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GEOPOLITICAL ECOLOGIES of ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, LAND GRABBING and MIGRATION: Comparative Perspectives from Senegal and Cambodia

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GEOPOLITICAL ECOLOGIES of ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, LAND GRABBING and MIGRATION: Comparative Perspectives from Senegal and Cambodia GEOPOLITICAL ECOLOGIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, LAND GRABBING AND MIGRATION: comparative perspectives from Senegal and Cambodia by Sara Vigil Díaz-Telenti This research was funded by the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research (F.R.S.-FNRS). © Sara Vigil Díaz-Telenti 2019 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission by the author. The cover image is an original painting by Filipino activist and artist Boy Dominguez. It was the cover of a special issue of The Journal of Peasant Studies, volume 39, issue 2, 2012. ISBN 978-90-6490-109-6 University of Liège and International Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University Rotterdam Geopolitical Ecologies of Environmental Change, Land Grabbing and Migration: comparative perspectives from Senegal and Cambodia Geopolitieke ecologie van milieuveranderingen, landroof en migratie: een vergelijkende studie in Senegal en Cambodja Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the University of Liège and the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Prof. R.C.M.E. Engels and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on Thursday 7 November 2019 at 10.00 hrs by Sara Vigil Díaz-Telenti born in Gijón, Spain Doctoral Committee Doctoral dissertation supervisors Prof. S.M. Borras, International Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University Rotterdam Dr. F. Gemenne, University of Liège Other members Prof. J. Ribot, American University Washington, DC Prof. E.B. Zoomers, Utrecht University Prof. M. Arsel, International Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University Rotterdam To my belated father who would have been proud to see this day. Your sensitivity and love for knowledge are my greatest inheritance. Contents List of Figures, Maps and Appendices ix Acronyms xii Acknowledgements xiii Abstract xvi Samenvatting xviii Résumé xx Resumen xxii Preface: From Co-Development to Land Grabs xxiv INTRODUCTION XXVIII Notes xxxv 1. VARIEGATED GEOPOLITICAL ECOLOGIES 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Environmental Security and Population Bombs 3 1.2. Environmental Adaptation and Ingenuity 13 1.3 Variegated Geopolitical Ecologies 20 1.4 Research Questions and Objectives 37 Notes 40 vi Contents vii 2. GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY AND INCORPORATED COMPARISON 41 Introduction 41 2.1 Global Ethnography and Incorporated Comparison 42 2.2 Research Design and Data Collection 46 2.2.1 The Construction of an Incorporated Comparison 47 2.2.2 Zooming into Three Landscapes 59 2.3 Challenges and Limitations 62 Conclusion 67 Notes 68 3. HISTORICAL GEOPOLITICAL ECOLOGIES IN SENEGAL AND CAMBODIA 69 Introduction 69 3.1 Colonialism: Commodification and Securitisation 70 3.2 Decolonisation and Postcolonialism 78 3.2 Variegated Neoliberalism 90 Conclusion 98 4. GREEN AND MIGRATION GRABS 101 Introduction 101 4.1 Senegal 102 4.1.1 From Migration as Adaptation to its Securitisation 107 4.1.2 Security Aid and Investment in Agriculture 112 4.2 Cambodia 126 4.2.1 Criminalising Internal Migration 129 4.2.2 Adapting to Environmental Discourse 139 Conclusion 148 Notes 149 viii 5. EXPULSIONS AND DESTRUCTION: OVERLAPPING SCENARIOS 151 Introduction 151 5.1 Senhuile: Un-Greening for Virtual Green Purposes 152 5.2 Koh Kong: Overlapping Grabs, Overlapping Displacements 169 5.3 Kampong Thom: A Perpetual Movement of Broken Promises. 181 Conclusion 199 Notes 204 6. SELF-FULFILLING RISKS 205 Introduction 205 6.1 Weathering the ‘Perfect Storm’ 206 6.2. Fortress Conservation and Blood Sugar 217 6.3. Reframing Environmental Criminality 228 Conclusion 237 Notes 239 CONCLUSION 240 Appendices 258 References 261 List of Figures, Maps and Appendices Figures Exploring Interrelations 2 Urban and Rural Population in Senegal and Cambodia (1990-2017) 52 Number, Location, and Production Aims of Land Deals in Senegal 53 and Cambodia Senegal: International Migrant Stock (%) and Number of Interna- 108 tional Migrants Senegal: Personal Remittances, Official Development Assistance 109 and Official Aid, and Foreign Direct Investment Received (current USD). Production of the Top Five Commodities in Senegal (tonnes). 118 Land Deals in Senegal: Number, Location, and Production Pur- 121 poses Cambodia: Personal Remittances, Official Development Assistance 136 and Official Aid, and Foreign Direct Investment Received (current USD) Cambodia: International Migrant Stock (%) and Number of Inter- 137 national Migrants Cattle Grazing Within the Ndiaël Reserve 161 Irrigated Plot Facilitated by Senhuile Company 165 ix x Relocation Site in Koh Kong 174 Forest Clearence on a Contested Land Plot in Song San Village 191 Home of a Migrant Worker on a Family Farm and Inside Tan Bien 195 Rubber Production of the Top Five Commodities in Cambodia (tonnes) 234 Maps Location of Land Deals and the Corresponding Intended Produc- xxxi tion Aims Visited Sites and Chosen Site in Senegal 57 Visited and Chosen Sites in Cambodia 58 Economic Land Concessions by Crop 144 State Map Depicting Land for Senhuile Company versus Commu- 155 nity Map Mobility within the Ndiaël Reserve 160 Map of the Southern Cardamom Forest Protection Program 171 Commune Land Use Planning Map Overlaid with Koh Kong 173 Concession Boundaries Deforestation Within Koh Kong Sugar and Nearby Concessions 175 Location of Studied Villages in Kampong Thom 182 Map of Contested and Granted Plots 187 Deforestation Within ELCs (Tan Bien Rubber in yellow) 231 List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices xi Appendices Key organizations interviewed, Senegal 258 Key organizations interviewed, Cambodia 259 Acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank BECCS Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage CNCR National Council of Rural Concertation and Cooperation ELCs Economic Land Concessions FAO United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization FDI Foreign Direct Investment IMF International Monetary Fund IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ODA Official Development Assistance SAED The Delta Management and Exploitation Company SLCs Social Land Concessions UNCTAT United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia xii Acknowledgements Pursuing a PhD is a privilege that has only been possible thanks to the support, kindness, knowledge, patience, and smiles of a great deal of people. First of all, a very special thanks goes to my supervisors: François Gemenne and Jun Borras. To François, thank you for the trust that you have granted me since we first met in Paris nearly ten years ago. You have pushed me beyond the boundaries of what I thought was achievable or doable, and helped open a world of opportunities. To Jun, thank you for your relentless encouragement throughout all of the ups and downs that a PhD entails. Your knack to find solutions to problems that appeared paralysing has never ceased to amaze me, and I have learned immensely from your sharpness and kindness. I hope that this dissertation does justice – at least in part –to the hopes, the time, and the energy that you have both offered me. Thank you to the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research (F.R.S-FNRS) for the very generous research grant that made this work possible. As this PhD was undertaken in co-tutelle, I am particularly in- debted to two academic institutions: The University of Liège (ULg) and the International Institute of Social Studies (ISS). At ULg, I am particu- larly grateful to all of my colleagues, old and new, from the Hugo Ob- servatory for their support, constructive criticism as well as for the ad- ventures that we have shared over the years. A very special note of thanks goes to Caroline who has been much more than a colleague. Thank you for your friendship, mentorship, and for our memorable trips and experiences. At the Hugo Observatory, I would also like to extend a xiii xiv special thanks to Pierre, Florence, Julia, and Dalila. At ULg, I am also grateful to Marco Martiniello, and the members of the CEDEM, for their support in the early stages of this dissertation. At ISS, I wish to thank the members of the Political Ecology Re- search Group. Although I was not often physically in The Hague, I al- ways felt quickly at home and welcomed, and I benefitted immensely from the critical insights and advise offered. A special thanks to the members of to the ‘village’: the community of engaged scholar-activists that Jun has brought together to support one another’s journeys. A spe- cial thanks to Alberto, Cape, Tsegaye, Nguyet, Sergio, Salena, Daniela, Yunan, Natalia, Christina as well as to the MOSAIC project colleagues: Clara, Ratha, Arnim, Courtney, Yukari, Mads, Chayan and Jenny. I would also like to offer my thanks to Nynke Jo Smit at ISS and to Catherine Dassis at ULg for making the co-tulle administratively and practically pos- sible. I also extend my gratitude to Hannah Twomey for copy-editing this dissertation. This research would have never been possible without all of the women and men that I met in the field in both Cambodia and Senegal. You have shaped me in ways more profound than I could ever express and I am profoundly grateful that you trusted me with your lives, fears, and hopes. My main hosts in Cambodia and Senegal played a pivotal role in helping me navigate new countries. In Cambodia, a very warm thank you goes to my supervisor, Rathana Peou, and to William for their inval- uable friendship and support. In Senegal, I would like to thank Aly Tan- dian from the University Gaston-Berger in Saint Louis for hosting and helping me during my fieldwork. To Jay, and the Siki community, thank you for all of our shared laughs and decompression time between my rounds of fieldwork. A very heartfelt thank you to Yves Charles Zarka, my first mentor in Paris, who has been an endless source of intellectual stimulation and friendship over the course of many years, and without whom I would have probably never considered doing a PhD.
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