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NON-INVASIVE FLOW PATH CHARACTERIZATION in a MINING-IMPACTED WETLAND by James C Bethune

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NON-INVASIVE FLOW PATH CHARACTERIZATION in a MINING-IMPACTED WETLAND by James C Bethune NON-INVASIVE FLOW PATH CHARACTERIZATION IN A MINING-IMPACTED WETLAND by James C Bethune A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Hydrology). Golden, Colorado Date ______________________ Signed: _________________________ James C Bethune Signed: _________________________ Dr. Kamini Singha Thesis Advisor Golden, Colorado Date _______________________ Signed: _________________________ Dr. David Benson Professor and Program Director Hydrological Science and Engineering Signed: _________________________ Dr. Paul Santi Professor and Department Head Department of Geology and Geological Engineering ii" " ABSTRACT Time-lapse electrical resistivity (ER) is used in this study to capture the annual pulse of acid mine drainage (AMD) contamination, the so-called ‘first-flush’ driven by spring snowmelt, through the subsurface of a wetland downgradient of the abandoned Pennsylva- nia Mine workings in Central Colorado. Data were collected from mid-July to late October of 2013, with an additional dataset collected in June of 2014. ER provides a distributed measurement of changes in subsurface electrical properties at high spatial resolution. In- version of the data shows the development through time of multiple resistive anomalies in the subsurface, which corroborating data suggest are driven by changes in total dissolved solids (TDS) localized in preferential flow pathways. Because of the non-uniqueness inherent to deterministic inversion, the exact geometry and magnitude of the anomalies is unknown, but sensitivity analyses on synthetic data taken to mimic the site suggest that the anoma- lies would need to be at least several meters in diameter to be adequately resolved by the inversions. Preferential flow path existence would have a critical impact on the extent of attenuation mechanisms at the site, and their further characterization could be used to pa- rameterize reactive transport models in developing quantitative predictions of remediation strategies. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ......................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES . vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................. viii CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION . 1 CHAPTER 2 NON-INVASIVE FLOW PATH CHARACTERIZATION IN A MINING-IMPACTED WETLAND . 6 2.1 Abstract........................................ 6 2.2 Introduction . 7 2.3 FieldSiteDescription................................. 9 2.4 Material and Methods . 12 2.5 Inversion . 14 2.6 Evaluating Error . 15 2.7 Results . 17 2.7.1 Supportingdata............................... 20 2.8 SensitivityAnalysis................................. 23 2.9 Discussion and Conclusion . 24 2.10Acknowledgments.................................. 26 CHAPTER 3 FUTURE WORK . 27 3.1 Long-term monitoring . 27 3.2 Reactive Transport . 28 iv 3.3 CharacterizationofPennsylvaniaMineLeakage . 30 APPENDIX A - EXTENDED METHODS . 32 A.1 ResistivityDataAnalysis. 32 A.2 FiniteElementMeshDesignandGmsh . 33 APPENDIX B - MISCELLANEOUS DATA . 35 REFERENCESCITED ................................... 43 v LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1.1 Geological map of the Pennsylvania Mine area, including the hypothesized Montezuma shear zone. Modified from Bird, 2003. 3 Figure 2.1 Map of study region with Peru Creek, resistivity array, and borehole sample locations. 10 Figure 2.2 Resistivity inversion of data collected on July 12th, 2013. Electrodes (E1-E72), model fitting parameter results, borehole logs, and the general characterofvegetationareshown. 18 Figure 2.3 Resolution of inversion of data collected on July 12th, 2013. Note, because of smoothing issues, only data for 1 m x 1 m pixels are shown. 18 Figure 2.4 Time-lapse percent changes in resistivity, relative to background inversionof12July2013data. 19 Figure 2.5 Time-lapse absolute change in resistivity, relative to background inversionof12July2013data. 19 Figure 2.6 Flow diagram of the sensitivity modeling process. ’Summarized region’ denotes the area over which the total resistivity anomaly is calculated. 23 Figure2.7 Sensitivitymodelingresults.. 25 Figure B.1 All wetland inversions with fitting results. All changes are relative to the background inversion of data from 12 July 2013. 36 Figure B.2 Resolutions of all inversions through the wetland. 37 Figure B.3 Temperature (A) and conductivity (B) measurements taken from boreholesinthewetlandarea.. 38 Figure B.4 Average temperatures measured in the boreholes at shallow <1.5 m bgs., and deep depths. 39 FigureB.5 Sensitivitymodelingresults.. 39 vi Figure B.6 Additional measurement locations, including pressure transducers and stilling well. HOBO W1 denotes the location of the transducer installed in Peru Creek. HOBO A1 denotes the location of the air pressure transducer from October to November. HOBO A2 denotes the air pressuretransducerleftatthesiteoverwinter. 40 Figure B.7 Water temperature (A) and pressure (B) measurements of HOBO W1. Pressure has been corrected for air pressure and converted to cm water. 41 Figure B.8 Air temperature (A) and pressure (B) measurements of HOBO A1. 42 TableB.1 DischargemeasurementsfromPeruCreek. 36 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It took the support of many people and institutions to make this project possible. My advisor, Dr. Kamini Singha, and committee members Dr. Rob Runkel and Dr. Alexis Navarre-Sitchler were all instrumental in their contributions. Kamini’s constant source of knowledge and direction throughout the project was deeply appreciated, as was Rob’s valu- able assistance at the field site and with the manuscript. The inspiration to work in an AMD impacted site arose from a chance conversation with Dr. Katie Walton-Day, following a pre- sentation she gave at the Colorado School of Mines. Conversations with Je↵ Graves, Mark Rudolph, and Dr. Stan Church would all later provide valuable insights for the project. Many volunteers tirelessly supported this project in the field, often by trudging through the mucky wetland, carrying heavy batteries, and nearly always with inclement weather quickly approaching. In particular, fellow HSE students Ben Bader, Skuyler Herzog, Em- manual Padilla, and Mike Sanders, were all kind enough to dedicate multiple days to the project. My time at CSM was supported by a teaching assistantship provided by the Geology Department. The experience was beyond rewarding, and has inspired me to continue to incorporate teaching into my life in some capacity. It also proved to be an excellent field work volunteer recruiting position. Finally, Jackie Randell provided key assistance throughout the project, in the field, with the text, and in the lab. Without Jackie, this project would be in a very di↵erent place, and Idon’tthinkIcanthankherenough. viii CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION Weathering of sulfide deposits throughout the Montezuma Mining District in Central Colorado presents a major environmental water quality issue for the Snake River and its tributaries. Sulfide oxidation produces acid and releases high concentrations of metals, re- sulting in ecologically toxic discharge known as acid rock drainage (ARD). Because of its abundance, pyrite (FeS2) is the primary mineral responsible for ARD production. There are multiple pyrite oxidation reaction pathways, but in the acidic conditions observed at mine sites, pyrite is oxidized by ferric iron (Fe3+)inthefollowingmicrobiallymediatedreaction (Hallberg, 2010): 3+ 2+ + FeS +14Fe +8H O 15Fe +2HSO− +14H (1.1) 2 2 ! 4 Mining operations greatly accelerate the sulfide weathering process through augmentation of available reactive mineral surface area (Alpers et al., 2007). To di↵erentiate it from naturally occurring ARD, discharge from mined lands is called acid mine drainage (AMD). Current mining practices seek to minimize impact on water resources, but the Montezuma District contains many historic and abandoned mines that pre-date recent impact concerns and regulations. Equation 1.1 typically proceeds until all available pyrite is consumed, as as aresultthee↵ects of AMD can persist for decades or even centuries after mining operations have ceased (Younger, 1997). Because of its persistent and pervasive nature, AMD has been described as the greatest water quality issue facing the western US today (Da Rosa et al., 1997). Analyses of water and sediment samples taken from throughout the Snake River and its tributaries found that concentrations of zinc consistently exceed acute and chronic toxicity thresholds for trout (Fey et al., 2001). Indeed, the Snake River currently needs to be re- stocked with trout each spring because they cannot survive the winter in the mining-impaired 1 habitat (Fey et al., 2001). There is some debate as to the existence of a shear zone, locally known as the Montezuma shear zone, cutting through the site (Figure 1.1) that may be re- gionally enhancing the rate of pyrite weathering (Wood et al., 2005). Some have argued that a linear zone of ductile and brittle features across the front range represent a major strain feature of the crust. Others have documented features in the area that would be inconsistent with a large crustal strain feature, and instead suggest that deformation associated with the area is related to Laramide deformation (Caine et al., 2010). In any event, the bedrock of the region contains a large density of fractures that serve as fundamental hydrogeological conduits (Caine & Tomusiak, 2003). The Snake River becomes significantly more impacted with metals after its confluence with Peru Creek, its
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