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Geophysical Constraints on Critical Zone Architecture and Subsurface Hydrology of Opposing Montane Hillslopes

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Geophysical Constraints on Critical Zone Architecture and Subsurface Hydrology of Opposing Montane Hillslopes GEOPHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS ON CRITICAL ZONE ARCHITECTURE AND SUBSURFACE HYDROLOGY OF OPPOSING MONTANE HILLSLOPES by Aaron J. Bandler A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Hydrology). Golden, Colorado Date _____________________________ Signed: ________________________________ Aaron Bandler Signed: ________________________________ Dr. Kamini Singha Thesis Advisor Golden, Colorado Date _____________________________ Signed: ________________________________ Dr. Terri Hogue Professor and Director Hydrological Science & Engineering Program ii ABSTRACT We investigate the relationship between slope aspect, subsurface hydrology, and critical zone (CZ) structure in a montane watershed by examining the orientations of foliation and fracturing and thicknesses of weathered material on north- and south-facing aspects. Weathering models predict that north-facing slopes will have thicker and more porous saprolite due to colder, wetter conditions, which exacerbate frost damage and weathering along open fractures. Using borehole imaging and seismic refraction, we compare the seismic velocity and anisotropy of north- and south-facing slopes with the orientation of fracturing. Fracturing occurs in the same dominant orientations across slopes, but the north-facing slope has more developed and slightly thicker soil as predicted, while the south-facing slope has thicker and more intact saprolite that is highly anisotropic in the direction of fracturing. Our data support hypotheses that subsurface flow is matrix-driven on north-facing slopes and preferential on south-facing slopes. We attribute thicker saprolite on south-facing slopes to heterogeneity induced by competition between infiltration, topographic stress, and permafrost during Pleistocene glaciation. We provide new constraints on subsurface architecture to inform future models of CZ evolution. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ vi LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. ix CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 2 GEOPHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS ON CRITICAL ZONE ARCHITECTURE AND SUBSURFACE HYDROLOGY OF OPPOSING MONTANE HILLSLOPES ................... 7 2.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 8 2.3 Site Characterization ........................................................................................................ 10 2.3.1 Geology and erosional regime ................................................................................... 11 2.3.2 Regional and Topographic Stress .............................................................................. 12 2.4 Seismic Imaging ............................................................................................................... 13 2.4.1 Seismic Anisotropy of Fractured media .................................................................... 13 2.5 Methods ............................................................................................................................ 14 2.5.1 Drilling ...................................................................................................................... 14 2.5.2 Optical Borehole Imaging ......................................................................................... 15 2.5.3 Seismic Refraction ..................................................................................................... 16 2.5.4 Seismic Data Processing ............................................................................................ 18 2.6 Results .............................................................................................................................. 20 2.6.1 Foliation ..................................................................................................................... 20 2.6.2 Fractures .................................................................................................................... 21 2.6.3 Seismic Results .......................................................................................................... 23 2.7 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 26 2.7.1 Comparison of seismic data across hillslopes ........................................................... 26 2.7.2 Comparison of Borehole and Seismic Data ............................................................... 27 2.7.3 Implications for Critical Zone Structure and Unsaturated Flow ............................... 28 2.7.4 Implications for Critical Zone Evolution .................................................................. 29 iv 2.8 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 30 2.9 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ 31 CHAPTER 3 FUTURE WORK .................................................................................................... 32 3.1 Increased Spatial Coverage .............................................................................................. 32 3.2 Prevalence and timing of freezing .................................................................................... 32 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................... 34 APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................................ 41 REFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................................. 42 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Conceptual model of the critical zone—the layers between the vegetation canopy and the top of bedrock ............................................................................................. 1 Figure 1.2 North-facing slopes in Rocky Mountain watersheds retain snowpack longer than south-facing slopes. ................................................................................................. 2 Figure 1.3 According to weathering models, soil and saprolite units will be thicker on north- vs. south-facing slopes due to colder surface temperatures and increased infiltration (after Anderson et al., 2013). ................................................................ 3 Figure 1.4 A seismic transect depicting a thicker weathering zone (warmer colors) on a north-facing slope as opposed to a south-facing slope (from Befus et al., 2011). .. 5 Figure 1.5 A seismic transect showing surface-parallel weathering (warm colors) and consistent bedrock depths (blue; from St. Clair et al., 2015). ................................. 6 Figure 2.1 Geologic map of the Boulder Creek watershed showing the three watersheds within the BcCZO, including Gordon Gulch ........................................................ 12 Figure 2.2 Variation of p-wave velocity with direction for a theoretical solid with (A) dry fractures and (B) saturated fractures propagating in the same direction. (after Garbin and Knopoff 1973; Crampin 1978) Unfractured p-wave velocity is assumed to be 4000 m/s (dotted line), and crack densities are 0.2 (blue), 0.1, (red), and 0.05 (yellow). 0° angle of incidence is normal to crack direction; 90° is tangential to crack direction. ................................................................................. 15 Figure 2.3 The flattened borehole image displays dipping planes as a sinusoid. The phase angle correlates with the dip-line azimuth, and the amplitude correlates with the dip angle [From ALT, 2011]. ................................................................................. 16 Figure 2.4 LiDAR image of Upper Gordon Gulch watershed showing borehole and seismic transect locations on each aspect. .......................................................................... 17 Figure 2.5 Examples of (A) a seismic record with manually picked first arrivals shown (red crosses) and (B) travel times for the same record. The shot location is at geophone #1 and distance = 0 m. ........................................................................................... 19 Figure 2.6 Foliation planes on the north-facing (blue) and south-facing (orange) slopes. ..... 21 Figure 2.7 Distribution of strike and dip for fractures observed in boreholes on the north- facing (N) and south-facing (S) slopes in Gordon Gulch. Clusters A and B on the south-facing slope are identified. Planes indicate mean strike/dip of statistically vi significant clusters of fracture orientations, which are outlined in heavy black lines .......................................................................................................................
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