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Rana Sylvatica) Blair D This article was downloaded by: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] On: 19 August 2010 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 918588849] Publisher Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37- 41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713653210 The effects of oil sands wetlands on wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) Blair D. Hersikorna; Jan J. C. Ciborowskib; Judit E. G. Smitsc a Toxicology Center, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3, Canada b Department of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada c Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 426, Canada Online publication date: 19 August 2010 To cite this Article Hersikorn, Blair D. , Ciborowski, Jan J. C. and Smits, Judit E. G.(2010) 'The effects of oil sands wetlands on wood frogs (Rana sylvatica)', Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 92: 8, 1513 — 1527 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/02772240903471245 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772240903471245 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry Vol. 92, No. 8, September 2010, 1513–1527 The effects of oil sands wetlands on wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) Blair D. Hersikorna*, Jan J.C. Ciborowskib and Judit E.G. Smitsc aToxicology Center, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3, Canada; bDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Windsor, Biology Building, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada; cDepartment of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, T2N 426, Canada (Received 5 August 2009; final version received 3 December 2009) Extraction of crude oil from oil sand produces solid (sand) and liquid (water with suspended fine particles) tailings materials, called oil sands process-affected materials (OSPM). These waste materials are stored on the mine site due to a ‘‘zero discharge’’ policy and must be reclaimed when operations end. The liquid tailings materials are known to contain naphthenic acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and have high pH and salinity. One method of reclamation is the ‘‘wet landscape’’ approach, which involves using oil sands tailings materials to form wetlands that would mimic natural wetland ecological function. This study investigated the effects of wetlands formed with oil sands tailings materials on the survival and growth of wood frog (Rana sylvatica) larvae. In spring 2007, in-situ caging studies were completed in 14 wetlands that were of four different classes; young or old, reference or reclaimed. Tadpole survival was different between types of wetlands, with young tailings-affected wetlands (7 years old) having 41.5%, 62.6%, and 54.7% higher tadpole mortality than old tailings-affected (47 years old), young reference, and old reference wetlands, respectively. Since old wetlands created from OSPM showed effects on tadpoles similar to those of reference wetlands, which had markedly lower toxicity than young tailings-affected wetlands, we provide evidence that wetlands, at least 7 years old, can sustain amphibian life. Keywords: oil sands; wood frog; toxicology; bioindicator Introduction Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 20:43 19 August 2010 The demand for oil worldwide is increasing while reserves of oil are decreasing. As a result, production of oil from unconventional oil deposits, such as Alberta’s oil sands, is expanding rapidly. At the time of this study, there were three companies using surface mining to excavate oil sand from which bitumen (heavy crude oil) is extracted. Oil sands production accounts for approximately 25% of Canada’s total crude oil production, and this percentage is expected to increase as more companies begin production (Leung, MacKinnon, and Smith 2003). *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] ISSN 0277–2248 print/ISSN 1029–0486 online ß 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/02772240903471245 http://www.informaworld.com 1514 B.D. Hersikorn et al. Crude oil that is extracted from oil sand, is dense and highly viscous. In the ground bitumen is associated with sand, fine clay particles, and water (Speight 2007). Surface mining of oil sands involves clearing land, digging out raw oil-impregnated sand with excavation equipment, and transporting the oil sand with heavy haul trucks to the extraction facilities (Squires 2005). Bitumen is separated from the associated materials by a hot water floatation process (Clark and Pasternak 1932). This produces large quantities of solid (sand) and liquid (process-water containing suspended fine particles) wastes, called tailings or oil sands process-affected materials (OSPM), which are stored on mine sites in large dyked tailings ponds. Quagraine, Peterson, and Headley (2005) state that by the year 2025 as much as one billion cubic meters of OSPM may be stored in tailings ponds. Government legislation requires the mine sites to be returned to a state similar to that of the area before the production began (Madill et al. 2001). One strategy adopted by the oil sands industry to achieve this reclamation, the ‘‘wet landscape approach’’, involves the use of stored tailings material to form lakes, ponds, and other types of ‘‘constructed wetlands’’. Wetlands are expected to cover 20–40% of the final reclamation landscape (Bendell-Young et al. 2000; Gentes et al. 2006; Siwik et al. 2000). Since these constructed wetlands are meant to form a working ecosystem over time, they must be able to support communities of wildlife that would naturally inhabit the region. This may be problematic since OSPM and some of its constituents can be toxic to many organisms such as plants (Renault et al. 1998), amphibian larvae (Pollet and Bendell-Young 2000), mammals (Rogers et al. 2002), fish (Nero et al. 2006; van den Heuvel et al. 2000), aquatic invertebrates (Leung, MacKinnon, and Smith 2003), and birds (Gentes et al. 2006; Smits et al. 2000). It is thought that increased concentrations of salts, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and naphthenic acids (NAs) are the main cause of the toxicity to wildlife (Gentes et al. 2007; Nero et al. 2006). However, the OSPM toxicity is expected to diminish over time (Leung, MacKinnon, and Smith 2003). Little is known about the effects of OSPM on amphibians, and chronic, low-grade toxicity may interfere with the formation of a stable ecosystem that can support amphibian life. Amphibians such as the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), which is native to the northern boreal regions, are expected to live in and around wetlands formed with OSPM. The larvae (tadpoles) of the wood frog are entirely aquatic until they complete metamorphosis. Amphibians and their larvae have been used as model subjects in many types of toxicological and ecological studies including investigations Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 20:43 19 August 2010 of the effects of pesticides (Cooke 1972, 1981; Materna, Rabeni, and LaPoint 1995), industrial wastes (Huang et al. 2007; Snodgrass et al. 2004), and oil sands tailings water (Pollet and Bendell-Young 2000). Recently, the use of confining amphibians in a wetland of interest (in-situ caging) has been recognized as a practical method for toxicology studies. Caging reduces variables associated with the field collection of wild specimens (predation, stress/unreliability of capture, variations in diet, and unknown confounding elements) while still exposing amphibians to realistic environmental conditions such as light, temperature, and water chemistry (Harris, Bishop, and McDaniel 2001). For these reasons R. sylvatica larvae are excellent subjects for an in-situ toxicological study of wetlands formed with OSPM. This study is intended to provide information on the viability of using wetlands based on OSPM, as part of a reclamation strategy that could be implemented by oil sands companies in northern Alberta. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 1515 During the course of this study, survival, growth, and developmental endpoints of indigenous R. sylvatica larvae were assessed to determine the ecological sustainability of the wetlands and whether this sustainability held true for wetlands of different ages. Triglyceride concentration in the larvae was also measured to reveal possible alterations in energy storage or use by amphibians exposed to OSPM, which may reduce their ability to flourish in such ecosystems. Materials and methods Study sites, experimental animals, and experimental
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