AN INTRODUCTION to AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY This Page Intentionally Left Blank ÂÂ an INTRODUCTION to AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
AN INTRODUCTION TO AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY This page intentionally left blank AN INTRODUCTION TO AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY MIKKO NIKINMAA Professor of Zoology, Department of Biology, Laboratory of Animal Physiology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangement with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-411574-3 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com Printed and bound in the United States of America 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi 1. Introduction: What is Aquatic 5. The Most Important Experimental Toxicology? Designs and Organisms in Aquatic Toxicology 1.1âThe History of Aquatic Toxicology 1 1.2âThe Main Present and Future Challenges 4 5.1 âModel Organisms Used 54 1.3âWhat is Measured 5 5.2 Micro- and Mesocosms 54 Relevant Literature and Cited References 16 5.3 Ecosystem Manipulations 60 5.4 Biomonitoring 61 2. What Causes Aquatic Contamination? Relevant Literature and Cited References 62 2.1âIntroduction 20 6. Factors Affecting the Bioavailability 2.2âMetals, Metalloids, and Organometallic of Chemicals Compounds 23 2.3âOther Inorganic Compounds, Including Factors 6.1 Introduction 66 Causing Eutrophication 29 6.2 Pharmacological Bioavailability 66 2.4âOrganic Compounds 29 6.3 Environmental Bioavailability 68 2.5âNanomaterials 35 Relevant Literature and Cited References 71 2.6âRadiation 36 2.7âGenetic Modification 38 Relevant Literature and Cited References 38 7. Chemical Uptake by Organisms 7.1 Introduction 73 3. Principles of Water Purification 7.2âThe Uptake of Ionic (Hydrophilic) Compounds 76 3.1âPrinciples of Wastewater Treatment 41 7.3âThe Uptake of Lipophilic 3.2âDisinfection Steps for Generating Household Compounds 78 Water 44 Relevant Literature and Cited References 79 3.3âSludge Treatment 45 Relevant Literature and Cited References 46 8. Chemical Distribution in Organisms 4. Sources and Transport of Chemicals in Aquatic Systems 8.1 âIntroduction: Distribution of Chemicals in Organisms 81 4.1âThe Major Sources of Pollutants 48 8.2 Storage Sites of Chemicals in Organisms 82 4.2 âTransport of Pollutants in the Environment 50 8.3âCellular Distribution of Chemicals 83 Relevant Literature and Cited References 51 Relevant Literature and Cited References 84 v vi CONTENTS 9. Detoxification 13. Interactions between Chemicals 9.1âBiotransformation of Organic Compounds 88 13.1âLack of Interacting Effects 9.2âDetoxification by Forming Non-Harmful (Additive Toxicity) 157 Complexes 94 13.2âAgonism (potentiation, synergism) 159 9.3âDetoxification by Compartmentalization 97 13.3 Antagonism 162 Relevant Literature and Cited 13.4âHas Potentiation or Inhibition of Toxicity by References 97 Chemical Interactions been Demonstrated in Natural Environments? 163 Relevant Literature and Cited 10. Excretion of Compounds from References 163 Organisms 10.1 Introduction 100 14. Acute and Chronic Toxicity 10.2 Cellular Excretion 101 14.1âIntroduction 165 10.3âExcretion from Gills 102 14.2âDifferentiating between General Stress 10.4âExcretion from the Kidney and Other Responses and Specific Acute Responses to Excretory Organs 106 Pollutants 166 10.5âExcretion in Bile Via the Intestine 107 14.3 âTime Courses of Toxicant Responses 168 10.6âExcretion from Multicellular Plants 14.4âWhat Signifies a Chronic oxicantT (Including Algae) 109 Response 170 Relevant Literature and Relevant Literature and Cited References 171 Cited References 109 15. Interactions Between Natural 11. Effects on Organisms Environmental Factors and Toxicity 11.1â‘Omics in Aquatic Toxicology— Ecotoxicogenomics 112 15.1âTemperature 174 11.2 Genotoxicity 121 15.2âOxygen 176 11.3 Oxidative Stress 124 15.3âSalinity 179 11.4âEffects on Reproduction 130 15.4âOther Abiotic Stresses 180 11.5 Neurotoxicity 133 15.5âCompetition and Predation 181 11.6âEffects on Energy Metabolism 134 Relevant Literature and Cited References 183 11.7 Membrane Effects 136 11.8âApoptosis and Necrosis 138 16. Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic 11.9 Immunotoxicology 139 Populations 11.10âEffects on Development 141 11.11âTeratogenesis and 16.1âIntroduction 186 Carcinogenesis 142 16.2âEpidemiology 188 11.12âBehavioral Effects 143 16.3âDemographic Effects 190 Relevant Literature and 16.4âPopulation Genetics 191 Cited References 144 Relevant Literature and Cited References 194 12. Bioindicators and Biomarkers 17. Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic 12.1 Bioindicators 147 Communities and Ecosystems 12.2 Biomarkers 149 Relevant Literature and Cited 17.1âIntroduction 198 References 154 17.2âCommunity Ecotoxicology 199 CONTENTS vii 17.3âEcosystem Ecotoxicology 202 18.4âToxicokinetic Modeling 215 Relevant Literature and 18.5âQSAR 215 Cited References 204 18.6 âModeling the Properties of Water Affecting Toxicity (of Metals) 216 18. Modeling Toxicity Relevant Literature and Cited References 217 18.1âIntroduction 208 Glossary 221 18.2âRisk Assessment 209 Index 233 18.3 âModels with Lethality as an End Point 212 This page intentionally left blank Preface Any effects of contaminants on ecosystems in biotic interactions within or between must be caused by their direct effects on one species. Further, while experimental studies or more organisms in the ecosystem. Thus, are mainly retrospective, modeling makes changes in the function (= physiology) of aquatic toxicological predictions possible. an organism or organisms will be behind Consequently, aquatic toxicology is truly any ecotoxicological effects. Consequently, integrative, and I hope that I am able to give understanding the normal physiology of this message to readers of the book. Since the organisms is at the center of all toxicology. book is introductory, I have tried to find a Effluent discharges (and thus the measure- balance between making it possible for any ments of chemical concentrations) are of reader to understand the book and including no toxicological significance if they cause new concepts to make it interesting reading, no effects on any organism. Further, a con- even for aquatic toxicology experts. taminant may cause effects on the genome Because my background is in animal of an organism without phenotypic effects. physiology, the book is biased towards the In such a case, the effect on the genome is animal kingdom. However, I hope that it not toxicological. Even though this premise becomes clear to the reader that effects on emphasizes the role of functional changes in prokaryotes, fungi, plants, and algae are individual organisms, it is pointed out that equally important components of aquatic interactions between organisms, and between toxicology. Which group of organisms natural environmental and toxicant-induced receives most emphasis depends mainly changes, occur whenever toxicant responses on the interests of the writer. Regardless of of organisms in an ecosystem are considered. the group that receives the most attention, For example, it is emphasized that many of the basic principles of aquatic toxicology the effects of toxicants in an ecosystem are are the same. However, as my approach to indirect: the actual toxic effect is on a species toxicology is biological, the work may be other than the one that is seen to respond. difficult for any reader without previous The response takes place because of changes biological knowledge. ix This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments My thanks go first and especially to my see. Regardless of their final fate,