Les Ituréens Et La Présence Arabe Au Liban Du Iie Siècle A.C

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Les Ituréens Et La Présence Arabe Au Liban Du Iie Siècle A.C Les Ituréens et la présence arabe au Liban du IIe siècle a.C. au IVe siècle p.C. Julien ALIQUOT INTRODUCTION L’histoire de la Syrie hellénistique entre le milieu du second siècle avant notre ère et la marche de Pompée en 64/3 a.C. est caractérisée par la dissolution de l’autorité séleucide sous l’effet conjugué de trois phénomènes: la crise de la dynastie royale, la montée des autonomismes locaux et l’accroissement des pressions extérieures. Au moment où les cités de la côte phénicienne s’émancipent progressivement de la tutelle séleucide, le Liban et la Syrie du Sud constituent le terrain où s’affirme le pouvoir des Ituréens. Sous l’égide de Ptolémaios fils de Mennaios, dynaste de Chalcis du Liban, les Ituréens se taillent une principauté dont on peut suivre l’his- toire jusqu’à son démembrement au cours des années 20 a.C. Les sources littéraires — essentiellement les ouvrages de Flavius Josèphe — permettent de décrire les étapes de l’assimilation des différents territoires administrés par des princes itu- réens dans le cadre de la politique clientéliste perpétuée par Rome au Proche-Orient jusqu’à la fin du premier siècle de notre ère. Il pourrait paraître vain de présenter à nouveau une synthèse sur les Ituréens1 : l’article de W. Schottroff complète utilement la mise à jour de l’étude d’E. Schürer, qui reste fondamentale; et l’on pourrait se contenter de renvoyer à l’ouvrage récent de M. Sartre afin de corriger la chronologie de ces travaux désormais classiques2. 1 Lors de la préparation de cet article, j’ai bénéficié des conseils de F. Briquel-Chatonnet (Collège de France), de M.C.A. Macdonald (Oriental Institute, University of Oxford) et de J. Seigne (CNRS, Tours). P.-L. Gatier (CNRS, Lyon), M.-F. Boussac (Université de Lille 3), M. Sartre (Université de Tours) et J.-B. Yon (CNRS, Lyon) m’ont aidé par leur lecture attentive et leurs remarques critiques. Que tous soient remerciés. J’assume pleinement la responsabilité de mes oublis et de mes erreurs. 2 SCHÜRER E. (1973), The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C. – A.D. 135), éd. rév. par BLACK M., MILLAR F. & VERMÈS G., T. & T. Clarck, Édimbourg, I, p. 561-573 ; SCHOTTROFF W. (1982), « Die Ituräer », ZDPV 98, p. 125-152 ; SARTRE M. (2001), D’Alexandre à Zénobie. Histoire du Levant antique, IVe siècle av. J.-C. – IIIe siècle ap. J.-C., Fayard, Paris. 162 Julien ALIQUOT Cependant, si l’état actuel de la bibliographie sur les Ituréens permet de ne pas reprendre dans le détail certains points, en particulier ceux qui ont trait à la géopo- litique, deux raisons justifient la publication d’une mise au point critique. Il s’agit d’une part de définir explicitement les termes et les enjeux de la question ituréenne, d’autre part de puiser aux données nouvelles récemment publiées qui pourraient relancer la discussion. Premièrement, il semble nécessaire de reformuler la question ituréenne dans des termes qui dépassent le point de vue des auteurs anciens, dont on trouve des pro- longements dans la bibliographie moderne et selon lequel les Ituréens seraient des Arabes nomades et brigands. Jusqu’à présent, de nombreuses tentatives modernes visent à évaluer dans quelle mesure la disparition progressive de l’autorité séleu- cide aurait encouragé le brigandage rural et aurait favorisé les raids des nomades au Ier siècle a.C., provoquant en retour une diminution de l’espace agricole utilisé3. Avec la fin de la Syrie séleucide et l’établissement d’un premier ordre romain, c’est à Rome qu’il reviendrait d’impulser le balancier dans un mouvement inverse afin de mettre un terme au brigandage, ce « sport national » des Ituréens si l’on en croit Strabon ou Er. Will4. L’application au Liban d’un tel schéma explicatif me semble surtout fondée sur la volonté d’opposer la prospérité présumée des IIIe-IIe siècles a.C. et la désolation des Ier siècle a.C. et Ier siècle p.C., l’autorité royale et l’anarchie tri- bale, les habitants de la plaine et les montagnards, les sédentaires et les nomades. L’examen de la question ituréenne m’incite donc à reconsidérer l’explication qui privilégie l’opposition entre les populations sédentaires et les populations nomades en évitant l’amalgame abusif, hérité des auteurs grecs et latins, entre « Arabes », « pasteurs », « nomades », « montagnards » et « brigands ». Le simple fait de repla- cer les données relatives aux Ituréens dans un contexte proche-oriental plus vaste, comme le fait M. Sartre dans sa récente synthèse, invalide le schéma binaire précité, sans que soient niées pour autant la réalité du brigandage rural ni la présence des nomades au Liban. Dans le prolongement de ces réflexions, la présente étude peut contribuer à expliquer de manière nuancée la crise de l’autorité séleucide. Elle vise également à rendre compte de la présence arabe dans l’espace géographique corres- 3 Il est frappant de constater que la présentation nuancée de SARTRE, ibid., p. 222 et 380-383, n’exclut pas cette hypothèse, alors que même les auteurs qui ont révélé l’existence éventuelle de fermes fortifiées dans certains secteurs du Haurân (Lejæ, Jabal al-‘Arab) admettent que le climat de tension qui règnerait dans la Syrie du Sud au tournant du premier siècle avant notre ère ne constitue pas un obstacle à sa mise en valeur. Voir DENTZER J.-M. (1999), « L’espace des tribus arabes à l’époque hellénistique et romaine: nomadisme, sédentarisation, urbanisation », CRAI, p. 231-261, en particulier 251-253. 4 WILL Er. (1983), « Un vieux problème de la topographie de la Beqæ‘ antique: Chalcis du Liban », ZDPV 99, p. 143 n. 14 = id. (1995), De l’Euphrate au Rhin. Aspects de l’hellénisation et de la romanisation du Proche- Orient, (BAH, 135) IFAPO, Beyrouth, p. 591, citant Strabon, Géographie XVI, 2, 18-20. Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 56 (1999-2003) Les Ituréens et la présence arabe au Liban 163 pondant au territoire actuel du Liban et aux versants syriens de l’Anti-Liban et de l’Hermon, et dans certaines régions de la Syrie du Sud comme le Haurân. Deuxièmement, des publications récentes paraissent a priori susceptibles d’ap- porter une certaine consistance à une histoire jusqu’ici principalement fondée sur des sources littéraires, épigraphiques et numismatiques: certains auteurs en viennent ainsi à identifier des sites ruraux ituréens ou une culture matérielle spécifiquement ituréenne5. De manière générale, ces travaux illustrent néanmoins la tendance à consi- dérer comme acquis des faits dont l’établissement demeure douteux. Les hypothèses s’enchaînent alors sur la base de postulats et leurs propositions finissent par s’éloi- gner de toute réalité, sans que l’on puisse les accepter ni même les infirmer. Sans céder à la tentation de l’hypercritique, il convient donc de distinguer, d’un côté, ce qui sera susceptible de guider la réflexion historique et, de l’autre, l’éche- veau des propositions invérifiables. Je ne nie pas que certains problèmes restent posés, mais je ne me contenterai pas de reconnaître les limites de notre savoir actuel. De manière plus positive, je proposerai un schéma historique en utilisant les résul- tats de travaux qui intègrent aux données anciennes des découvertes récentes6. La discussion s’organisera autour de trois thèmes: l’identité ethnique ituréenne; les territoires des Ituréens; les principautés et les dynasties ituréennes. 5 KNAUF E.A. (1984), « Supplementa Ismaelitica 6. Tall Ìîra – eine Ituräer-Burg », Biblische Notizen 25, p. 19-21 ; MA‘OZ Z.U. (1993), « Golan », NEAEHL 2, p. 525-527 et 534-546, et id. (1997), « Golan », OEANE 2, p. 417-424; DAR S. (1993), Settlements and Cult Sites on Mount Hermon, Israel. Ituraean cul- ture in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, (BAR. International Series, 589) Tempus Reparatum, Israel – Oxford. 6 Voir notamment GATIER P.-L. et alii (2001), « Mission de Yanouh et de la haute vallée du Nahr Ibrahim. Rapport préliminaire 1999-2001 », BAAL 5, p. 93-152, à propos du Liban septentrional. 164 Julien ALIQUOT Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 56 (1999-2003) Les Ituréens et la présence arabe au Liban 165 166 Julien ALIQUOT 1. L’IDENTITÉ ETHNIQUE ITURÉENNE L’identification des Ituréens à des Arabes, admise à la suite de F. Münter (1824), n’est plus discutée depuis longtemps. De nombreux auteurs l’ont affirmée encore récemment avec assurance7. S’il est vrai qu’une telle identification s’appuie sur un faisceau de critères convergents tirés des données de l’époque hellénistique et romaine, il n’en reste pas moins qu’une série de postulats tend actuellement à faire passer pour acquise l’hypothèse d’une longue migration des Ituréens depuis le nord de la péninsule Arabique jusqu’à la Syrie du Sud et le Liban. J’insisterai dans un premier temps sur le fait que la quête des origines peut sem- bler vaine dans la mesure où les Ituréens ne sont formellement attestés qu’à partir de la fin de l’époque hellénistique. Dans un second temps, j’examinerai les sources sémitiques, grecques et latines pour tenter de caractériser l’identité ethnique itu- réenne entre la fin de l’époque hellénistique et l’époque romaine impériale. 1.1. La quête des origines 1.1.1. Les incertitudes de la théorie classique: Ye†ºr et les Ituréens Dans la Genèse (25, 15) et dans le premier livre des Chroniques (1 Ch 1, 31), l’Ancien Testament cite parmi les douze fils d’Ismaël un certain Ye†ºr, qui pourrait être identifié à l’ancêtre éponyme d’une tribu que les sources grecques et latines ultérieures dénomment Ituréens — en grec ∆Itourai`oi, ∆Iturai`oi, en latin Ituraei, Ityraei.
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