106

CHAPTER-IV Recital and its Objectives

4.1. The definition oi Patimokkha

In the third chapter, we have discussed early Buddhist and the promulgation of the . In this chapter, we shall analyze the recital of Patimokkha and its Objectives in general. Initially we shall discuss the definition of the term Patimokkha for the sake of understanding of its origin.

Regarding the meaning of the word Patimokkha, although we find that there are different interpretations of it in the literature. Our concern is to define the meaning of Patimokkha according to Pali literature. The references quoted below are fi"om the Pali sources:

(1) Patimokkhanti ddimetam mukhetam pamukhametam kusaldnam dhammdnam tena vuccati patimokkhanti pdtimokkham- It is the beginning, it is the face (mukha) it is the principle (pdmukha) of good qualities, it is called Patimokkha.

(2) Yo tarn pdtirakkhati tarn mokkheti moceti apayikddi dukkhehi tasmd patimokkhanti vuccati- whosever observes the rules of Pdtimoka delivers fi-om sufferings such as of the inferior states, and so it is called Patimokkha fi-oma n old TTka, quoted by Subhuti.

' . Vin. III. P. 141. (Mahavagga Paji) 107

(3) Pdtimokkhanti atimokkham patippamokkharh atisetham atiuttamarh- the Patimokkha is that which is the highest, the extraordinarily high, the very best and very highest.'^

The term Patimokkha is available to us in several recitations. Some are in Indian languages and others in Tibetan or Chinese translation. However, of them only one the pali is still a living tradition, recited fortnightly and put into practice by Theravada through the world. The meaning of the term Patimokkha is a matter of conjecture. According to the Mahdvagga,^ it means "the beginning, tlie head (or entrance-moA:^/ia), the foremost {Pamukkha of wholesome qualities. Moreover, the word Patimokkha is defined in the PTS Pali dictionary as 'that which should be made binding'. It refers to a collection of rules defining the proper conduct for members of the Buddhist Order for Bhikkhus () and BhikkhunTs (nuns). There are two Pdtimokkhas: the Bhikkhupdtimokkha for Bhikkhus and the BhikkhunTpdtimokkha for BhikkhunTs. The Patimokkha for the monks consists of 227 rules, and the Patimokkha for nuns has 311 rules.

The rules are divided into eight categories, Pdrdjika, Samghddisesa, Aniyata, Nissaggiyapdcittiya, Pdcittiya, Pdtidesaniya, Sekhiya and Adhikaranasamatha, the Bhikkhunipdtimokkha dose not have any Aniyata rules. These categories determine the seriousness of the rule, and what should be done after breaking the rule. The Adhikaranasamatha are a bit different, in fact they are not really rules, but ways in which conflicts within the Saihgha (monastic community) can be resolved. There are various extent

' .Vism. P. 43. (Visitddhimagga) ^. Yin. III. P. 141. {Mahavagga Pali) 108 versions of the Pdtimokkha, of different early Buddhist school. Complete versions exist of the Pdtimokkha of the Theravada and Dharmaguptaka schools.

4.2. The history of recital oi Patimokkha

The background of the fortnightly recitation of the Pdtimokkha is found in the second section of the Mahdvagga of the Vinaya-pdtimokkha. The discussion here dose not give all the details relating to twice monthly recitation. Specific instructions for BhikkhunTs are given in the Vinaya- Pitaka. King Bimbisdra noticed that people v^ent to hear the teachings of other sects when they met on the eighth day and the fourteenth or fifteenth day of the fortnight. He suggested to the Buddha that his Bhikkhus should do the same. When the Buddha informed the Bhikkhus that they were allowed to meet in this manner, they did so but remained silent. People criticized them for this, and the Buddha then told the Bhikkhus they could teach the doctrine at those times. Then he decided to have the Bhikkhus recite the rules of training he had laid dovm.

The Buddha told the Bhikkhus of his decision and laid down the wording for the introduction. A number of regulations regarding the recitation are given in the second section of the Mahdvagga. The Buddha reduced the days for reciting the Pdtimokkha to two in a month on either the fourteenth or fifteenth day of the fortnight. All the Bhikkhus of one residence should come together for the recitation, which led to the establishing of boundaries and a hall for the Uposatha.

" . Vin. III. Pp. 139-140. {Mahavagga Pali) 109

For the recitation of the Patimokkha, it must be the right day,^ there must be a minimum of four Bhikkhus, the Bhikkhus present must not be guilty of the same offence and no unsuitable person should be present. If only two or three Bhikkhus are present, they simply make a declaration of their purity. If a is alone, he should do the four preliminarily duties, then make a determination that the day is an Uposatha day for an individual.

Before the recitation, any Bhikkhu who has committed an offence must confess it to another Bhikkhu. The four prelirriinary functions are to be performed, and the five preliminary duties must be fulfilled. How these preliminary functions and duties are presented at the beginning of the recitation of the Patimokkha differs from one monastic tradition to another.

The Patimokkha is normally recited by a Thera, but if a Thera is not able to do so, an experienced, competent Bhikkhu may recite it. There are five ways of reciting the Patimokkha. (1) The introduction is recited, and the rest is announced without being recited; (2) The introductions and the first four rules are recited and the rest is announced; (3) The thirteen Samghadisesa rules are added to the second type of recitation; (4) The two indefinite rules are added to the third type of recitation; (5) The entire Patimokkha is recited.^

^. Vin. III. P. 140. {Mahdvagga Pali) \ Ibid. P. 151. 110

4.3. Meaning of Uposatha and its kinds

Uposatha is translated as 'entering to stay", equivalent to our observance of the . It was tradition before the Buddha time, fixed for the observance upon the full moon day and upon the dark of the moon, as well as upon the quaiter moon days, respectively Uposatha by ancient laypeople in India. As a matter of fact, King Bimbisara asked to the Buddha to do Uposatha. From that time Uposatha tradition was begun up to present day. As regards the assembly of Bhikkhus, however, the Buddha allowed them to make Uposatha only upon the full moon and the dark moon days. On the fourteenth and fifteenth days in a month they were allowed to hold the Uposatha once at the special boundary-building or Simd.

In the life-time of the Buddha, delivered the Noble teaching in the assembly of the Samgha and rose up those virtues which are the heart of the Sdsand and as given in the Ovdda-pdtimokkha} As the regard; we can clearly emerging that the Buddha wished to see all Samgha meeting and unity of Samgha. Later on, the Buddha permitted the Samgha to have Uposatha themselves. In each group, one Bhikkhu should recite the training-rules which are called the Pdtimokkha, in the midst of the Samgha. A part from these two days, the Buddha allowed Bhikkhus to make extra Uposatha in some cases, as when Bhikkhus have been broken apart or by schism and are then reconciled, called sdmaggT-uposatha or samghasamagga which is just to unite again and not a legal significance but social significance.

. Sima is the Buddhist hall in theravdda . . Ovdda-patimokkha means the admonishment of the Buddha for the Bhikkhus. Ill

On the other hand, Uposatha means living with purified STla (morality). It must be performed fortnightly. It is called as Samgha, Gana, Puggala and Adhitthana Uposatha. Recitation of the Pdtimokkha was the soul of the Uposatha meeting. If Bhikkhus met together four or more in number, the Budddha has ordered them to recite the Pdtimokkha in the Samgha Uposatha.

This recitation served the double purpose of keeping the rules fresh in the minds of the monks and nuns, and of giving the opportunity to each member of the monastic community, while the rules were being recited.

In the Suttavibhahga, a Bhikkhu is usually shown as a vowing his offense to the Buddha, or to one of the monks, or to a group of monks, which he had committed it, and not as waiting to avow it before the assembly {Samgha) of monks. He was thus "pure" for the Uposatha ceremony, and could take his place at the meeting.^

If there are only two or three Bhikkhus, they are called a Gana Uposatha. They are allowed to inform each other of their purity and reciting a passage, ''Parisuddho aham bhante. Parisuddhoti mam dharetha" saying this three times it is translated, T, sirs, am entirely pure. May you hold that I am pure?,9,1' 0

Puggala uposatha is performed by two Bhikkhus individually reciting the same passage as mentioned above.

'. Kin.A. P. 95. {knkhavitaram Afthakathar) '" . Ibid. 112

Adhitthana Uposatha is performed by one Bhikkhu who stays alone, mentally saying, ''Ajja me uposatha pannarasoti (or catuddasoti) AdhUthdmr

Before all these Uposatha are performed each member of the Sarhgha shall confess their offenses. The Buddha announces that all members of Sarhgha must be within a boundaries or Sima. When Uposatha-day comes round, the Theras should go to the Uposatha-hvXi^mg first and order Bhikkhus to help sweep thai place. If it is dark then it should be lighted. Drinking water and water for general usage should be set out and arrange place and finished before the meeting of the Sarhgha. These four duties are called Pubbakararia, translated as 'the duties which should be done before'. Another five duties are also called Pubbakicca. These are: 1. Bhikkhus should be conveying the purity of sick Bhikkhus and inform the Sarhgha which is called Chanda. 2. As well as Bhikkhus should convey the Chanda or consent of the sick bhikkhus purity and declared to Sarhgha is called Pdrisuddhi. That purity is only for Uposatha, but consent is for both Uposatha and other Sarhgha-kamma. 3. Three seasons were counted in the time of Buddha gimmanta-utu or the rainy season. A Bhikkhu who recited Patimokkha have to mention about Utu. 4. Count the number of Bhikkhus in the same boundary is called . 5. If there are Bhikkhunis, ask them for Ovada but if there are no Bhikkhunis so this is a duty which need not be done.''

" .BMD. Pp. 20-21. 113

The main purpose of all above services means by the Buddha is that Ahhamanna vacanena ahhmanha vutthapanena to be mutual understanding, paying respect to each other and teachers and disciples. All mentions above are acts of performing Uposatha and it is considered as very important role for the monastic life.

4.4. The salient features of the recital of the Patimokkha

The following passage from the Mahavagga deserves to be mention to understand the manner in which the Patimokkha is recited and the salient features of the recital of the Patimokkha.

"The Order should be informed by an experienced saying: Honored Sirs! Let the Order listen to me. Today the fifteenth day is an observance day. If it seems right to the Order, the Order may carry out observance, it may recite Patimokkha. What is the Order's first duty? Let the venerable ones announce entire purity. I will recite the Patimokkha (while) one and all of us present listen properly and pay attention to it. He for whom there may be an offence should reveal it. If there is no offence, you should become silent. By your becoming silent I shall thus know that the venerable ones are quite pure. As there is an answer for each question, so it is proclaimed up to the third time in an assembly like this. Whatever remembering wile it began proclaimed up to the third time that there is an existent offence and should not reveal it, there comes to be conscious laying for him. Now conscious laying venerable ones, is a thing called a stumbling-block, by the Lord. Therefore the existent offence should be revealed by a monk who 114 remembers that he has fallen into an offence and who desires purity; for when it is revealed there comes to be comfort for him,"

Some of features of the recital of the Patimokkha emerge from an analysis of the above passage. They are: (1) The announcement of the purity of the monks. (2) MHien the Patimokkha or Sikkhdpadas are recited those who are assembled should listen carefully. (3) If a monk has committed an offence it should be revealed. (4) If he has not violated any Sikkhapadas, then such a monk should remain silent. (5) The question whether the monks are purified is asked thrice. And (6) If a monk who has fallen into an offence dose not reveals it when questioned even for the third time, he is regarded as a monk who is lying deliberately.

The announcement of purity of the monks Pahsuddhim ayasmanto arosetha, is the first thing that the monks should do before the recital of the Patimokkha. The question whether the monks assembled are possessed of their purity is put to them thrice. This shows how much importance was attached to the purity of the monks. Parisuddhim or purity means, (1) the non-commission of an offence, (2) an acknowledge of an offence, (3) the payment of penalty for an offence.'''

'-. BD. Vol. IV. P. 132. '^Ibid. 115

In case of a monk who is ill and who had sent his purity through another monk, purity means, that the ill monk believes that he has committed none of the offences specified in the Patimokkha, or that, if he has, he has confessed them, so that in regard to them he is pure.'"* An offence here means any of the five offences or any of the seven classes of offences for an elder, or for a newly ordained one, or for one of middle standing.'^ {Yassasiya apattiti therassava navassava mijjimassava pancannamva apattikkhandhanam ahnatara apatti sattannamva apattikkhandhanam ahfiatara apatti).

Five classes of offences comprise the Parajika, Samghddisesa, Aniyata, Nissaggiya, Pacittiya offences; the seven classes are these five with addition of the Pdtidesaniyas and Sekhiyas}^ The purity of Samgha is rated so high that it is tested during recital of the Patimokkha. Thus it is stated: "The text of the Patimokkha reveals the fact that the purity of the monks was tested and established during the recital and that disciplinary action was also taken against the transgressing monks at the same time"."*

The purity of the monks or the fact that there had been not transgressing of Sikkhdpadas has to be established by the monks themselves and the method used is to make a confession to that effect. {So dvikareyyd 'ti so deseyya, so

V BD. Vol. IV. p. 158. ^ Ibid. P. 133. * . Vin. III. 142. {Mahavagga Pali) '. BD. Vol. IV. P. 133. *. BMD. P. 98. 116 vivareyya, so uttanikareya, so pakaseya samghamajjheva ganamijjheva puggalamijjheva).

Referring to the assemblies of Patimokkha recitals, H.Oldenburg described them as "confessional meetings".^° He may have so described them because of the fact that monks are required to reveal or disclose any violations of Sikkhapadas at such fortnightly meetings. What would be the effect of making such confession? Such a confession removes the sense of guilt from standing as a stumbling-block on the path to higher spiritual attainments. In other words, it disburdens the guilty feeling of the monk and thereby paves the way to remove the obstacles which stand in the way of higher spiritual attainments. (Avikatd hissa phdsu hotiti kissa phasu hoti. Pathamassa jhdnssa adhigamaya phasu hoti dutiyassa jhanassa adhigamaya phdsu hoti... kusalanam dhammanaih adhigamaya phdsu hotiti) with regard to the main function of the Patimokkha recital it is thus said: "Ascertaining and establishing the purity of the members of the Samgha, both present as well as absent, was the major function of the Pdtimokkha recital. It seems obvious that the act of confession alone is hardly sufficient for a guilty monk to make amends. Such amends will have to take the form of facing some punishment or other. Professor Dhirasekera after a critical study of the recital of Pdtimokkha comes to the following finding: "All these accounts seem to agree on the point that confession of guilt and the establishment of the purity of the members of the congregation as well as punishment of the offenders was carried out at

" . Vin. III. P. 140. (Mahavagga Pali) -° . BLD. P. 370. . Vin. III. P. 140. . BMD. P. 98. 117

the assembly which met fortnightly for the recital of Pdtimokkha. He adds "it is also declared by the Buddha both in the Suttas as well as in the Vinaya that the ability to admit and accept one's error and make amends for it as well as safeguard against its recurrence is the basis of progress." {Vuddhihesa bhikkhave ariyassa vinaye yo accayam accayato disva yathadhammam patikaroti ayataim sarhvaram apajjatiti)}^

Thus judging from all the sources of information we have gathered in regard to the Pdtimokkha assembly, we could clear states that at such appreciated punishments were meted out to the violated of the Sikkhapadas and they in turn accepted such punishments with a view to reforming themselves. It was to maintain the purity of the Samgha, which is the basis of their holy life, and which is highly essential for the advancement of the spiritual progress, that these fortnightly meetings were recommended by the Buddha.

Such fortnightly meetings served another important purpose, namely the promotion of the unity and solidarity of the monks who participated in such meetings. {Anujdndmi bhikkhave samaggdnarh uposathakammati)?^ The maintenance of the purity and the unity of the Samgha may have been the reason why the Buddha insisted that there should be the flill participation of the living within the accepted boundaries of the STmd. This shows that unity of the Order was his main concern. In fiirtherance of this idea of unity, the presence and the participation is highlighted in the ancient of the Venerable Kappina who contemplated of the Pdtimokkha in the assembly, as he was

-'. BMD. P. 98. -''. Vin. III. P. 434. (Mahavagga Pali) -^ .Ibid. P. 143. 118 possessed of the highest purity. The Buddha who realized his thought went to the place where Kappina was, and having discussed with him the said thought, asked him to honour the Observance, and attend the recital. He readily accepted the Master's request.^^ This incident bears ample testimony to the fact that even a monk who is possessed of the highest purity {Parisuddhi) should attend the Patimokkha recital meetings.

Another salient example which indicates the need for purity and for the unity of the Samgha is performing the ritual of Patimokkha is the necessity for even a monk who is ill to send his purity through another monk to the Uposatha assembly. If the indisposed monk's purity had not been declared (by words, gestures, etc) he should be brought to the midst of the Order on a couch or chair, and thereafter the Observance should be carried out. If the ill-monk cannot be brought because it may worsen his illness or he may die, then the Order should go to the place where the ill monk resides and the Observance should be carried out there. Under no circumstances should the Observance be carried out by an incomplete Order as this would negate the very basis of unity. If carried out, it is an offence of wrong-doing. {Sarhghena tattha gantva kammarh kdtabbam na tveva vaggena sarhghena kammarh kdtabbam kareyya ce dpatti dukkatassa)/^

The recital of the Patimokkha at such fortnightly meetings further helps to remain the Bhikkhus that these are the Sikkhdpadas that they should observe in leading a life of a true recluse and such regular reminders to a great extent

-^ BD. Vol. VI. p. 136. -'. Vin. III. P. 163. 119 serve as a safeguard against the violation of Vinaya rules prescribed by the Buddha. John C.Holt expressing his views of the Patimokkha ritual says that for Buddhist Bhikkhus, the Patimokkha ritual is a formal expression of the ideal married to the real.'^^ That is to say that the recital of Patimokkha is an act of supreme excellence, interwoven with the life of a disciplined Bhikkhu. A noticeable feature in regard to the participation of monks to recite the Patimokkha is seen in the Mahavagga, where the Buddha had decreed that no monk who is guilty of any offence should perform the Uposatha. (Bhagavatd pannattam na sapattikena uposatho katobbo 'ti) As a prelude to exercising one's purity before the commencement of the Uposatha, a monk has to confess his guilt to another.

Prior to his participation in the ritual of the Patimokkha the guilty monk is expected to go before a fellow member, and submit very respectfully that he is guilty of a specific offence, and that he wishes to admit it. On his admission of guilt and he is being advised to safeguard against recurrence he gains absolution which entitles him participate in the ritual.

One may rise the question whether a monk guilty of a Pdrdjika or Samghddisesa offence could absolve himself from such an offence by making a confession in the aforesaid manner. A Pdrdjika offence is a gravest offence under the Vinaya. No amends whatever can be made for it and the offender loses his entire monastic status as a Bhikkhu, A Samghddisesa offence though not so grave as a Pdrdjika offence, yet entails a formal

-'.CBV. p. 131. -'. Vin. III. P. 169. ^VBMD.P. 101. 120 meeting of the Order to deal with the offender. The offender is not absolved from such offences merely by the purge of guilt. What then is served by a confession of such an offence? The only purpose would be to give the offender sufficient purity to take part in the ritual of Pdtimokkha. This view gains support from Professor Dhirasekera's comment on this connection.

He states "... that confession of the type contemplated here does not absolve the offender from the guilt of a Parajika or Samghadisesa. Nevertheless... this confession gives an offender sufficient purity to enable him to participated in the ritual".^' The Mahdvagga gives the minutest details of the ritual of the Pdtimokkha makes known the five ways how it should be recited. They are: Having recited the provenance (Niddna), the rest may be announced as thought which is already heard. Having recited the provenance, having recited the four offences involving defeat (Pdrdjika), the rest may be announced as thought it had already been heard. Having recited the provenance, the four Pdrdjika offences and thirteen Samghddisesa offences, the rest may be announced as thought it had already being heard. Having recited the province, the four Pdrdjika offences, the thirteen Samghddisesa offences and undetermined offences {Aniyata), the rest may be announced as thought it had already being heard. Recital in frill all the sikkhdpadas is the fifth way.^^ Recital of complete Pdtimokkha is necessary. Recital of the Pdtimokha in brief if not allowed and if it is recited so, it is and offence of wrong doing. {Na bhikkhve asati antardye samkhittena pdtimokkham uddisitabbam yo uddiseya apatti dukkatassti)/^

^' .BMD. p. 101. ^-. Vin. III. P. 151. (Mahavagga Pali). BD. P. 147. ".Vin. III.P. 151. 121

Thought of voluntary confession of guilt was expected to be made by a Bhikkhu who had committed an offence, yet there were some of them who did not do so and yet participated in the ritual of the Pdtimokkha. This was contrary to the expectations and injunctions of the Buddha. It is evident from the Culavagga, the recital of the Pdtimokkha should be suspended.^"*

It should be noted that the suspension of the Pdtimokkha has to be done with a due sense of responsibility, for it to be legally valid. The suspension of the Pdtimokkha on a baseless charge of a moral lapse renders it invalid.^^ On the other hand the legal validity of the suspension rates entirely on the legitimacy of the charge alleged. Quoting the Culavagga Prof Dhirasekera describes how the suspension of Pdtimokkha should be done. He says: "Any member of the Pdtimokkha assembly who knows through seeing, hearing and suspicion, (ditthena, sutena, parisahkhdya) about the commission of an offence by any participant would on seeing, the individual, declare it in the assembly and call for suspension of Pdtimokkha, which in effect means that the Pdtimokkha shall not be recited in his company. Thus we could see that these Uposatha meetings were not mere fortnightly gatherings. They served a useful and a specific purpose of maintaining the purity of the Samgha to which the Buddha attached great importance.

The recital of Pdtimokkha at the earliest stage was conducted with all formalities attached to the ritual. However with the passage of time certain changes were gradually effected as is evident from accounts in the

".BD.Vol.V.P. 336. " . Ibid. P. 337. ^''. Ibid. P. 338. ".BMD. P. 101. 122

Mahavagga. At the beginning the act of observance was performed by all the monks assembled together. "Being all together" was defined by the Buddha in the following words; "I allow monks being all together means as far as one residence" {Anujanami bhikkhave ettavata sdmaggT yavata ekdvaso 'ti).^^ It appears that this residence lies within the agreed boundary {Sima)?^ Later on for purpose of convenience, that the Observance was allowed to be carried out them there were only four monks in a residence. {Anujanami bhikkhave catunnam patimokkham uddisitun'ti). Even three monks residing in a residence were allowed to carry out this Observance of purification. {Anujanami bhikkhave tinnam parisudddhi uposattham kdtum).^^ Confession of guilt before a single monk was subsequently substituted for the earlier need for concession in the presence of the Order.'*^ Even if a monk remembers during the recital of the Patimokkha that he had committed an offence, then he could confess it only to a single monk who sits beside him and undertake to make amendment for it after the completion of the performance of the ritual. With regard to the formalities associated with this ritual, and their gradual reduction to the making of a concession, we would quote the following observance; "On the other hand, the ritual is prefaced with a number of formalities by way of preliminary duties, pubbakicca and pubbakarana, which assumed considerable ritualistic importance. They completely outweigh the recital and the consequent confession which formed the core of the ritual. The Patimokkha recital thereafter cases to be a

'*. Vin. III. P. 143. (Mahavagga Pali) " . Ibid. ^*' Vin. III. P. 167. ^' . Ibid. '- . Ibid. 123

powerful instrument in the proper maintenance of monastic discipline"."*^

We on our part, fully agree with the views so expressed in the light of the many changes that took place since the introduction of this much valued ritual. Patrick Olivelle, viewed the changes in the ritual of the Pdtimokkha and said: "In the course of time the Patimokkha became a mere ritual. It was no longer intended for sinner, but for the pure. It was no more an instrument of purity but an expression of it".'*''

He views and amply demonstrates the enormous changes that have taken place in the recital of the Pdtimokkha, and how at present it is reduced to a mere ritual.

We are of the view that although times have changed, the purity and the unity of the Samgha are still essential for the greater benefit of the Order, and therefore as a mark of respect for the wishes of the Buddha, all the monks should observe the recital of the Pdtimokkha at least once in two months. Such a course of action will undoubtedly enhance the moral well- being of the monks and in turn lead to the furtherance of good discipline among them. It is appropriate here to refer to this ritual helps to safeguard the monastic discipline. The fundamental features of the Pdtimokkha are thus described:

*^. BMD. P. 105. ^ . EBM. P. 53. 124

"The Patimokkha is the ritual which comes usually at the end of the third month of the rains-retreat, and is a part of the Observance of the Vassavasa. The , as the name itself suggests, is the request which a Bhikkhu makes to the Samgha with whom he has spent the rains-retreat to judge his conduct and declare according to what the Samgha has seen, heard, or suspected whether he is guilty of transgression. This request of the public scrutiny of one's conduct is made by every member of the Samgha, irrespective of seniority, on the definite understanding that whosoever stands accused would make amends for his errors when he recognizes them as such"/^

4.5. The Patimokkha and the Pavarana

The procedure laid down in the Mahavagga with regard to the Pavarana ritual is very similar to that of the recital of the Patimokkha. In the case of a monk who is ill and not in a position to attend the Pavarana he should inform the Samgha through another monk and request them for the judgment of his conduct. (Pavaranam dammi, pavdranam me hara pavaranam me arocehi mama atthdya pavdrehiti)/^

Like in the Pdtimokkha ritual, provision is made to bring the sick monk on a bed or a chair to the place where Pavdrand is held.'*^ If he cannot be removed from the place where he is, the Samgha should go to that place and perform the Pavdrand.^^ Even in regard to the number of monks who should

"^. BMD. P. 105. "" . Vin. III. P. 225. '' . Ibid. *\lbid. 125 participate, there is a similarity between the two rituals. Regarding the provisions of Vinayapitaka it is said: "Although total and complete participation would have been the ideal aimed at these two rituals, yet circumstances very similar to these connected with the recital of the Patimokkha, the quorum of the performance of this ceremony in the assembly of the Samgha is fixed at five. Any numbers of monks below this and down to two persons (monks) are expected to perform this ritual among them {annamannam pavaretum). A solitary monk who is left to himself must make a personal resolve {adhitthdna) on this matter, similar to the Adhitthdna Uposatha of the Pdtimokkha ritual".''^

As much as there are similarities between the two rituals there are dissimilarities too. Such differences are vividly described by Jhon C. Holt as follow: (1) "Instead of the collective Bhikkhu Samgha reciting all the disciplinary precepts in unison and declaring adherence, as is the case in the Pdtimokkha rite, each Bhikkhu is invited to crouch before the assembly of gathers and petition his fellow Bhikkhu brothers to judge his conduct according to the rules of discipline". (2) "Unlike the Pdtimokkha ritual in which transgression is confessed ahead of time before the recitation of the disciplinary rules, a violation of the rules is not voluntarily giving by the Bhikkhu under scrutiny. Rather, a transgression is pointed out by the Bhikkhus who have witnessed the violation".

•" . BMD. P. 106. 126

(3) "The preliminary rubrics of the Pdtimokkha encouraged Bhikkhus to examine their own personal behavior; the Pavarana encourages Bhikkhus to evaluate each other's conduct". (4) "Although both rituals are designed to maintain Pdrisuddhi (purity), the Pdtimokkha is clearly a more liturgical (in accordance with the established religious formalities rite, while the Pavdrand occasion serves as a type of court of law (i.e. because a judgment regarding a Bhikkhu 's conduct has to be given)".^"

In the following words Miss Homer too points out another significant difference between the two rituals. "The recital of Pdtimokkha was to remove offences, by confession them, during the nine dry months of the year; the Pavdrand was to remove any offences that monks had committed during the three wet months {) and would help them to aim at grasping discipline.^'

The Mahdvagga reveals that if a monk is charged at the Pavdrand with an offence of Pdrdjika, and if he admits that he is guilty of such offence, them the necessary disciplinary action is taken immediately. (So ce bhikkave cudito bhikkhu parajikam ajjhdpanno'ti, patijdndti, ndsetavd samghena pavaretabbam).

In the same manner in the case of a Samghddisesa offence which a monk admits he is guilty of, the appropriate disciplinary action is taken against him. For other offences too, relevant disciplinary action is taken according to

^°.D. Pp. 131-132. ^' . BD. P. xvii " . Vin. III. P. 257. (Mahavagga Pali) 127 the laid down laws and the Sarhgha thereafter goes ahead with the ritual of the Pavarand!'^ In the forgoing passages we have discussed only a very few details of these two rituals as stated in the Vinaya. Things we have not discussed are many. When one reads all the details given in the Vinaya, it is crystal clear that the Pdtimokkha and the Pavdrand rituals had been introduced by the Buddha mainly for the maintenance of good discipline and communal harmony. As the members of the Sarhgha have to depend on the laity for their needs, the well behaved conduct on the part of the Bhikkhus helps to a great degree to win the goodwill of the laity. They adore and respect the Sarhgha more and more, when they see in the Bhikkhus the saintly qualities of good discipline.

We are of the view these rituals, the Pdtimokkha and the Pavdrand, if observed in their original spirit would not only benefit the Samgha, but also the laity. Such observance in turn would bring beneficial influence on society at large in the long run. We make these comments as an endorsement of the views expressed by Prof Dhirasekera where in his concluding paragraph of the Chapter-'Ritual of the Pdtimokkha'' he says, that by diverse circumstances, the Pdtimokkha and the Pavdrand acquired in the course of time a very formal and rigidly ritualistic character so divorced from their original spirit."^''

As already discussed, the making of confessions has a significant place in the Vinaya and therefore it is appropriated at this stage to consider the nature of confession.

" . Vin. III. P. 257. '".BMD.P. 107. 128

4.6. The Objectives of Vinaya rules

When people live together as a group it becomes necessary to have a common understanding or rules defining the obligation to the members toward one another. It is thus that societies, associations and instructions have rules, regulations, statutes or constitutions, sometimes laying down penalties also for the infringement of them. Thus, too, in a wider sphere, the state has laws and to deal with transgressors. Such rules or law regulate the conduct of the members and help maintain Order and harmony among them. No society can function satisfactorily without such a code of rules, which in reality is a code of conduct, a code of ethical principles, in respect of the individual's relations with others of the group. With the evolution of the Buddhist Samgha and it became necessary to have rules to regulate the life of the monks living together.

Due to the small number of Bhikkhus at the beginning of Sasana rules and regulation for the control of the Samgha were not much needed. All the Sdvaka practiced and followed the Teacher's way of conduct, knowing frill well the teaching of the Buddha. When Bhikkhus increased in numbers and were scattered here and there, then the rules for their control became more necessary. Men living in society cannot live as individuals without connection to others because men have different dispositions and strengths, the rough and strong bullying the others have no happiness, hence (living like this) society will be disordered. Therefore the king must establish laws preventing people from doing evil and punishing the guilty. 129

Besides this, individual groups have established traditions and rules for themselves, as for instance the polite behavior followed in a well-bred family. There must also be rules and regulations in the Bhikkhu-community order to prevent wrong behavior and instigate Bhikkhus to behave properly.

The Master has been established both in the position of the King of Dhamma whose duty is to govern, and as the Father of Samgha who takes care of the Bhikkhusamgha. He has carried out both these two duties, called Buddhapafinatti to prevent wrong behavior and warn Bhikkhus who would commit such and such offences of the penalties, and that in some cases these would be heavy and in some they would be light, just as the King issues decrees and law. Secondly, the master as Father of Samgha has set up the traditions of good conduct which are called Abhisamdcara urging the Bhikkhus to behave properly, just as the revered father of a family who has trained his children to follow the traditions of their family.

Both Buddhapafinatti and Abhisamacara are called Vinaya and this Vinaya is compared to the thread through a garland a connecting together the followers; in the same way helps to establish firmly the Bhikkhusamgha. Again, those who have been ordained come from high, middle and some from low-class families and are different in character and different in taste. If there was not a Vinaya to control them, or if they did not follow the Vinaya, they would be a bad community of Bhikkhus and such would not be conducive to the arising of Saddhd and Pdsdda (wise faith and serene clarity) in other people. 130

The significance of the Vinaya could be well understood when one considers the objectives for which the rules of Vinaya or Sikkhapada were promulgated by the Buddha. These objectives are ten in number, and they are: (1) The well-being of the Sarhgha = Samghasutthutaya, (2) The convenience of the Samgha = Samghaphdsutaya, (3) The curbing of the miscreants =Dummhkunam puggaldnm niggahdya, (4) The ease of well-behaved monks =Pesaldnam bhikkhunam phdsuvihdrdya, (5) The restraint of the misbehavior = Ditthadhammikdnam dsavdnam samvardya, (6) The checking of behavior of future misbehavior= Sampardyikdnam dsavdnam patighdtdya,

(7) The conversion of new adherents =Appasanndnam pasdddya, (8) The enhancement of the faith of those already converted = Pasnndnam bhiyyobhdvdya, (9) The stability and the continue of the Dhamma = Saddhammatthitiyd and (10) The promotion of good discipline= Vinayd nuggahdyaJ^

We have no doubt the formulation of Vinaya is solely for the purpose of well being of Samgha, to prevent misbehavior of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, to elevate the faith of laity, to make harmonious life of Bhikkus Samgha as well as BhikkhunTSamgha, and ultimately to attain final liberation (Nibbdna).

" . Vin. I. P. 24. 131

From above discussion we can clearly understand the definition of Patimokkha, its historical background, the benefit of recitation of and how much the Buddha gave vital attention to perform it. And also we realize how Patimokkha is related to Uposatha, different kinds of Uposatha and the fundamental objectives of Vinaya rules. In the forgoing chapter, Penalties and Punishments will be analyzed according to the Vinaya text.