lloyd, 19 September 1836. 71 MA Z2A101. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 14 July 1837. 72 MA RA826. J. Finniss to G. F. Dick, 22 October 1845. 73 MA Z2A103. G. F. Dick to J. Finniss, 18 July 1837. 74 MA RA838. Petition of Basta, 26 September 1845 and police report, 8 October 1845. 75 MA RA902. Petition of Lala Sarapsap, 30 April 1846. 76 MA RA897. Petition of Lala Sarapsap, n. d. (April 1846) and police report, 11 April 1846. 77 MA Z2A199. Police report, 4 May 1846. 78 MA Z2A199. Surveyor General's report, 15 May 1846. 79 MA Z2A199. J. Smith to Lala Sarapsap, 3 June 1846. 80 MA RA939. Petition of Vosha Bogha, 15 May 1846 and police report, 26 June 1846. 81 MA JA64. Verdict of the Court of Assizes, 30 September 1839. 82 MA JA73. Police Correctionelle, 4 November 1842. 83 MA JA/JB/Z2A series. Of course this does not imply that there were never complaints against time-expired convicts, simply that they were not recorded. 84 MA RC21. Petition of Pittumber, 23 March 1844 and police report, 8 April 1844. 85 PP 1875 XXIV. Mauritius (Treatment of Immigrants): Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Treatment of Immigrants in Mauritius, p. 27. 86 MA RA981. Police report, 29 November 1848. Bibliography

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acquittal, convict, 104±6, see also climatic determinism, 15±16, see also secondary offences, secondary racial science punishments clothing, convict, 35±6, 41, 49, see also Aden, 4±5 contraband trade alcohol, 51±3, 57, 96±7, see also leisure, Clover, William, 40, 52, 83, 84, 86, 92, overseers see also overseers Alipore Jail, 13±14, 17, 22, 24, 25, 47, Code NapoleÂon, 2 60, 69, 94 cohabitation, see intimate relations Andaman Islands, 4±5, 12±13, 19 Cole, Lowry, 9, 10, 47 Arabic merchants, 1 commanders, convict, 53, 55±7, 72, Arakan, 4 83±4, 114 attacks on convicts, 97 attacks on, 66±7 Australia, 9, 19, 20, 37, 55, 59, 70, 71, commensality, see caste 96, see also New South Wales, commercial agriculture, 1±2 transportation from Britain, Van Commission of Eastern Enquiry Diemen's Land (1828), 20, 43, 86 Commission of Enquiry (1847), Backhouse, James, 9 114±17, see also Medical Board Bel Ombre rebellion, 62±6, see also (1848) marronage Commission of Enquiry (1875), 7, 9, Bencoolen, 4, 12±13, 14, 19, 23 71, 122 Bourbon, 2, 80 complaints of convicts, 47±8, 62±3, 93, brahmins, 15±16, 17, 41±2, 43±4, see 96, see also petitions also caste contraband trade, 42, 57, 70, 74, burial rites, 91, see also religion 99±105, 116, see also property convicts in Mauritius Cape of Good Hope, 2, 37, 100 ages of, 23±4, 45, 111, 114, 134 Caribbean, see West Indies Arabic, 16, 60, 112 caste, 8, 10, 15±18, 26±7, 32, 41±2, from Ceylon, 25, 43, 98, 106 43±4, 61±2, 65±6, 91, 93±6, Chinese, 16, 113 132±4, see also brahmins, clerks, 43, 114 religion cooks, 44 census, Mauritian, 6, 35 couriers, 45±6, 54, 75, 101, 109, 113, Ceylon, 2, 6, 19, 25, 65, 118, see also 114, 118 convicts (from Ceylon), Kandyan crimes for which transported, 18±19, exiles 23±4, 25, 28±33, 129±30 Chazal, T. A. de, 46±7 hospital attendants, 44 children, convicts', 48, 86, 87, 90±1, invalids, 114±17 117, 118, see also female convicts, lepers, 42, 111, 115 intimate relations liberation of, 7, 90, 116±18 Chinese, 6, 113, see also convicts medical treatment of, 36, 42, 55, (Chinese) 82±3 citadel, construction of, 45 nationalist historiography on, 9

188 Index 189 convicts in Mauritius (Cont.) entrepreneurs, convict, 54, 97, 99, organisation of, 39, 41, 43, 51, 107±8, see also contraband see also Convict trade, jewellers, property Department, Department of escaped convicts, recapture of, 80±1, Roads and Bridges, see also marronage, secondary Proclamation 193 offences political offenders, 9 Eurasian women, 87, see also Davis, `Portuguese', 16, 73, 87, 107, 120 Maria private assignment of, 40, 62, see also ex-convicts, 118±21, see also silk production time-expired convicts `racial' division of, 43±4 representations of, 7±9, 99 families, convict, see children, intimate selection of in India, 21±5 relations sepoys, 9, 10, 30±1, 114, see also family emigration, proposals for, convicts (representations of ) 19±21 servants, 41, 54, 75, 113, 118 Farquhar, R. T., 5, 19±20, 21, 22±3, 36, skills, 27, 43±4, 54, see also gratuities, 46, 47, 57±8, 64 positive incentives female convicts, 19±21, 25, 90, 117 region of origin, 131±2 fighting, convict, 55±6, 92, see also social origins of, 18, 30±2, 104, see murder of convicts also religion Finniss, John, 69, 73, 102±3, 106, 121, suspicion of, 104±6, 108±9 122 transported for a term, 15, 28±9, 112, Foucault, Michel, 3 115, 131 French settlement, 1 watchmen, 46, 75, 118 Convict Department, 36, 55 gambling, 98 convict indents, 25±8, 43, 94 gandia, see marijuana convicts, non Anglo-Celtic, 3, 6 gangs, transportation of, 74, 130 Convict Workers, 3±4 gender ratios, 19±20, see also convicts, corveÂe labour, 21, 39 family emigration creoles, 6, see also contraband trade, gender relations, 3, see also female intimate relations, leisure convicts, intimate relations criminal castes and tribes, 8, 27 godna, 26±8, 35±6, 73 culture, convict, see identity, Gomm, William, 114 convict gratuities, 48, 54, 55, 98±9, see also positive incentives, property Darling, Ralph, 47 Darwin, Charles, 6±7, 8, 91 Hall, Major-General, 39, 40, 46, 65±6 Davis, Maria, 20±1, 50 Hastie, James, 48±9 Department of Roads and Bridges, 40, homosexuality, 86, see also intimate 50, 119±20 relations Dick, G. F., 114, 121 Diego Garcia, 42 identity, convict, 85±6, see also discipline, rhetoric of, 34±5, 49±50 resistance Dutch settlement, 1, 6, 64 ÃIle de France, see French settlement indentured labourers, Indian, 3, 6, 7, 8, East India Company, 2, 4, 29, 116 23, 50±1, 64, 70, 71, 73, 81, 85, 88, economic development, Mauritius, 90±1, 92±3, 101, 107, 111, 112, 1±2, 44±5 116, 118, 120, see also children 190 Index indentured labourers, Indian (Cont.) mutiny, convict, 14, 60±1 (convicts'), intimate relations, Moharrum Napoleonic Wars, 2, 36 India, crime in, 28±33 Natal, 81 informing, 38, 56, 61, 63, 71±2, 80±1, New South Wales, 7, 19, 37, 67, 94, 101, 107, 113±14, see also rewards 112, see also Australia, secondary insanity, 69 punishments, transportation intimate relationships, 48, 86±91, 93, Nicolay, William, 49 102, 117, 118, 120, see also children (convicts') opium consumption by convicts, 97, 116 Java, 2 production, 46±8 jewellers, convict, 101, 102±3, 107, overseers, European, 36, 54, 62, 67, 74, 121, see also entrepreneurs, time- 86, 90, 91, 93, 97, 99±100, 101, 107, expired convicts 108, 109, 118, 120, see also Clover (William), Staveley (William) kala pani, 16, 116, see also caste, attacks on, 37, 61±2, 76 transportation (fear of ) duties of, 40±1, 43, 49±50 Kandyan exiles, 44 misconduct of, 51±3, 57, 61±2, 66 Koenig, William, 114 pardons, convict, 90, 113, 117, see also language, 86±7 petitions lascars, 70, 73, 79±80, 105 pass tickets, convict, 54 leisure, convict, 36, 94±8, 116, see also Penang, see Prince of Wales' Island alcohol, gambling, marijuana, petitions opium convict, 92, 93±4, 106 Lloyd, J. A., 73, 104, 106, 116, 121 convicts' wives, 20, 114 lodgings, convict, 35, 38±9, 118 for convict labour, 44 Lyall, Robert, 49 for liberation, convict, 87, 90, 113±14, 117 Madagascar, convicts sent to, 46, 48±9 for transportation from India, madness, see insanity prisoners in, 18 Malacca, 4 time-expired convicts', 121 Maratha Wars, 31±2 to return to India, convict, 120 marijuana, 89, 97±8 plantocracy, Franco-Mauritian, 5, 20, marriage, see intimate relationships 21, 39±40, 44 marronage, see also Bel Ombre Port Louis, 22, 39±40, 45, 50, 78, 87, rebellion, resistance, West Indies 88, 91, 92, 100, 102, 106, 108, 118 convict, 49, 56, 69±79, 94±5, 111, 114 Portuguese settlement, 1 slave, 39, 64, 69±70, 71, 87 positive incentives, 34±6, 48, 53±4, see Medical Board (1848), 116 also gratuities Moharrum, 92±3, see also Muslim Prince of Wales' Island, 4, 12, 13, 14, community, religion 19, 21, 23 moneylenders, 52, 102 Proclamation 193, 36±7, 40, 53±4 mortality rates, convict, 21, 23, 39, 96, property, convict, 87, 98±109, see also 111, 135 contraband trade, entrepreneurs murder of convicts, 109 public works, convict employment on, Muslim community, 91, see also 6±7, 21, 33, 34±5, 38±9, 41, 44±5, Moharrum, religion 51, 55±6, 58, 112, 115, 116 Index 191 racial science, 8, 15, see also climatic receiving stolen goods, see determinism contraband trade rajputs, 94, see also caste shoplifting, 101 rations, convict, 14, 41±2, 54, 62, 64, suicide, 82, see also suicide, convict 93, 103±4, 112, see also caste, theft, 37, 53, 84, 97, 100, 101, 102, contraband trade 103±4, 109 reformation, moral, 34, 57±8 trials for, 37±8 religion, 18, 91±4, 135, see also caste, secondary punishments, 65, 83±4, 113, social origins 136±7 resistance, see also Bel Ombre rebellion, execution, 37±8, 67 secondary offences, marronage, fettering, 35, 52, 56, 57, 60±1, 68, 69, suicide 75 `everyday', 36±7, 59, 67±9, 82±3, 85, flogging, 34, 36±7, 61, 62, 74, 109 116, 118 hard/forced labour, 65, 90, 93, 101, indentured labourers', 67 107, 109 slave, 67 imprisonment, 38, 101, 102, 116, tricks, 69 118 violent, 59±67 preferable to public works, 37±8, 67 rewards, 57, 61, 63, 71±2, 75, retransportation, 37, 79, 94, 99, 106, 80±1, 113±14, see also see also New South Wales, informing Robben Island, Van Diemen's Robben Island, 37, 100, see also Land secondary punishments segregation, 65 robbery of convicts, 109 solitary confinement, 34 Rodrigues, 2 stocks, 37, 56, 74, 95 Rossi, Francis, 22, 36, 40, 43, 51±2, 58, segregation, 34±5, 50 61±2, 71 `sexual jealousy', see violence, domestic secondary offences, 135±6, see also Seychelles, 42, 44, 111, see also acquittal, Bel Ombre rebellion, convicts ( lepers), petitions (for contraband trade, marronage, convict labour) resistance silk production, 46±8 arson, 61, 88 Singapore, 4, 44, 68 assault, 37, 57, 88, 93, 104 slaves, see also marronage, West Indies attempted murder, 37 imports, 1±2, 5, 6, 21 breaking guildive laws, 52 labour, 4 burglary, 99, 100, 101 liberated, 117 disturbing public order, 96 revolts, Caribbean, 50, 64 escape from transportation, 60, 74, socio-economic life, 85, 87, 88, 96, 79±81, 94, see also lascars, 98, 109, see also contraband marronage, mutiny trade, intimate relations, leisure forgery, 92, 98, 106±7 Smith, Lionel, 113 gang robbery, 37, 56, 61, 99, 104 Southeast Asia, 59, 117 melting down stolen goods, 102±3, convicts in, 5, 12, 21, 24, 33, 34, 55, see also jewellers 86, 111, see also Andaman murder, 37, 88, 90±1 Islands, Arakan, Malacca, poisoning and robbery, 76±9, 94±5, Prince of Wales' Island, 97, see also marijuana Singapore, Tenasserim Coast robbery, 74±5, 116 Sri Lanka, see Ceylon 192 Index

Staveley, William, 40, 43, 54, 73, 91, transportation from India, see also 120, see also overseers Aden, Andaman Islands, Arakan, sugar industry, 2, 5, 44 convicts, Malacca, petitions, suicide, convict, 81±4 Prince of Wales' Island, Singapore, Supreme Court Southeast Asia, Tenasserim Coast Bombay, 15, 21, 23 cost of, 13, 21±2, 33 Calcutta, 12, 20, 128 fear of, 13, 25, 117, see also caste, kala pani Tannah Jail, 27, 60 gangs, 35 tattoos, 3, see also godna gendering of, 18±21, 33, see also Tenasserim Coast, 4 family emigration, female time-expired convicts, see also convicts convicts (transported for a term), regulations on, 12±14, 17 ex-convicts shipping, 14±15, 25, 127±8 Australian in Mauritius, 20 and social mobility, 94 deportation of, 121±2 to Mauritius, 14 employment of, 119±22 suspension of, 13±14, 112 return to India of, 112 tobacco, 54, 100 Van Diemen's Land, 19, 59±60, 61, 69, transportation, European, 3±4 79, 98, see also Australia, transportation from Britain, see also transportation from Britain Australia, New South Wales, Van violence, domestic, 87±90, see also Diemen's Land intimate relations to Americas, 2±4, 12 to Australia, 3±4, 12, 16, 18 West Indies, 2, 7, 47, 70, see also to Bermuda, 4 marronage (slave), slave revolts to Gibraltar, 4 witnesses, convict, 38, 56±7 to West Africa, 4 Transportation Act, 2 YamseÂ, see Moharrum