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Hedgehog Signaling, a Critical Pathway Governing the Development and Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

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Hedgehog Signaling, a Critical Pathway Governing the Development and Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma cells Review Hedgehog Signaling, a Critical Pathway Governing the Development and Progression of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Jia Ding 1 , Hui-Yan Li 2, Li Zhang 2, Yuan Zhou 2 and Jian Wu 2,3,4,* 1 Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Jing’an District Central Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China; [email protected] 2 Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, MOE/NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; [email protected] (H.-Y.L.); [email protected] (L.Z.); [email protected] (Y.Z.) 3 Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China 4 Shanghai Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-215-423-7705; Fax: +86-216-422-7201 Abstract: Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is a classic morphogen in controlling embryonic development and tissue repairing. Aberrant activation of Hh signaling has been well documented in liver cancer, including hepatoblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma. The present review aims to update the current understanding on how abnormal Hh signaling molecules modulate initiation, progression, drug resistance and metastasis of HCC. The latest relevant literature was reviewed with our recent findings to provide an overview regarding the molecular interplay and clinical relevance of the Hh signaling in HCC management. Hh signaling molecules are involved in the transformation of pre-carcinogenic lesions to malignant features in chronic liver injury, such as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Activation of GLI target genes, such as ABCC1 and TAP1, is responsible for drug resistance in hepatoma cells, with a CD133−/EpCAM− surface molecular profile, and GLI1 and truncated GLI1 account for the metastatic feature of the hepatoma cells, with upregulation of Citation: Ding, J.; Li, H.-Y.; Zhang, L.; matrix metalloproteinases. A novel bioassay for the Sonic Hh ligand in tissue specimens may assist Zhou, Y.; Wu, J. Hedgehog Signaling, α a Critical Pathway Governing the HCC diagnosis with negative -fetoprotein and predict early microvascular invasion. In-depth Development and Progression of exploration of the Hh signaling deepens our understanding of its molecular modulation in HCC Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cells 2021, initiation, drug sensitivity and metastasis, and guides precise management of HCC on an individual 10, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ basis. cells10010123 Keywords: hedgehog signaling; GLI1/2; hepatocellular carcinoma; cancer-initiating cells; drug Received: 24 November 2020 resistance; metastasis; Sonic hedgehog ligand Accepted: 7 January 2021 Published: 11 January 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- 1. Introduction tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is a classic and conserved pathway, controlling embryonic ms in published maps and institutio- nal affiliations. development and tissue repairing under physiological conditions [1]. Disruption of Hh signaling results in an array of developmental disorders in the face, ranging from minor alterations to more serious conditions, such as severe cleft of the lip and palate [2]. Aberrant activation of this pathway has been well documented in malignant transformation, pro- Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- gression, drug resistance and metastatic processes in a number of solid tumors, including censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. glioblastoma, base cell carcinoma, hepatoblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), lung This article is an open access article cancer, breast and prostate cancer [3–7]. The unique signaling molecules, i.e., the Sonic distributed under the terms and con- (SHh), Desert (DHh) Indian (IHh) ligands, as well as receptor patched (PTCH1), the trans- ditions of the Creative Commons At- membrane intermediate molecule smoothened (SMO), and transcription factors (GLI1,2,3) tribution (CC BY) license (https:// are highly expressed in most malignant tissues, and have been considered as biomarkers creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ for progression and prognosis [8,9]. More specifically, SMO has been considered as a useful 4.0/). Cells 2021, 10, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10010123 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2021, 10, 123 2 of 18 molecular target for intervention with small molecules, such as LDE225 and GDC-0449, in suppressing this pathway [10,11]. SMO inhibitors, vismodegib (GDC-0449), sonidegib (NVP-LDE225) and saridegib (IPI-926), have been approved by the FDA for the treatment of glioblastoma and base cell carcinoma [12,13] or for clinical trials in the treatment of pancreatic, breast and colon cancer [14]. However, the efficacy of SMO inhibitors in other solid carcinoma may not be as effective as in glioblastoma or base cell carcinoma due to activation of the non-canonical Hh signaling pathway or other oncogenic signaling pathways [15]. The application of these inhibitors and development of other candidates are an active area of molecular intervention in cancer therapy. At the same time, molecular targeting agents and checkpoint inhibitors are optimal selections for refractory malignancies, such as pulmonary, hepatocellular and breast carci- noma, and primary and induced resistance to these therapeutics prompts basic and clinical investigations on the molecular interplay underlying drug resistance. Hh signaling has been found to be one of key signaling pathways in modulating drug resistance through ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, such as ABCC1 and TAP1, in our previous studies [16,17]. Intrahepatic and extrahepatic invasion and distal metastasis are the main cause of death in HCC. Involvement of the Hh signaling in every step of progressive behaviors has been gradually elucidated at molecular levels and with clinical relevance. As one of the clinically important parameters, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are the source of new metastatic lesions [18]. Their cancer stem cell-like features, surface markers, as well as signaling molecules in controlling intravasation, survival in the bloodstream, and formation of new lesions are crucial topics in cancer biology. The involvement of Hh signaling in these processes is intriguing to determine how HCC metastasis happens with multiple intrinsic and environmental factors working in a coordinating fashion. Most methodologies in detection of the Hh signaling molecules use molecular ap- proaches, such as RT-PCR, for the mRNA levels, and Western blot or immunohistochemical staining for the protein expression levels and location in tissues. So far, quantitative de- termination of Hh signaling molecules has not been used to monitor drug sensitivity or prognosis prediction, although a sensitive ELISA kit is available for the Sonic Hh ligand (SHh) measurement [7]. Since Hh ligands are secreted in an autocrine and paracrine mech- anism from tumor cells or mesenchymal cells in the tumor, there is potential application of their assay in tumor tissue or body fluid for clinical measurement. Thus, it is clinically relevant to develop sensitive and reliable assays for prompt, high-throughput application in clinical services. The present review aims to provide an overview covering the signaling mechanism, modulation and interaction with other signaling molecules, such as TGF-β. The major attention is focused on the molecular mechanism of Hh signaling in modulating drug resistance and metastasis of HCC. Additionally, a novel bioengineering assay for the detection of SHh in HCC specimens and its potential application are elaborated. The use of pharmacotherapeutic candidates for intervention of Hh signaling in cancer therapy has been covered recently by extensive reviews [14,15,19,20], and thus we did not have this topic as a key focus of this review. The outline of the present review is highlighted in the bullet points. • Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is aberrantly activated from chronic inflammation to malig- nant transformation. • Targeting Hh molecules, such as SMO or GLI, confers rational intervention for malig- nancies. • Hh participates in drug resistance by maintaining stem-like properties, onset of EMT and induction of ABC transporters in HCC. • Hh signaling contributes to HCC metastasis by mediating EMT, MMP production or involvement in multiple steps of metastasis. • A sensitive aptasensor-based assay was developed to detect Sonic Hh ligand in HCC specimens with acceptable positivity and high specificity. Cells 2021, 10, 123 3 of 18 2. Hh Signaling in Transformation to Malignant Cells 2.1. Aberrant Activation of Hh Signaling in Normal Liver and HCC Hh signaling is activated via canonical or non-canonical pathways under different con- ditions. The canonical Hh pathway includes secretory ligands (Sonic, Indian and Desert), the 12-pass transmembrane protein patched1 (PTCH1), heptahelical transmembrane G- protein-coupled receptor smoothened (SMO) and transcription factor GLI proteins (GLI1, GLI2 and GLI3) [21]. In the absence of ligands, PTCH1 inhibits the activity of SMO, which in turn recruits suppressor of fused (SUFU) to inactivate the GLI proteins [22]. With the in- hibitory interaction of SUFU and being phosphorylated by protein kinase A (PKA), GLI2/3 proteins undergo partial proteolysis and act as transcriptional repressors (GLI2/3R) [23,24]. The binding of Hh ligands to PTCH1 liberates SMO in the primary cilia [25,26], leading to suppression
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