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Disguises of Shiva Nationalism and Folk Culture in the Bengal

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Disguises of Shiva Nationalism and Folk Culture in the Bengal Disguises of Shiva Nationalism and Folk Culture in the Bengal Borderland since 1905 By Aniket De Department of History Tufts University An Honors Thesis submitted to the Department of History Of Tufts University in partial fulfilment of the requirements For the degree of Bachelor of Arts Examined by Ayesha Jalal, Mary Richardson Professor of History, Chair Kris K. Manjapra, Associate Professor of History Sarah Pinto, Associate Professor of Anthropology Defended on April 26, 2016 2 Abstract This thesis studies the history of a folk theatre form called Gambhira, performed in what is today the northern part of the Indo-Bangladesh border, principally in the districts of Malda and Chapai Nawabganj. On the Indian side, it is performed around the figure of the Hindu god Shiva; people address their complaints and grievances by ridiculing and grumbling to the god. Across the border in Muslim-majority Bangladesh, Shiva has been replaced by a Muslim farmer, the genre of grumbling remaining the same. Lying at the interface of cultural and intellectual history and ethnography and drawing on archival and ethnographic work conducted in India, Bangladesh and England, this thesis traces how various changes in this local, small-scale performance form have occurred in dialogue with broader, structural events of modern South Asian history since 1905, like anti-colonial nationalism, the Partition of India, and the making of postcolonial nation-states. The history of Gambhira acts as a lens to reveal how the idea and practice of the “folk” has remained, throughout the twentieth century, a site of mediation between metropolitan political ideologies and local cultural worlds. I see the concept of the “folk” not as the reflection of a homogenous national spirit, nor as the exclusive domain of subaltern subversion, but as a historically shifting point of contact and negotiation between various metropolitan and borderland ideologies and practices. Consequently, I deploy “mediation” as a theoretical pivot to interpret the change in “folk culture” at certain moments of historical intersections between the nation and its borderlands. 3 Disguise, I see, thou art a wickedness, Wherein the pregnant enemy does much. Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, II.ii.27-8 And Arjuna, the foremost of warriors, said, "I will present myself in Virata’s court as a eunuch; I shall entertain the king and his women through singing and dancing…Thus I shall disguise myself through illusion, and, like fire hidden by ashes, shall live happily in Virata’s palace." Mahābhārata IV.ii.19-27 (Abridged) O wise, destructive lord, you destroyed India’s knowledge, You destroyed India in the disguise of the British, O Shiva! Gambhira song, Malda (c. 1942) 4 To the people of Malda and Chapai, Across borders but beyond boundaries, With Gratitude. 5 Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………6 Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………...10 Note on Transliteration……………………………………………………………………….11 Introduction: God is One, but the Border Divides Him Nationalism and Folk Culture in the Bengal Borderland since 1905……...…………12 1. From Revelry to Nation-building Small Towns and Folk Culture in Swadeshi Bengal, 1905-1920……………………47 2. Performing the Proletariat Mass Politics and a Fragmented Language of Popular Protest, 1920-1945……….....88 3. Divided Songs, Altered Gods Partition and the Making of a Borderland Folk Culture…...………………………..126 Epilogue: Disguised Mediations, Mediated Disguises How to Write History from the Middle?...………………………………………….175 Glossary of Bengali Words…………………………………………………………………185 Short Biographical Notes……………….…...……………………………………………...186 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………...188 6 Acknowledgements Ayesha Jalal’s introductory history class during my first semester at Tufts confirmed that my long-cherished dream of being a historian was indeed the best path for me. Three years later, I can only be thankful for the most diligent, astute and caring thesis advisor and mentor one could have asked for. Kris Manjapra’s composed wisdom and erudition guided me over my early college years, not only as a historian but as a human being; one conversation with him in March 2013 made me instantly declare a history major. He cheerfully took up the thankless task of being a second reader during an extremely busy sabbatical. For the past four years, Sarah Pinto has tirelessly steered me through the delights of theoretical thinking and ethnographic practice. She has given me time through endless independent studies, even a trans-Atlantic one over Skype during my junior year in England. I am deeply grateful to all of them, not merely for being in my committee, but for the worlds they have unveiled before me in the course of my undergraduate years. Many other professors at Tufts provided valuable help. Jeanne Penvenne, Amahl Bishara and Cathy Stanton ran warm thesis exchange gatherings, providing companionship during the lonely journey of writing. Thomas Abowd has remained a crucial mentor and most cordial well-wisher over the years. Conversations with Alex Blanchette, Virginia Drachman, David Guss, Beatrice Manz, Alisha Rankin, Rosalind Shaw, and Joseph Walser have constantly challenged my thinking. Fellow thesis writers, especially Barbora Hoskova and Tara Kola, have painfully suffered through many of my first drafts. I would have probably been lost in paperwork without the adept administrative guidance of Annette Lazzara, Jamie Gorman and Lynn Wiles. Administrators at Dowling Hall, notably Joanne Ferguson, play no small role in making our lives easier. Like all other scholars at Tufts, I am very thankful to Anne Moore for being the exuberant force that she is, from gathering funding to heated debating about which font, Garamond or Times New Roman, looks best for a thesis. 7 Beyond Tufts, Sugata Bose has remained a constant fount of support, intellectually and institutionally, in Kolkata and in Boston. I look forward to many more years of his guidance. Sunil Amrith, Imre Bangha, Shailendra Bhandare, Mou Banerjee, Shubho Basu, John Comaroff, David Curley, Rishad Choudhury, Thibaut d’Hubert, Richard Eaton, Gavin Flood, Abhishek Ghosh, Frank Korom, Auritro Majumdar, Rachel McDermott, Partha Mitter, Kirin Narayan, Ralph Nicholas, Kiyokazu Okita, Jeanne Openshaw, Sumathi Ramaswamy, Tony Stewart and Lucian Wong have selflessly supplied rare books, and commented on my work. During my year in Oxford, I learnt much from Faisal Devji in the course of our reading classes. Peter Claus provided skilful academic tutelage, care and humour in that damp little island of wry wit, while Dame Lynne Brindley, Master of Pembroke College and erstwhile director of the British Library, graciously facilitated my research. In Kolkata, Sukanya Sarbadhikary, Upal Chakrabarti and Milinda Banerjee of Presidency University have been congenial colleagues and friends. I thank faculty and students of Presidency’s Departments of History and Sociology for inviting me to give seminars and for offering valuable feedback. Sajal Nag, Mridu Rai, and Shukla Sanyal gave much-needed support, while Dipyaman Chakrabarti, Ayanti Ghosh, Avirup Jana, Sandipan Mitra, and Radhika Dutt made my time in Kolkata all the more enjoyable. Aishwarya Kazi tried to bring life in gloomy moments through her grim wit, and sometimes even succeeded in doing so. I have benefitted from the knowledge and munificence of Sushobhan Adhikary, Bireshwar Bandyopadhyay, Gautam Bhadra, Abhijit Banerjee, Tathagata Chakrabarty, Tapati Guha-Thakurta, Martin Kaempchen, Shibendu Manna, Shevanti Narayan, Kamalika Mukherjee, Arupjyoti Saikia, Ashim Sarkar, Subir Sarkar and many others. In Dhaka, the most hospitable, cordial and traffic-congested city of the world, I thank Perween Hasan, Iftekhar Iqbal, Saymon Zakaria, Syed Jamil Ahmed, Firoz Mahmud, Shamsuzzaman Khan and Ahmed Kamal for invaluable support and warmth in a foreign country. Khurshid Alam 8 and Mahboob Hossain made a second home for me in Dhaka, while the intricate bureaucratic network of Bangladesh efficiently guided me through its countryside. Rasim Alam, Samira Manzur and Mustafa Monowar not only helped out in times of need, but made a research excursion a fun-filled trip. This historian-anthropologist’s most important debts are to his archives and field contacts. I recall with gratitude the noble tribe of librarians and archivists at the British Library, Bodleian Library, National Library Kolkata, Bangiya Sahitya Parishad, Hiteshranjan Sanyal Memorial Archive in the Center for Studies in Social Science Kolkata, Malda Library, Kaligram Bharati Bhavan Pathagar, Dhaka University Library, Houghton Library and Harvard University Archives. In Malda, I was immensely helped by the support of Hon’ble Legislator Krishnendu Narayan Chowdhury and his family, and of my dear friend Shahnawaz Ali Raihan, who left no stones unturned to fetch me help. Parimal Tribedi, Joyraj Tribedi, Sujit Acharya and their team in Malda Malancha provided me with a home in Malda, and the magistrates and bureaucrats provided crucial support. While I prefer to keep the identity of my informants concealed, I must at least mention Gambhira performers Amar Mandal and Prashanta Seth, public figures on their own right, who have gone out of their ways to help me. This project would not exist without the many people on both sides of the Indo- Bangladesh border whose stories it tells. Though left anonymous by the rules of anthropological ethics, this thesis is dedicated to them. I recognize the various fellowships and prizes this
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