Archaeological Investigations of Sites in the Valley Results of the 2005 Joint American-Mongolian Expedition to Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu, Ogii nuur, Arkhangai aimag,

David E. Purcell and Kimberly C. Spurr Flagstaff, Arizona (USA)

During the summer of 2005 an archaeological investigations, and What is known points to this area archaeological expedition jointly their results, are the focus of this as one of the most important mounted by the Silkroad Foun- article, which is a preliminary and cultural regions in the world, a fact dation of Saratoga, California, incomplete record of the project recently recognized by the U.S.A. and the Mongolian National findings. Not all of the project data UNESCO through designation of University, Ulaanbataar, investi- — including osteological analysis of the as a World gated two sites near the the burials, descriptions or maps Heritage Site in 2004 (UNESCO confluence of the Tamir River with of the graves, or analyses of the 2006). Archaeological remains the in the Arkhangai artifacts — is available as of this indicate the region has been aimag of central Mongolia (Fig. 1). writing. Consequently, the greater occupied since the Paleolithic (circa The expedition was permitted emphasis falls on one of the two 750,000 years before present), (Registration Number 8, issued sites. It is hoped that through the with Neolithic sites found in great June 23, 2005) by the Ministry of Silkroad Foundation, the many numbers. As early as the Neolithic Education, Culture and Science of different collections from this period a pattern developed in Mongolia. The project had multiple project can be reunited in a which groups moved southward goals: archaeological investiga- scholarly publication. onto the steppes from the Taiga, tions of the Iron Age Xiongnu adopted pastoralism in some form, culture in central Mongolia, Research Design and Project and eventually moved south and instruction of Mongolian university Methodology west. Whether the movement was students and Silkroad Foundation in response to pressure from other volunteers in archaeological field Central Mongolia contains a rich, groups to the north or east methods, and cultural exchange deep, and varied archaeological (pushing) or new opportunities to between Mongolians and record that is, unfortunately, the south and west (pulling) Americans. These activities, far poorly known outside of Mongolia remains an important arena of from being discrete, were and the Russian-speaking research, but the pattern was inseparably part of the everyday archaeological community (cf. persistent for millennia. The activities of the expedition. The Bessac 1965; Davydova 1968). adoption of metal implements in the Bronze and Iron Ages appears to have done little to change this pattern. The first historically documented group of the Iron Age, called the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) by Han scholars, appears on the scene around 300 BCE, presaging a succession of similar steppe nomads that included the Uighur, Turks, and Mongols. The Xiongnu had a complicated and contentious relationship with the Han, raiding as well as trading with Han settlements along the north- western frontier of China. The relative degree to which the Xiongnu political system and its leaders were dependent on the Han is the current subject of Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Tamir River excavations.

20 heated debate (Barfield 1994; cf. goods to address the questions of alternatively, did the Xiongnu Di Cosmo in this issue). In an ethnic identify and material polity incorporate groups with attempt to address some of the cultural. The 2005 expedition different lifeways, including questions about this relationship, selected a Xiongnu cemetery in the agriculture, hunting and collecting, as well to gather additional Tamir River valley, a region from and dedicated pastoralism information about the nature of the which a good comparative (Barfield 1981)? The 2005 Xiongnu culture, the Silkroad collection was excavated in 2003 expedition targeted Tamir 2 (1) Foundation launched an archae- by a joint Mongolian-Korean to address whether the site is a ological expedition to gather new expedition. The cemetery site construction of the Xiongnu, rather data. selected by the 2005 Mongolian- than another group or a different American Expedition was named time period, (2) if built by the Ethnic Identity, Material Tamir 1. Xiongnu, to determine if this was Culture, and Gorodishche a year-round settlement (per- Tamir 1 is located on a manent), a seasonal settlement, or Specifically, the 2005 expedition prominent granitic outcrop known was built for short term occupation sought information in three areas: as Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu near such as fortified refuges, periodic the ethnic affiliation of the other cemeteries of the Neolithic, or seasonal gathering places, or Xiongnu, the affiliation of Xiongnu Bronze Age, and Mongol periods. special functions (i.e. ceremonial), material culture with Siberian and The significance of this place may and (3) to establish the Han traditions, and the derive in part from its prominent relationship of this site with the architecture and use of visibility within the Tamir and cemetery, Tamir 1. gorodishche (earthen-walled Orkhon River valleys, and its structures) by the Xiongnu. Recent proximity to the broad, well- Project History archaeological investigations of watered floodplains of these major burial populations in Inner rivers. Investigations from July 20 The general goals of the project Mongolia and southern Siberia to August 19, 2005, included the were identified in consultations have identified significant europoid preparation of detailed maps of the among Adela Lee, Head of the Caucasian Bronze Age populations, site using handheld GPS units, Silkroad Foundation, Dr. Albert some as old as the Hirgisur photodocumentation, and the Dien of Stanford University, Dr. complex of the Bronze Age (Di excavation of five graves at Tamir Mark Hall of the University of Cosmo 1999). Some readings of 1. California at Berkeley, and Dr. Zagd Han texts suggest the Xiongnu Batsaikhan of the Mongolian were, at least in part, ethnically The third research question National University, a noted like modern European populations, targeted a site 10 kilometers to the authority on the Xiongnu and a view supported by the recovery west of Tamir 1, which we author of the definitive work on the of Caucasian remains from some designated Tamir 2. This site Xiongnu, entitled (in English) Xiongnu graves (Tumen 2005; see consists of three enormous Xunnu. Dr. Hall had worked on a also the article by Batsaikhan in earthen-walled enclosures that prior excavation with Dr. this issue). Furthermore, some (superficially) resemble structures Batsaikhan. The latter had scholars have suggested that the excavated during the Soviet era in previously excavated at Tamir 1 Xiongnu, after leaving central the area of and in the and felt that it was a significant Mongolia, migrated west across the River valley of southern Xiongnu cemetery, likely to contain steppes to the eastern edges of the Siberia. A noteworthy project at additional intact graves. He had Roman Empire, where they were the site of Ivolga by Davydova also discovered Tamir 2. The known as the Huns. Others, noting (1968) suggested that these proximity of the two sites offered that hunnu is a Han term for any gorodishche were fortified, the opportunity to explore all of barbaric foreigner, and that the permanent Xiongnu villages, the research questions discussed Xiongnu and Huns are separated containing tightly packed semi- above, as well as offer students of by nearly 200 years in the Han and subterranean houses, pits, metal the field school opportunities at Roman accounts, suggest that the foundries, and possible animal survey, mapping, and excavation. Xiongnu and Huns are two different enclosures. These sites, however, groups, albeit of similar nomadic also contain considerable evidence Plans for the project were lifestyles. Addressing this issue for agriculture, in the form of grain initiated in 2004, with field work requires better understanding the storage pits, large ceramic vessels, to be conducted in the summer of ethnic composition of the Xiongnu agricultural tools, and grinding 2005. Dr. Hall made all of the initial and Huns and their material culture tools. The variety of features and preparations, issuing a call for traditions (Di Cosmo 1999; Miniaev specialized tools raised the volunteers in the fall of 2004. Of 1995). Excavation of Xiongnu question: did the Xiongnu practice the dozens of applicants, Dr. Hall tombs in Mongolia could potentially agriculture in tandem with selected 14. Unfortunately, just provide skeletal remains and burial pastoralism (Di Cosmo 1994), or, two weeks before the project was

21 to take the field, other and areas subjected to surface to, or slightly into, a commitments forced Dr. Hall’s excavations. David Purcell directed culturally sterile calcic soil. The withdrawal from the project. The this part of the field school. Using development of such soils typically Silkroad Foundation subsequently a Garmin 12-channel handheld requires many millennia, with their contracted with two of the Global Positioning System (GPS) formation likely pre-dating the volunteers — professional receiver, each of the sites was Xiongnu occupation. The test units archaeologists with prior mapped to scale with 3-5 m were located by reference to the experience running archaeological accuracy. During this activity, basic GPS coordinates, and thus have a field schools — to co-direct the metric data was collected for each potential locational error of 3-5 m. project for Silkroad Foundation. feature and recorded in tabular Relocating these units would be Due to scheduling conflicts form. Due to the size of Tamir 2, almost impossible for subsequent resulting from the sudden change and to give all project participants researchers, so each unit was lined in project supervision, neither an opportunity to learn site with plastic sheeting and a metal David Purcell nor Kimberly Spurr mapping, the recording resulted in object (coin, or other small trinket) was able to participate in the a site map of the entire settlement was placed in the bottom center. project for the entire four week and individual maps of each of the The units will, therefore, be field term. The Silkroad three enclosures (Figs. 21, 22, identifiable with a metal detector Foundation contracted with Dr. below). At Tamir 1, the density of and the actual location of the unit Wang Binhua, a prominent retired graves in the central portion of the could be precisely plotted with archaeologist formerly based in site required that we produce a reference to a site grid placed with The Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous detail map of part of the site, in a transit, theodolite, or total Region in China, to complete the addition to the overall map. All of station. project term after Purcell and the Mongolian students and Spurr departed, and to provide Silkroad volunteers were able to Each test unit was laid out with additional perspectives on the take part in this activity. respect to the cardinal directions. Xiongnu tradition from the western Since topographic maps of the area occupied by the culture and Some surface survey of areas project area were not available to the archaeological traditions of the outside of the sites did take place, the 2005 expedition, Purcell set Peoples Republic Of China. Thus, but at an informal, reconnaissance true north declination on his the 2005 expedition came to have level. This included a number of compass to 9° W, the alignment four archaeological directors and individual and group forays around of the western wall of Structure A. a field methodology that combines Tamir 1 to investigate the many The GPS-derived plot of this wall contemporary trends from three of other grave markers on Tamiryn is 4° E declination, indicating that the major schools of archaeological Ulaan Khoshuu, which Dr. the builders of Tamir 2 sought to methodology: American, Soviet Batsaikhan identified as belonging orient their layout to the true (Mongolian), and Chinese. The to Neolithic, Bronze Age, and cardinal directions, not magnetic. methods used in survey, testing, Mongol graves (Fig. 2). On one GPS north is slightly askew from mapping, and feature excavation occasion, Batsaikhan, Purcell, and True North. are described below. Spurr drove north of Tamir 2 to visit a site with extensive earthen For each volunteer, Purcell then Field Methods and walls that had been reported by a provided instruction on how to set Approaches to Data Collection local herdsman. A rough GPS map up an excavation unit, make sure of this site seems to show that it that it is square, set a datum for Site Survey, Mapping, and is of very different form than Tamir vertical measurement controls, Documentation 2, and possibly represents an and excavate using hand tools. animal trap and corral from an Each unit was excavated in Although it was hoped from the unknown period, rather than a arbitrary 10 cm levels. Unfor- outset that the field school would habitation area. tunately, screens were not include the opportunity for Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 systematic surface surveys of the Test Excavations type that form a major part of the American approach to describing The 2005 expedition further settlement systems, time and investigated Tamir 2 through a materials did not allow for this. series of systematic and Instead, the project focused on judgmental test excavations. The detailed documentation of each of systematic tests consisted of 1 x the sites, with the goal to produce 1 m hand units placed on a 50 m plan maps of each site showing the grid within Structure A of Tamir 2. Fig. 2. Surface remains of a Bronze- locations of each archaeological Fifteen of these units were Age (?) grave on a slope facing feature, relevant natural features, excavated to 20 cm below the Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu.

22 available to sift the soil for small vertical walls and rectangular artifacts that are often plan of TU 18 suggests that it overlooked when excavating. was excavated by archae- Profiles were then drawn of the ologists, rather than looters. exposed soil stratigraphy in Dr. Batsaikhan was unaware of selected units (those that who would have conducted such exhibited useful stratigraphy) an excavation. and plan maps were drawn of the bottom surface of the unit Feature Excavations if it exposed a cultural feature Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 or artifact. Selected units were The excavation of individual Fig. 4. Test Unit 16, Tamir 2 site. also documented through digital archaeological features was the photographs. sequence within the wall proper final activity undertaken in 2005, (Fig. 5). A possible post hole was and the primary focus of efforts at To investigate the architecture observed in profile in the east end Tamir 1. The approach followed of the gorodishche, three of this unit, perhaps part of a methods used previously by Dr. judgmentally selected test palisade wall or gate. Batsaikhan at this and other excavations were made in Xiongnu sites, with slight Structure B. These consisted of a modifications at two of the 1 x 1 m unit (TU 17) placed in a features. Using a compass set to long, low swale that extends partly magnetic north, the visible feature across the interior of the structure, (a low rock ring) was divided into a 1 x 1 m unit (TU 16) placed quarters along the cardinal within the interior southwestern directions using string lines, which corner of the wall, and a 1 x 1 m extended at least 1 m beyond the unit (TU 19) placed in a gap of the edge of the rock ring. Vegetation southern wall near the and overlying dirt was cleaned (Fig. southeastern corner. All were 6) from the northwestern quarter excavated in arbitrary 10 cm levels first, followed by the northeastern, initially, with TU 19 being southeastern, and southwestern. excavated in natural levels below A balk, or untouched strip of soil 20 cm. TU 17 exposed what 20-30 cm in width, was left appeared to be a natural cobble between each of the quarters (Fig. and gravel deposit and was 7, next page). Using metric graph discontinued at 6 cm (Fig. 3). TU Photo © David E. Purcell 2005 paper, each exposed stone of the Fig. 5. Test Unit 19, Tamir 2 site. grave surface was then drawn to scale with a string mapping grid, Test Unit 18 consisted of drawing a block 5 x 5 m at a time. cleaning and profiling the walls of The northwestern quarter was a rectangular pit found near the illustrated first, and upon center of Feature 1 (Structure B), completion of the map of that in the top surface. The pit section, the rocks were removed measured approximately 1.35 x and discarded, and a 2 x 2 m 1.0 m. After cleaning the pit walls, excavation unit was established at layers of brightly colored soils and the center of the section, with the

Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 an older, in-filled pit or shaft, were balks forming two of the edges. Fig. 3. Test Unit 17, Tamir 2 site. visible. Some of the layers are less Each feature quadrant was treated than 5 cm in 16 exposed what appeared, at thickness, and first, to be molded dirt (adobe) alternate regularly, bricks, and was expanded with 1 suggesting the x 1 m units to the north and east; periodic renewal of these proved to be natural drying the exterior surface cracks in melted construction dirt of the mound. The that has collected at the base of old pit or shaft was the wall (Fig. 4). Expanded to 1 x slightly north of TU 3 m, TU 19 exhibited a series of 18, and may have four cultural fills of visually been an ancient Photo © David E. Purcell 2005. distinctive colors that appear to looters’ tunnel. The Fig. 6. Cleaning the rock ring of Feature 201, represent the construction conspicuously Tamir 1 site.

23 at Features 160 and inconsistently applied. 201. At Feature 201, each of the quarters Excavated artifacts were was undertaken removed to the expedition camp simultaneously with as soon as they could be safely clearing the vege- taken from the ground, and were tation and over- stored in the expedition laboratory burden. During the in a ger that was erected in camp. removal of the rock In this location, artifacts were fall from the grave cleaned, photographed, and monument, large illustrated. Dan Waugh syste- quantities of animal matically documented every bones were observed substantial, and many of the less mixed with the rock, complete, artifacts through as well as ash and photographs taken in relatively Photo © David E. Purcell 2005. charcoal, concen- controlled lighting. Fig. 7. Partially exposed rock ring of Feature 160, trated beneath an Tamir 1 site, view along balk to south. upright boulder at the RESULTS southeastern edge of in this manner, sequentially. The the ring (a possible headstone). Tamir 1 - The Cemetery excavation units were excavated The northeastern and southeastern approximately 1 m in depth, with quarters and part of the Tamir 1 consists of 287 graves the fill being discarded, to expose southwestern quarter were then visible on the surface as torus- the opening of the grave shaft excavated carefully by hand to shaped low mounds of rocks proper. After two adjacent expose a deposit of burned, clustered on a south-facing slope quarters had been opened in this butchered horse bone, associated around the head of a series of dry manner, profile maps of the balks with a few artifacts. At Feature washes that are tributary to the were drawn to illustrate the 160, excavation proceeded in Tamir River. Documentation of stratigraphy of the upper portion halves, not quarters, due to its Tamir 1 entailed the preparation of the grave shaft and the small size. At both features, of two maps, and completion of a collapsed grave monument. The vertical data were established and table that recorded the size, balks were removed once all of the elevations were recorded for the condition, orientation, and profiles are drawn, and the grave present ground surface, top of the attributes of each grave. One map shaft fill was removed as a single grave monument, grave shaft completed in 2005 is a plan of the stratum down to the tomb. The opening, and individual points entire site, shown in relation to the grave contents were exposed, within the graves. The balk profiles natural drainage system; the other excavated by hand, and of both features were drawn from is a detailed plan view of the photographed before being level lines, with the entire grave, densest portion of the cemetery. removed to complete excavation shaft included, profiled in sections The cemetery encompasses 560 x of the grave. Photography was approximately 2 m in thickness. 390 m, an area of 21.8 hectares. undertaken almost entirely by Unfortunately, due to a mis- Each grave was documented as a Silkroad participants, although not communication, only the upper ‘feature’ and numbered in a systematic fashion; typically, meter of the grave shaft was sequentially from 1-290 (three photographs were taken when an documented in this manner before numbers were omitted). The interesting find was uncovered and the rest of the grave shaft fill was surface expression of the graves announced. Once the entire grave shoveled out. The deeper profiles ranged from 2 m in diameter to had been completely excavated, documented the fill sequence of 12 m, with an average of 4.6 m the skeleton and grave goods were the graves , a procedure that was (n=273) and modes of 4.0, 5.0, replaced in their positions and a followed by the 2003 Mongolian- 3.0, and 6.0 m (in order of final map of the grave was drawn. Korean Expedition. In addition, in frequency). The median feature Vertical controls were not used at Features 109, 201, and 160, most diameter is 4.5 m, (n=269). Features 97 or 100, including the artifacts or features found in the Thirty-one of the graves exhibit use of a vertical datum, level lines graves or grave shafts were single boulders set upright in the for the balk profiles, or recording mapped and vertical elevations ring of rocks, often on the of vertical elevations. Limited recorded as they were exposed, southeastern or northeastern vertical control was undertaken at and each find was exhaustively edge, perhaps marking the head Feature 109. photodocumented by Dan Waugh, of the grave (headstones). The David Purcell, and other project graves located closer to the Tamir Purcell initiated several participants. As noted above, this River floodplain appear to be modification to these procedures program of photography was smaller in diameter, in closer

24 Feature 100 contained an articulated skeleton within the remains of a poorly pre- served wooden shaft liner. Associated grave goods includ- ed a complete white bronze TLV mirror (Fig. 1, p. 36), two ceramic jars, a fragment of cloth (Fig. 9), a ceramic spindle whorl, a Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh complete oil lamp, Fig. 8. Feature 97, Tamir 1 site (clockwise from upper left): bronze cauldron with iron base, pot, lamp, ani- bronze metal mal bones, gilt ring of lacquer bowl, resting on pot. clothing plaques including possible proximity to one another, and more buttons, a carnelian (?) bead, a Photo © National University of Mongolia, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology 2005 densely clustered than are graves bronze cauldron, and a bronze (?) Fig. 10. Gold earring. Feature located higher on the slope, farther coil-like object of unknown function 109, Tamir 1 site. from the river’s edge. Dr. (possibly a core for a string of Batsaikhan previously excavated in coins). Tamir 1, but the site has also been subjected to unscientific and unauthorized excavations, including several graves observed in 2005 that appeared to have been very recently looted. Five graves were completely excavated by our expedition in 2005: Features 97, 100, 109, 160, and Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh 201. Excavation revealed that the rock rings were once continuous mounds of rocks piled over the grave shaft, but with the settling of the grave and shaft fill through time, now appear to be mounded Fig. 11. Glass rings of cobbles. beads. Fea- ture 109, Tamir 1 site. Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Feature 97 contained a nearly Fig. 9. Cloth (carpet?) fragment with complete, but disarticulated, embroidered design. Feature 100, wooden handle (Fig. 12, next human skeleton and a cache of Tamir 1 site. page), and various rusted iron grave goods at the foot of the objects. Despite the later digging grave (Fig. 8) that included a Feature 109 was a tomb showing in the tomb, handholds and bronze and iron cauldron, a evidence of two looters’ shafts, but footholds were identified by Dr. lacquerware bowl with a gilt brass still held a partially intact wooden Wang in the shaft walls as having rim (see images, next article), an lining and the disarticulated and been cut during the graves initial oil lamp, and several ceramic jars. obviously disturbed remains of one excavation, providing ingress and There was also group of decorative individual. The funerary offerings egress for the excavators. metal and bone objects that may that had been overlooked by the have been horse tack decorations, looters included a gold earring (less Feature 160 exhibited a looter’s a bone and metal bit, and a the inset stones) (Fig. 10), a shaft in the profile of the grave wooden toggle. Two or possibly turquoise jewelry setting, two shaft; at the bottom of the looter’s three other lacquer vessels, less fragments of a large white bronze shaft was the displaced cranium well-preserved, were also present TLV mirror (Fig. 3, p. 37), three from the burial (Fig. 13, next but disintegrated before being cast glass beads (Fig. 11), a page). Quantities of charcoal were documented or described. possible iron knife with lacquered scattered throughout the grave

25 It is possible that these rocks had been placed on the top wooden boards of the coffin (no longer extant). The lowest layer of the coffin walls was intact, and there seemed to be traces Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 of a pattern of a Fig. 15. SE wall of coffin, sherd of jar carpet that might visible in center. Feature 160, Tamir 1 have been laid on site. Fig. 12. Iron knife with handle of lacquered wood. the ground below intact grave with a fully articulated Photo in situ, approx. 310 cm. depth (© Daniel C. the body. At the SE skeleton in situ, except for the Waugh); sketch of possible original appearance (© end of the coffin was cranium, which was found on the David E. Purcell). Feature 109, Tamir 1 site. a separate compart- NW side toward the feet. ment (Fig. 15) Associated grave offerings included containing two ceramic jars and a a string of Han Dynasty wushu possible cooking vessel, and just coins (Fig. 17), found in the inside the coffin were remains of a lacquerware vessel (Fig. 16). Beyond the NW end of the coffin some verte- brae, probably of a sheep, were found. Apart from the skull (see above), the middle section of the skeleton was in the presumed orig- inal position laid NW to SE. However, the

Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh mandible had been Fig. 13. Skull in Feature 160, displaced and was Tamir 1 site. found in approxi- Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 mately the pelvic Fig. 16. Pots, charred vessel and remains of lacquer area, a result pre- bowl (lower right). SE end of grave, Feature 160, Tamir shaft starting around a depth of 1 site. 50 cm and continuing to the sumably of the bottom. At 231.5 cm the action of the looter. The grave excavation revealed a rectangular goods included a complete bronze rock “lining” of the grave with a mirror of possible local rock pile in the center (Fig. 14). manufacture (Fig. 5, p. 38), a metal earring, a ceramic spindle whorl, four stone beads, assorted iron objects includ- ing possible belt buckles/plaques, all badly corroded, and traces of at least one additional lacquerware object. Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh Feature 201 was Fig. 17. A string of wushu coins

Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh also an apparently on a metal ‘core.’ Feature 201, Fig. 14. Feature 160, Tamir 1. Rock “lining” of grave. Tamir 1 site.

26 plain at Hermental, west- on the top of an earthen mound northwest of Tamir 1. The plain is (Feature 1) within Structure B. No a part of the Tamir Valley that is artifacts or buried features or bounded by ranges of hills to the cultural deposits were exposed in west, north, and east, and extends the test units. This seems unusual, in a long slope that gradually in light of Davydova’s (1968, p. flattens to the south where it 217) comment that Xiongnu merges with the floodplain of the settlements of Mongolia differed river. From Tamir 2, Tamiryn Ulaan from Ivolga in containing large Khoshuu is a dark, prominent quantities of (roof) tile, a fact that

Photo © National University of Mongolia, Department of Anthropol- Fig. 18. Jar in Feature 201, ogy and Archaeology 2005 landmark on the horizon to the she attributed to ‘some other type Tamir 1 site. east-southeast. The expedition of dwelling, different from those remains of what was apparently a mapped the structures at Tamir 2 of the Ivolga gorodishche.’ lacquered box, 13 clothing toggles and produced plan view maps of or clasps of bronze (?) with some each structure individually, to show The soils consisted of two traces of fabric wrapping, at one detail, and of the three together strata. Stratum I, the uppermost, intact large ceramic jar (Fig. 18) to show their relationship. During is a medium brown silty sandy and sherds of a second one, an iron the collection of the UTM loam, humic, containing abundant coordinates with the rootlets and some fine gravel. It GPS receivers, the is 8-20 cm thick and uncompacted. site was traversed Its contact with the underlying many times on foot, Stratum II is typically horizontal with detailed notes (occasionally undulating) with an recorded about the indistinct 1-2 cm thick contact form, condition and zone. Stratum II is a compact pale orientation of the brown sandy loam that exhibits a Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 gorodishche. No Stage I-II calcium carbonate Fig. 19. Bronze and lacquer handle for an eared cup. artifacts dating development. It extends from 8- Feature 201, Tamir 1 site. before the modern 20 cm below the present ground period were ob- surface to an undetermined depth. base for a cauldron or standing served, other than a single pottery It contains variable quantities of lamp, a compound bronze and sherd observed (but not collected) gravel, up to small cobble-sized. lacquerware object (Fig. 19), apparently the handle of a lacquered eared cup, from which additional fragments remained, and various iron objects including a belt buckle. One iron ring or clip was found within the burned horse offering in the rock tumulus above the grave, as were a few sherds.

Tamir 2 - The Gorodishche

Three gorodishche or earthen- walled fortifications, labeled Fig. 21. Overview plan map of Tamir 2, depicting the spatial relationship of the Structures A-C from west to east, three gorodishche (structures). Numbered forms within the enclosing earthen form Tamir 2 (Figs. 20, 21). The walls are large earthen mounds, to which arbitrary feature numbers were enclosures extend in an east-west assigned. Breaks in the walls are apparent formal gates and other cuts or line 1,725 m across a broad, gentle gaps in the continuity of the walls. (Drawing © David E. Purcell 2005)

Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Fig. 20. Panorama (composite of three photographs) of Tamir 2 settlement site, taken at 7:15 PM from point at altitude of 1455 m looking SW by W along length of site.

27 All rocks exhibit a 3-6 mm rind of structure’s interior. Major gaps whether this is a natural or calcium carbonate, with appear in the approximate centers constructed feature was not projections from the downward of each of the walls, with those on determined. An iron pipe was surfaces. Most of the rocks are the north and east walls at grade. found standing upright in the schistic metamorphic. Stratum II The gaps on the south and east southeastern ‘tower’ of Structure contains significantly less moisture walls feature visible ramps A. than does Stratum I. extending from the gap down to the exterior, over the ditch. The Structure B is the central earthen Three hand excavation units gaps in the east, west, and south enclosure, nearly square in shape, were judgmentally placed in or walls are flanked by sections of the measuring 455 m east-west by near architectural features (such wall that are broader at the base 440 m north-south to the outer as walls and gates) to expose and higher in elevation than edges of the ditch (Fig. 22, next details of their construction, and surrounding sections of the wall; page). Its construction is similar were in some cases expanded to these three openings appear to to that of Structure A, with gates follow interesting deposits. These have been formal gates. The east visible in the north, east, and south are described above. The previous and west walls also feature gaps walls, with accompanying towers. excavation on the central mound at grade level that are not regularly The north wall includes two shallow in Structure B was also cleaned and spaced along the wall. These may gaps equidistant between the profiled (TU 18), providing details represent more recent cuts to corners and the central gate. The of its construction. No artifacts provide access, but additional south wall exhibits two shallow were recovered from any of the research is needed to fully describe gaps but without regular spacing. judgmental units. Given the vast the construction and modification The west wall exhibits a shallow areas encompassed by each of the sequences of these features. The gap in the wall center, but without gorodishche — ranging from 7.2 north wall exhibits three shallow flanking mounds, and a grade level hectares in Structure C to 16.3 gaps, in addition to the gap in the opening to the south. Only the hectares in Structure A — the wall center, which is at grade but north and south gates and the absence of findings by this very is blocked on the exterior by the southern gap in the west wall are limited testing is not surprising. ditch The ditch appears to have at grade level. The Structure B What is surprising, however, is the been a borrow ditch for soil used walls are also enclosed by a complete lack of surface or to build the enclosing walls, but shallow (15-20 cm deep) ditch, subsurface artifacts. Further also appears to have functioned as which is continuous around the research is necessary to establish a dry moat, based on its placement exterior except at the south gate, the age and cultural associations to the exterior of the wall. Each which spans it. Six interior earthen of these features through corner of Structure A stands 0.4 mounds were documented, as well archaeological means, despite to 1.0 m higher than contiguous as a seventh, low mound that may their apparent similarity to other sections of wall, and is much be natural. Like Structure A, the features east of Ulaanbataar broader at the base, forming a largest mound (Feature 1) is near previously studied by Dr. swell that extends outward 4-5 m the center, in line with the gates. Batsaikhan. beyond the walls. These may have This mound stands approximately been the bases for tower-like 2 m above the ground, but exhibits Structure Descriptions and elevated features, or bastions. a much more formal shape in plan Interior Features that did Feature 1 of Structure A. Structure A contains five It is rectangular with obvious Structure A, the westernmost of earthen mounds of various shapes, ramps that extend east and west the three enclosures, measures ranging from nearly square to toward the gates. A cluster of 490 m east-west by 450 m north- nearly circular. The largest, small boulders and a rectangular south in maximum dimensions. Feature 1, stands nearly 3.5 m pit were found on top; a single The enclosing wall is 16-18 m in above the ground and is near the potsherd was found within this pit, width and appeared to vary from center of the structure, in line with which was cleaned and profiled to 0.5 m to 2.0 m in height above the gates on the east-west and document the mound construction the interior ground surface, with a north-south axes. The other sequence. The upper portions of shallow ditch visible at the base of mounds stand 0.9 to 1.4 m above the mound, based on this profile, the wall on the exterior, except in the surrounding ground. Feature appear to have been made of three locations that correspond 5 has a small square rock alternating layers of brightly with gaps in the wall. Nine alignment on top, and Feature 1 colored soils. The arrangement of locations along the wall exhibit has a rock ring or ovoo base near the interior features — with a small visible dips or reductions in its center. A possible earthen ramp circular mound (Feature 4) south elevation, four of which extend to slopes down the eastern end of of Feature 1, and two other the interior ground level, providing Feature 3. A low swale or ridge mounds in the southeastern grade-level access to the links Feature 1 with Feature 4; quadrant (Features 2 and 3) — is

28 of the enclosure. A possible borrow ditch/moat, 5 cm in depth, is visible only around the north- eastern wall corner exterior. Four earthen mounds were observed in the interior, with the largest (Feature 1) near the center, standing approx- imately 4 m in height, the tallest of any feature docu- mented at Tamir 2. To the southeast are three other mounds (Features 2-4) that range in elevation from 0.6 to 1.6 m above the ground. No other features were observed. The lower walls, near absence of a ditch, and less pronounced encircling walls may indicate that this structure is older than the other two; the more pro- nounced wall fea- Fig. 22. Tamir 2, Structure B detail plan map. Elevations are GPS-derived (WGS 84 Datum), with a 3-5 m potential error. Relative heights are estimated above the surrounding ground tures of Structure A surface level, which slopes north to south. (Drawing © David E. Purcell 2005) may indicate that it is the youngest of nearly identical to that observed compared with contiguous wall the three, and that the gorodishche at Structure A. Structure B, segments. The Structure B walls were constructed over a relatively however, also includes a low are 16-20 m in width and 1.2-1.75 long time period in order from east mound almost in-line with, and m in height. to west. near, the east gate (Feature 5), and another mound just east of the Structure C is the easternmost SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER north gate (Feature 6). The low enclosure. It is rectangular in plan, RESEARCH: METHODS AND mound that was not assigned a measuring 335 m east-west by GOALS feature number is just east of the 275 m north-south. The walls are south gate, but stands barely 20 10 m in width and 20-60 cm in The results of the 2005 Expedition cm above the surrounding ground. height. Gaps are present in the do not ‘solve’ the problems of the A low ridge extends north- walls, but follow no apparent central Mongolian Iron Age. westwards from Feature 4 to the regular scheme of placement, with Indeed, few individual archae- west wall; this was tested (Test a single gate in the east wall ological projects have the ability Unit 17) and found to be a natural center, and pairs of gaps in the to dramatically change existing gravel deposit. However, the siting other three walls. The gaps are not models. The acquisition of of Feature 4 at its end appears to flanked by earthen mounds, and archaeological data usually have been deliberate. The wall only the northwestern and produces incremental results, in corners exhibit mounds of dirt, northeastern wall corners exhibit that the results of any one possible towers/bastions, but the mounds of dirt; the southern individual project, combined with corners do not form pronounced corners do not, and the entire years of research in a given area, swells and the mounds are southern wall is approximately 20 together reveal strong patterns relatively low in elevation cm lower in elevation that the rest that suggest the signatures of

29 cultures, periods, and transitions. Xiongnu settlement was located careful review of aerial and satellite Once patterns have been nearby. If Tamir 2 was that photos and systematic survey delineated, then subsequent settlement, our efforts so far using horses, camels, or vehicles. individual projects can contribute cannot even substantiate that Such surveys could easily be through the recovery of more Tamir 2 was ever inhabited like carried out by following GPS specific data that supports, refutes, Ivolga, much less that it was gridlines, looking for visible or refines the model. For example, associated with the cemetery. To features. Areas around recorded the finding of a certain type of date none of the graves at Tamir sites and in proximity to eroded diagnostic artifact in association 1 reveal the complex structures surfaces should be inventoried with datable materials may supply and richness of goods found in more intensively on foot, a date for just that artifact type or excavations at Noin Ula, Gol Mod systematically following GPS for an entire phase, depending on and Tsaraam (on the last, see the gridlines. A check of Google Earth the context. article by Miniaev in this issue). revealed that Tamir 2 is not visible due to low resolution; higher Several types of artifacts Clearly, much additional resolution images need to be recovered from the graves of Tamir research needs to be conducted at examined. If publically accessible 1 appear to be important finds, Tamir 2, which perhaps should images of this region are not particularly the TLV mirrors become the focus of future efforts. available, it would be worth having recovered from Features 100 and The size of the site, its apparent aerial photos flown of this area, 109, the glass beads from Feature lack of artifacts, and its relative after obtaining the needed 109, and the lacquer bowl from proximity to Tamiryn Ulaan Khusuu government permission. Feature 97. The specific suggest that it too, is an important significance of the mirrors is place, but its function remains The interior, and the exterior described at length by Prof. Lai unknown. A military purpose, is perimeter, of Tamir 2 should be elsewhere in this issue. In general, suggested by the existence of the examined using ground pene- however, the richness and size of walls and the presence of apparent trating radar, magnetometer, and the graves, in comparison with fortifications along them. Future electrical conductivity instruments. other Xiongnu graves excavated by research needs to be directed at Any subsurface features, including Drs. Batsaikhan and Wang, (1) establishing the age of the site, our test units, pits associated with suggest that this cemetery (Tamir (2) identifying and excavating recent herder camps, and ancient 1) may represent the final resting features within and outside of the features such as houses, storage place of more important or wealthy walls, (3) comparing the site pits, etc. should be apparent. Xiongnu individuals. The orien- architecture with other earthen- Remote sensing is now used tation of the heads to the east walled structures of the central routinely in some settings, and the rather than the typical north Mongolian steppes, (4) recovering cropped grass of the steppes is orientation, greater number of materials that link the site with ideal for the use of all of these ceramic vessels, and the relative Tamir 1 or with other sites in the methods. Interior features, such as lack of military hardware are also region, and (5) conducting regional houses and pits, were readily unusual aspects to Tamir 1. settlement analysis to better visible on the ground surface at However, the degree to which understand the types and Ivolga as low mounds with upright ancient grave robbing has affected placement of other sites in the stone slabs and depressions; the the composition of the grave goods region. gorodishche at Tamir 2 did not cannot be evaluated at this time. exhibit any of these indications of Some graves, such as Feature 109, Much of the research at Tamir buried features. Systematic test were clearly looted many centuries 2 will need to be accomplished excavations are not recommended, ago, leaving only those artifacts using remote sensing methods, as hundreds or thousands would overlooked or discarded (such as including aerial and satellite have to be excavated to complete the broken mirror) by the robbers, photographs, on the ground even a small, and probably not and skeletal remains in disarray. systematic survey, and remote statistically valid, sample of just What is then difficult to explain are prospecting for features in and one of the structures. One of the objects such as the golden earring around the site itself. It is clear structures should be completely from Feature 109, which appears that pedestrian surface survey, as mapped by remote means; based to have been stripped of its jewels, practiced in the western United on the results, the other structures but was left in the grave, probably States, is not appropriate for the may be sampled in areas where by accident. Given the site’s Mongolian steppes, given the lack features are likely. The sheer size location in the Orkhon Valley, it is of visible artifacts on the surface, of these structures suggests that tempting to speculate that this the vast areas to be examined, and they were built, at least in part, to cemetery was used by the elite of the nature of the known types of shelter herds of animals, so Xiongnu society, perhaps indicating sites. Some pedestrian survey features may not be present in that an important or central should be conducted in support of large sections of them. Given the

30 placement of the interior mound or groups not described by the About the Authors features that are visible, it is official chronicles, especially the expected that some sort of internal poor and those of minority or partitions or fences may have been dispossessed status. David Purcell and Kimberly used to divide the interior space, Spurr are professional archae- although the form of such a fence The use of 3-D laser scanning ologists who live in Flagstaff, is unknown. Excavations of of the graves is also recom- Arizona. They graduated in 1993 possible features should be mended, but not strictly necessary. with Master’s degrees in undertaken to ‘ground truth’ the This type of mapping uses anthropology from Northern findings. However, fine mesh computer-controlled lasers to Arizona University and have excavation screen must be part of measure to sub-millimeter worked in a variety of settings any further program of test accuracy the forms of features and since. Purcell has worked for excavations, in order to catch small their contents; this could include contract archaeological research objects. Often artifacts as large as the surface expression of the companies and is currently coins can be missed, and coins are collapsed grave monuments, the employed as Principal Investigator very important for dating sites in grave and grave shaft, and the and Projects Manager by Four this area. skeleton and associated funerary Corners Research of Tularosa, New objects. The advantage of this Mexico. He also works as the Tamir 1 also yielded important approach is that it generates an Coordinator of the Kaibab- information, particularly about the electronic dataset that can be Vermilion Cliffs Heritage Alliance, types of artifacts that might be output as a virtual illustration of a non-profit organization dedicated expected at this cemetery in future the feature, or even used to create to research, preservation, and excavations, particularly the laquer an exact scale model of the interpretation of the cultural vessels. Preparation for subse- feature. Such an approach is heritage of the region of Arizona quent excavations of graves should desirable if public interpretation lying north of Grand Canyon. Spurr include having on hand appropriate and presentation of data is a worked for the Navajo Nation conservation materials and component of future projects. For Archaeology Department for 13 methods to salvage intact these example, a Xiongnu grave model years, leaving this summer to form priceless artifacts for further study could be generated from such data Past Peoples Consulting, LLC, and display. Future projects should and installed in the Mongolian which specializes in the study of also be better prepared to National University, or presented human remains and burials, in both transport fragile artifacts and to the public on line or modeled in archaeological and forensic human remains back to Ulaan relief and displayed publically. settings. She directed the Bataar, by including sturdy boxes, Laser scanning also supports the preliminary phase of a multi-year plastic tubs, and other packing creation of web-based displays investigation of a Paleoindian site materials as part of their field that allow viewers to manipulate in North Dakota this summer, and equipment. In situ mapping of the their point of view via the Internet. will also work with the Museum of graves as finds are made, with Northern Arizona to excavate sites recording of vertical elevations, is The overall impression of the along the Colorado River in Grand highly recommended as part of sites investigated by the 2005 Canyon this coming fall. standard operating procedure. expedition is that these are This will make the collected data important places within one of the References compatible with current standards cultural cradles of the world’s in use around the world. Another civilizations. Within a 60 km radius Barfield 1981 arena in which more rigorous field are the Uighur capital, the Qidan Thomas J. Barfield. “The Hsiung- methods should be applied is the capital, the Mongol capital, and nu Imperial Confederacy: collection of soil and plant samples the burial sites of the Türk leaders Organization and Foreign Policy.” for analysis. Advances in the study Bilge Qaghan and his brother Journal of Asian Studies, 41/1 of preserved pollen, plant remains, Kültegin. Does the Orkhon Valley (1981): 45-61. wood species and dating, also hold the Xiongnu capital, and radiocarbon dating, and faunal are Tamir 1 and 2 somehow Bessac 1965 remains have greatly enhanced the associated with it? These are just Frank Bessac. “Review of current knowledge of subsistence, some of the exciting questions that Mongolian Archaeology.” Asian trade, burial and religious the 2005 expedition has raised, Perspectives, 8/1 (1965): 141- practices, and chronology. A and as with all good science, we 147. central tenet of historical are now left with more questions archaeology is to test the archival than answers, and more questions Davydova 1968 record against the physical than before we undertook the A. V. Davydova. “The Ivolga remains of the past and to project. Gorodishche (A Monument of the illuminate the lives of individuals Hsiung-nu Culture in the Trans-

31 Baikal Region).” Acta Archae- ologica Academiae Scientiarum The Challenges of Preserving Hungaricae, 20 (1968): 67-245. Evidence of Chinese Lacquer- Di Cosmo 1994 Nicola Di Cosmo. “Ancient Inner ware in Xiongnu Graves Asian Nomads: Their Economic Basis and Its Significance in Daniel C. Waugh Chinese History.” The Journal of The University of Washington, Asian Studies, 53/4 (1994): 1092- Seattle (USA) 1126.

Di Cosmo 1999 This brief communication may sonably well preserved Chinese Nicola Di Cosmo. “The Northern serve as an appendix to the report lacquerware in Xiongnu tombs are Frontier in Pre-Imperial China.” In: by David Purcell and Kimberly the ‘eared cups’ (Fig. 1), painted The Cambridge History of Ancient Spurr on the Tamiryn Ulaan table legs, chopsticks and an China. Ed. Michael Loewe and Khoshuu excavation in 2005. My animal-shaped pouring vessel Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cam- goal is not to provide a scholarly found in the excavations at Noin bridge: Cambridge University analysis of the abundant evidence Ula in northern Mongolia. Indeed, Press, Cambridge, 1999, pp. 909- we uncovered of Chinese the inventories of the Noin Ula 966. lacquerware — I lack the expertise graves are full of references to to do that — but mainly to lacquered objects (Rudenko 1962, Korean-Mongolian 2002 document it and to highlight the pp. 117 ff.; pls. VI, XLVIII; Trever Mon-Sol tosliin 5 zhil: Tusgai challenges which must be 1932, pls. 27, 29-31). As is well uzesgelen/Korean-Mongolian Joint addressed if such evidence from known, the circumstance of the Expedition in Mongolia 1997-2001: future excavations is to be graves having been flooded there Special Exhibition. : properly preserved and studied. resulted in remarkably good Mongolyn Undesniy Tuukhiin preservation of organic material, Muzey, 2002. One is struck by the frequency including carpets, clothing, a wide with which lacquerware (or at least variety of wooden objects, and Miniaev 1995 traces of its existence) is reported much more. The eared cups at Sergei Miniaev. “The Excavation of in excavations of Xiongnu graves Noin Ula are of particular interest Xiongnu Sites in the Buryatia and also the apparent lack of its here: at least one of them had both Republic.” Orientations, 26/10 serious analysis. The term can, bronze handles and an inscription (1995): 44-45. of course, encompass a variety of dated 2 BCE indicating its objects of different composition, manufacture in Sichuan, the major Okladnikov 1990 ranging from those merely location of Han lacquer production A. P. Okladnikov. “Inner Asia at decorated with a resin-based paint (Dschingis Khan, nos. 16, 17, pp. the Dawn of History.” In: Denis to objects made of layers of wood, 50-51). Sinor, ed. The Cambridge History clay and/or cloth impregnated with of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge, lacquer and then covered with At Tamir 1, evidence of lacquer etc.: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1999, additional layers of paint. With was found in at least four of the Ch. 3. notable exceptions, the evidence five excavated graves, in all cases from Xiongnu graves is of the designs being in red (or Tumen 2005 surviving paint layers or orangish red) and black. Where Tumen Dashvereg. “Paleo- fragments, not intact objects on possible, it was photographed in anthropology of Eastern Mongolia.” which the paint was applied. As situ, but with one exception, none Mongolian Journal of Anthropology, was the case in our Archaeology and Ethnology, 1 Tamir excavations, (242) (2005): 72-91. such survivals may end up being ‘pre- UNESCO 2006 served’ primarily in UNESCO. World Heritage List: the photographic Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. record, although this Electronic document accessed June 28, 2006. The best known Fig. 1. Lacquerware eared cups excavated at Noin Ula. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. examples of rea- Collection of the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.

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