Teacher Training For Classical Teachers

SAVING WESTERN CIVILIZATION ONE STUDENT AT A TIME

RHETORIC What Is Classical Rhetoric?

by Martin Cothran

1 ccording to Quintilian, the great Roman teacher of rhetoric, the purpose of education is to produce A the “good man speaking well.” This means that a student must not only study the rules and principles of eloquent expression, but he must know and do good; he must not only master certain techniques, he must be familiar with the Good, the True, and the Beautiful. The classical discipline that taught a man these things was called “rhetoric.”

In modern times the word “rhetoric” has acquired a pejorative connotation. We hear people say things like, “Well, that’s just rhetoric.” The reason we think this way now is because many people who speak well are not good men— or at least they do not use their rhetorical talents for what we would consider a good purpose. This seems to be a particular problem in politics.

2 Classical thinkers such as Quintilian, as well as Aristotle and Cicero, knew that just because something is used badly is not a suffi cient reason to reject the thing itself. A good thing can be used for a bad purpose. One of the reasons for the negative modern view of rhetoric may have something to do with how we teach it. While modern books on speaking and writing have plenty of emphasis on technique, they are almost devoid of any treatment of those other things necessary for truly persuasive expression, one of which is the element of good moral character. To get a full understanding of what it is to be able to express yourself persuasively, you have to go back to the ancients. The three greatest ancient writers on rhetoric were the Greek philosopher Aristotle, the Roman orator Cicero, and the Roman teacher Quintilian. Aristotle was the greatest theoretician of rhetoric, Cicero its greatest practitioner, and Quintilian its greatest teacher. They believed that rhetoric was to be used for the Good. Classical rhetoric involves a study of the fundamental principles of political philosophy, ethics, and traditional psychology. Although the study of rhetoric truly begins at a young age with practice in imitating the writing of others, it extends in later years into the specifi c study of the principles of persuasive expression. There is no bett er place to begin this latt er kind of study than with Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Aristotle taught that there were three elements of communication: the speaker, the audience, and the speech itself. In fact, his book is broken down into three parts, one on each of these elements of rhetoric.

Just because something is used badly is not a suffi cient reason to reject the thing itself.

3 Three Kinds of Persuasive Speech There are also, says Aristotle, three kinds of persuasive speech: political speech, legal speech, and ceremonial speech. In political speech, the audience is some body of decision- makers like a political assembly. Its subject is future action, and its object is to move the audience to pursue some action. A congressman, for example, may ask to be recognized by the House speaker or Senate president to commend a bill for his colleagues’ consideration because he thinks it would achieve a legitimate public purpose—or, conversely, he may wish to speak against a bill one of his colleagues has introduced because he thinks it would work against the common good. The end of this kind of speech is expediency, which is a kind of good, a good in the sense that it helps the political community he is sworn to support move closer to its ultimate purpose, which is the common good. Political rhetoric, therefore, is highly moral or ethical in character. A classical example of this kind of speech would be Odysseus’ appeal to Achilles to return to batt le in Homer’s Iliad. Odysseus argues for the expediency of Achilles’ return—for the Greeks and for Achilles himself. It is about the future good of both Achilles and the Greek army. In a legal speech, the subject is the past, and the object is the determination of what has or has not actually happened, what the nature of the act was, and whether it was warranted. A lawyer, for example, may argue before a jury that his client did not, in fact, commit the murder that he has been charged with committ ing. He is arguing about what did or did not happen in the past, and whether it was done (or not) for a just reason. Anyone who argues to an audience about past events (in this case who committ ed a past murder) would count as a legal speaker. A legal speaker (also called a forensic speaker) could also include someone addressing some past historical issue. A debate over whether the United States should have dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki would involve legal or forensic rhetoric. The end of legal speech is the bringing about of justice through the determination of truth. 4 A classical example of this kind of speech would be Socrates’ defense against charges of atheism and the corruption of the youth of Athens in the trial in which he was condemned to death. He says that the past things he has been accused of saying and doing are not true, and therefore to convict him of doing these things would be unjust. A ceremonial speaker would address the present, and would concern himself with the present honor or dishonor of someone. He would engage in praise or blame to achieve his object. The person giving a eulogy, a graduation speech, and certain kinds of sermons would engage in this sort of rhetoric, as well as someone who engages in vituperation—the censure of someone for a wrong he has committ ed, when the focus is on the person’s present dishonor. Because of its ceremonial nature (which is why it is often referred to as the “rhetoric of display”), ceremonial rhetoric is considered to have an emphasis on the aesthetic, the aff ective, or the beautiful. In ceremonial speech, it is the style which is the most important consideration, since the goal is to make the point of the speaker att ractive to the audience. A classic (but not “classical,” which refers to the cultures of Greece and Rome) example of ceremonial speech would be Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address.” In this speech, although Lincoln refers to the past and future as well as the present, its focus is on the present honor of the dead and the hallowing of the place in which they died. It is about honoring those who gave their lives for their ideals. Lincoln’s object was to reach the hearts of his audience in order that they might see the sacrifi ce the dead had made for a great cause. The Three Modes of Rhetoric In addition to the three kinds of speech studied in rhetoric, there are also three modes of rhetoric—three ways in which persuasion is accomplished. The Greeks called them ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos refers to the character of the speaker. We generally determine very early on whether a speaker or writer is worthy of our att ention. We ask the question, “Is this the sort of person we can believe?” And, “Can we trust him?” We might believe him

5 The Greeks called the three modes of rhetoric ethos, logos, and pathos.

because he is an expert and therefore has special knowledge of that on which he speaks. We might believe him because he is humble, and therefore is unlikely to overstate his case and exaggerate the strength of his position. Or we might be inclined to believe him simply because he appears to be honest and trustworthy and would be unlikely to mislead us. When discussing this particular mode of persuasion, Aristotle considers what it is to be a good person by an analysis of the human virtues that constitute good character, and how a speaker can communicate that to his audience. Logos refers to the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker’s arguments. When we hear or read a persuasive appeal of some kind, we will judge it, in part, on the logical strength of the arguments. We the audience want to determine whether the arguments presented by the speaker are sound, which just means that the facts he presents are true and the reasoning he engages in is valid (that his conclusions logically follow from his premises). Logos is the answer to the question, “Does this presentation make intellectual sense?” In this mode of persuasion, the chief tools are enthymeme (the abbreviated form of a logical syllogism used in everyday argument and debate) and example (the historical or imaginary illustrations and real-life or proverbial examples the speaker uses to give his audience examples of what he is talking about). In his Rhetoric, Aristotle includes not just the formal kinds of reasoning included in formal logic, but what he calls “lines of argument” or

6 Aristotle emphasizes not only technique, but something relevant about human nature.

“topics”—arguments that are not strictly formal, but which are rhetorically persuasive in their own right. Pathos refers to the appeal by the speaker to the emotions of the audience. When a speaker tries to persuade people of something, he has to take into account how they feel. To establish his point, he might want to elicit pity for someone or something from the audience—or possibly anger or enthusiasm or skepticism. This requires a knowledge of the kinds of emotions people are prone to, why they have them, and how they can be excited by the speaker. In each of these divisions of rhetoric—the three elements, the three kinds of speech, and the three modes of persuasion— Aristotle emphasizes not only technique, but something relevant about human nature. Unlike the modern emphasis on the technical aspect of persuasion, Aristotle’s Rhetoric emphasizes the underlying, universal, and permanent moral order outside of man (in his discussion of ethos), the logical or conceptual order of reason itself (in his discussion of logos), and the nature of man himself (in his discussion of pathos). That is what sets Aristotle’s Rhetoric apart from other books on persuasive expression, and what warrants our att ention to it today.

7 Aristotle's Rhetoric Abbreviated

BOOK I

Chapter I The Place of Rhetoric: Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic. The modes of persuasion are the only true constituents of the art: everything else is merely accessory.

The Role of Enthymeme in Persuasion: Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration, since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated. The orator's demonstration is an enthymeme, and this is, in general, the most effective of the modes of persuasion. The enthymeme is a sort of syllogism, and the consideration of syllogisms of all kinds, without distinction, is the business of dialectic, either of dialectic as a whole or of one of its branches. It follows plainly, therefore, that he who is best able to see how and from what elements a syllogism is produced will also be best skilled in the enthymeme, when he has further learnt what its subject-matter is and in what respects it differs from the syllogism of strict logic.

How Rhetoric is Useful: Rhetoric is useful (1) because things that are true and things that are just have a natural tendency to prevail over their opposites … (2) before some audiences not even the possession of the exactest knowledge will make it easy for what we say to produce conviction. For argument based on knowledge implies instruction, and there are people whom one cannot instruct. ... Further, (3) we must be able to employ persuasion, just as strict reasoning can be employed, on the opposite sides of a question, not in order that we may in practice employ it in both ways (for we must not make people believe what is wrong), but in order that we may see clearly what the facts are, and that, if another man argues unfairly, we on our part may be able to confute him. Again, (4) it is absurd to hold that a man ought to be ashamed of being unable to defend himself with his limbs, but not of being unable to defend himself with speech and reason, when the use of rational speech is more distinctive of a human being than the use of his limbs.

Chapter II Definition of Rhetoric: Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. This is not a function of any other art.

3 8 Three Modes of Persuasion: Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. The first kind depends on the personal character of the speaker; the second on putting the audience into a certain frame of mind; the third on the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself. Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible. We believe good men more fully and more readily than others ... Secondly, persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emotions. Our judgements when we are pleased and friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile. ... Thirdly, persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question.

What You Must Know to Use Modes of Persuasion: The man who is to be in command of them must, it is clear, be able (1) to reason logically, (2) to understand human character and goodness in their various forms, and (3) to understand the emotions--that is, to name them and describe them, to know their causes and the way in which they are excited.

The Relation of Enthymeme and Example to the Coordinate Procedures in Dialectic: [J]ust as in dialectic there is induction on the one hand and syllogism or apparent syllogism on the other, so it is in rhetoric. The example is an induction, the enthymeme is a syllogism, and the apparent enthymeme is an apparent syllogism. I call the enthymeme a rhetorical syllogism, and the example a rhetorical induction. Every one who effects persuasion through proof does in fact use either enthymemes or examples: there is no other way… When we base the proof of a proposition on a number of similar cases, this is induction in dialectic, example in rhetoric; when it is shown that, certain propositions being true, a further and quite distinct proposition must also be true in consequence, whether invariably or usually, this is called syllogism in dialectic, enthymeme in rhetoric.

Chapter III Three Divisions of Rhetoric: Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three elements in speech-making -- speaker, subject, and person addressed -- it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech's end and object. The hearer must be either a judge, with a decision to make about things past or future, or an observer. A member of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator's skill are observers.

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9 Three Divisions of Oratory: From this it follows that there are three divisions of oratory: (1) political, (2) forensic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display. Political speaking urges us either to do or not to do something: one of these two courses is always taken by private counsellors, as well as by men who address public assemblies. Forensic speaking either attacks or defends somebody: one or other of these two things must always be done by the parties in a case. The ceremonial oratory of display either praises or censures somebody.

Three Kinds of Time: These three kinds of rhetoric refer to three different kinds of time. The political orator is concerned with the future: it is about things to be done hereafter that he advises, for or against. The party in a case at law is concerned with the past; one man accuses the other, and the other defends himself, with reference to things already done. The ceremonial orator is, properly speaking, concerned with the present, since all men praise or blame in view of the state of things existing at the time, though they often find it useful also to recall the past and to make guesses at the future.

Three Ends of Rhetoric: Rhetoric has three distinct ends in view, one for each of its three kinds. The political orator aims at establishing the expediency or the harmfulness of a proposed course of action; if he urges its acceptance, he does so on the ground that it will do good; if he urges its rejection, he does so on the ground that it will do harm; and all other points, such as whether the proposal is just or unjust, honourable or dishonourable, he brings in as subsidiary and relative to this main consideration. Parties in a law-case aim at establishing the justice or injustice of some action, and they too bring in all other points as subsidiary and relative to this one.

Three Propositions of Rhetoric: Now the propositions of Rhetoric are Complete Proofs, Probabilities, and Signs. Every kind of syllogism is composed of propositions, and the enthymeme is a particular kind of syllogism composed of the aforesaid propositions.

Chapter IV Five Subjects of Political Oratory: The subjects of Political Oratory fall under five main heads: (1) ways and means, (2) war and peace, (3) national defence, (4) imports and exports, (5) legislation. The scope of each of these divisions.

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10 Chapter V Happiness: It may be said that every individual man and all men in common aim at a certain end which determines what they choose and what they avoid. This end, to sum it up briefly, is happiness and its constituents …

Definition of Happiness: We may define happiness as prosperity combined with virtue; or as independence of life; or as the secure enjoyment of the maximum of pleasure; or as a good condition of property and body, together with the power of guarding one's property and body and making use of them. That happiness is one or more of these things, pretty well everybody agrees.

Constituent Aspects of Goodness: From this definition of happiness it follows that its constituent parts are: -- good birth, plenty of friends, good friends, wealth, good children, plenty of children, a happy old age, also such bodily excellences as health, beauty, strength, large stature, athletic powers, together with fame, honour, good luck, and virtue. A man cannot fail to be completely independent if he possesses these internal and these external goods; for besides these there are no others to have. (Goods of the soul and of the body are internal. Good birth, friends, money, and honour are external.)

Chapter VI Definition of the Good: We may define a good thing as that which ought to be chosen for its own sake; or as that for the sake of which we choose something else; or as that which is sought after by all things, or by all things that have sensation or reason, or which will be sought after by any things that acquire reason; or as that which must be prescribed for a given individual by reason generally, or is prescribed for him by his individual reason, this being his individual good; or as that whose presence brings anything into a satisfactory and self-sufficing condition; or as self-sufficiency; or as what produces, maintains, or entails characteristics of this kind, while preventing and destroying their opposites.

Chapter 8 Forms of Government: The forms of government are four -- democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, monarchy. A Democracy is a form of government under which the citizens distribute the offices of state among themselves by lot, whereas under oligarchy there is a property qualification, under aristocracy one of education. By education I mean that education which is laid down by the law; for it is those who have been loyal to the national institutions that hold office under an aristocracy. These are bound to be looked upon as

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11 "the best men," and it is from this fact that this form of government has derived its name ("the rule of the best"). Monarchy, as the word implies, is the constitution in which one man has authority over all. [1366a]There are two forms of monarchy: kingship, which is limited by prescribed conditions, and "tyranny," which is not limited by anything.

The Ends of Various Forms of Government: We must also notice the ends which the various forms of government pursue, since people choose in practice such actions as will lead to the realization of their ends. The end of democracy is freedom; of oligarchy, wealth; of aristocracy, the maintenance of education and national institutions; of tyranny, the protection of the tyrant. It is clear, then, that we must distinguish those particular customs, institutions, and interests which tend to realize the ideal of each constitution, since men choose their means with reference to their ends. But rhetorical persuasion is effected not only by demonstrative but by ethical argument; it helps a speaker to convince us, if we believe that he has certain qualities himself, namely, goodness, or goodwill towards us, or both together. Similarly, we should know the moral qualities characteristic of each form of government, for the special moral character of each is bound to provide us with our most effective means of persuasion in dealing with it. We shall learn the qualities of governments in the same way as we learn the qualities of individuals, since they are revealed in their deliberate acts of choice; and these are determined by the end that inspires them.

Chapter IX The Virtues: The Noble is that which is both desirable for its own sake and also worthy of praise; or that which is both good and also pleasant because good. If this is a true definition of the Noble, it follows that virtue must be noble, since it is both a good thing and also praiseworthy. Virtue is, according to the usual view, a faculty of providing and preserving good things; or a faculty of conferring many great benefits, and benefits of all kinds on all occasions. The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom.

Chapter X Definition of Wrong-Doing: We may describe "wrong-doing" as injury voluntarily inflicted contrary to law. The causes of our deliberately intending harmful and wicked acts contrary to law are (1) vice, (2) lack of self-control.

The Seven Reasons People Do Things: Now every action of every person either is or is not due to that person himself. Of those not due to himself some are due to chance, the others to necessity; of these latter, again, some are due to compulsion, the others to nature.

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12 Consequently all actions that are not due to a man himself are due either to chance or to nature or to compulsion. All actions that are due to a man himself and caused by himself are due either to habit or to rational or irrational craving. Rational craving is a craving for good, i.e. a wish -- nobody wishes for anything unless he thinks it good. Irrational craving is twofold, viz. anger and appetite.

Thus every action must be due to one or other of seven causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reasoning, anger, or appetite. It is superfluous further to distinguish actions according to the doers' ages, moral states, or the like; it is of course true that, for instance, young men do have hot tempers and strong appetites; still, it is not through youth that they act accordingly, but through anger or appetite.

Chapter XIII: Two Kinds of Law It will now be well to make a complete classification of just and unjust actions. We may begin by observing that they have been defined relatively to two kinds of law, and also relatively to two classes of persons. By the two kinds of law I mean particular law and universal law. Particular law is that which each community lays down and applies to its own members: this is partly written and partly unwritten. Universal law is the law of Nature. For there really is, as every one to some extent divines, a natural justice and injustice that is binding on all men …

Two Classes of Unjust Actions: The whole class of unjust actions may be divided into two classes, those affecting the community, and those affecting one or more other persons.

What "Being Wronged" Means: Since it has already been settled that "doing a wrong" must be intentional, "being wronged" must consist in having an injury done to you by some one who intends to do it. In order to be wronged, a man must (1) suffer actual harm, (2) suffer it against his will.

Chapter 15 Non-Artistic Means of Persuasion: The "non-technical" (extrinsic) means of persuasion -- those which do not strictly belong to the art of rhetoric. They are five in number, and pertain especially to forensic oratory: (1) laws, (2) witnesses, (3) contracts (4) tortures, (5) oaths.

8 13 BOOK II

Chapter I The Speaker's Character: The orator must also (1) make his own character look right and (2) put his hearers, who are to decide, into the right frame of mind. As to his own character; he should make his audience feel that he possesses prudence, virtue, and goodwill. This is especially important in a deliberative assembly. In the law courts it is especially important that he should be able to influence the emotions, or moral affections, of the jury who try the case.

Chapters II-XI Human Emotions Which Must be Appealed To:

Calmness and anger, friendship and envy, fear and confidence, shame and shamelessness, kindness and unkindness, pity, indignation, envy, and emulation.

Chapter XII Types of Human Character: Let us now consider the various types of human character, in relation to the emotions and moral qualities, showing how they correspond to our various ages and fortunes. By emotions I mean anger, desire, and the like; these we have discussed already. By moral qualities I mean virtues and vices; these also have been discussed already, as well as the various things that various types of men tend to will and to do. By ages I mean youth, the prime of life, and old age. By fortune I mean birth, wealth, power, and their opposites -- in fact, good fortune and ill fortune.

Chapter XV Gifts of Fortune by which human character is affected: Good birth, wealth, power.

Chapter XIX The Four General Lines of Argument: Let us first speak of the Possible and Impossible. It may plausibly be argued: That if it is possible for one of a pair of contraries to be or happen, then it is possible for the other. That if of two similar things one is possible, so is the other. That if the harder of two things is possible, so is the easier. That if a thing can come into existence in a good and beautiful form, then it can come into existence generally; thus a house can exist more easily than a beautiful house. That if the beginning of a thing can occur, so

9 14 can the end. That if the end is possible, so is the beginning. That if that which is posterior in essence or in order of generation can come into being, so can that which is prior. That those things are possible of which the love or desire is natural. That things which are the object of any kind of science or art are possible and exist or come into existence. That anything is possible the first step in whose production depends on men or things which we can compel or persuade to produce it, by our greater strength, our control of them, or our friendship with them. That where the parts are possible, the whole is possible; and where the whole is possible, the parts are usually possible. That if a whole genus is a thing that can occur, so can the species; and if the species can occur, so can the genus. That if one of two things whose existence depends on each other is possible, so is the other. That if a thing can be produced without art or preparation, it can be produced still more certainly by the careful application of art to it. That if anything is possible to inferior, weaker, and stupider people, it is more so for their opposites. As for Impossibility, we can clearly get what we want by taking the contraries of the arguments stated above.

Questions of Past Fact may be looked at in the following ways: First, that if the less likely of two things has occurred, the more likely must have occurred also. That if one thing that usually follows another has happened, then that other thing has happened; that, for instance, if a man has forgotten a thing, he has also once learnt it. That if a man had the power and the wish to do a thing, he has done it; for every one does do whatever he intends to do whenever he can do it, there being nothing to stop him. That, further, he has done the thing in question either if he intended it and nothing external prevented him; or if he had the power to do it and was angry at the time; or if he had the power to do it and his heart was set upon it. Again, that if a thing was "going to happen," it has happened; if a man was "going to do something," he has done it. That if one thing has happened which naturally happens before another or with a view to it, the other has happened. That if one thing has happened which naturally happens after another, or with a view to which that other happens, then that other (that which happens first, or happens with a view to this thing) has also happened. Of all these sequences some are inevitable and some merely usual. The arguments for the non-occurrence of anything can obviously be found by considering the opposites of those that have been mentioned.

How questions of Future Fact should be argued is clear from the same considerations: That a thing will be done if there is both the power and the wish to do it; or if along with the power to do it there is a craving for the result, or anger, or calculation, prompting it. That the thing will be done, in these cases, if the man is actually setting about it, or even if he means to do it later. That a thing will happen if another thing which naturally happens before it has already happened. That if the means to an end have occurred, then the end is likely to occur; thus, if there is a foundation, there will be a house.

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15 For arguments about the Greatness and Smallness of things, the greater and the lesser, and generally great things and small, what we have already said will show the line to take. To go further than this, and try to establish abstract laws of greatness and superiority, is to argue without an object; in practical life, particular facts count more than generalizations.

Chapter 22 Two Modes of Persuasion:

The two general modes of persuasion are: (1) the example, (2) the enthymeme; the maxim being part of the enthymeme. Examples are either (a) historical parallels, or (b) invented parallels, viz. either (a) illustrations or (b) fables, such as those of Aesop. Fables are suitable for popular addresses; and they have this advantage, that they are comparatively easy to invent, whereas it is hard to find parallels among actual past events.

Chapter 21 Use of Maxims: A maxim is a general statement about questions of practical conduct. It is an incomplete enthymeme. Maxims should be used (a) by elderly men, and (b) to controvert popular sayings.

Advantages of maxims: (a) they enable a speaker to gratify his commonplace hearers by expressing as a universal truth the opinions which they themselves hold about particular cases; (b) they invest a speech with moral character.

Chapter 22 Enthymemes: There are two kinds of enthymemes: (a) the demonstrative, formed by the conjunction of compatible propositions; (b) the refutative, formed by the conjuction of incompatible propositions.

Chapter 25 Refutation: An argument may be refuted either by a counter-syllogism or by bringing an objection. Objections may be raised in four ways: (a) by directly attacking your opponent's own statement; (b) by putting forward another statement like it; (c) by putting forward a statement contrary to it; (d) by quoting previous decisions.

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16 Book IX

The Embassy to Achilles

Thus did the Trojans watch. But Panic, comrade of bloodstained Rout, had taken fast hold of the achaeans, and their princes were—all of them—in despair. as when the two winds that blow from Thrace—the north and the northwest— spring up of a sudden and rouse the fury of the main—in a moment the dark waves uprear their heads and scatter their sea-wrack in all directions—even thus troubled were the hearts of the achaeans. The son of atreus, in dismay, bade the heralds call the people to a council, man by man, but not to cry the matter aloud. He made haste also himself to call them, and they sat sorry at heart in their assembly. agamemnon shed tears, as it were a running stream or cataract on the side of some sheer cliff, and thus, with many a heavy sigh, he spoke to the achaeans. "My friends," said he, "princes and councilors of the argives, the hand of heaven has been laid heavily upon me. Cruel Zeus gave me his solemn promise that I should sack the city of Troy before returning, but he has played me false and is now bidding me go ingloriously back to argos with the loss of much people. Such is the will of Zeus, who has laid many a proud city in the dust, as he will yet lay others, for his power is above all. Now, therefore, let us all do as I say and sail back to our own country, for we shall not take Troy." Thus he spoke, and the sons of the achaeans for a long while sat sorrowful there, but they all held their peace till at last Diomed of the loud battle cry made answer, saying, "Son

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of atreus, I will chide your folly, as is my right in council. Be not then aggrieved that I should do so. In the first place, you attacked me before all the Danaans and said that I was a coward and no soldier. The argives young and old know that you did so, but the son of scheming Cronus endowed you by halves only. He gave you honor as the chief ruler over us, but valor, which is the highest both right and might, he did not give you. Sir, think you that the sons of the achaeans are indeed as unwarlike and cowardly as you say they are? If your own mind is set upon going home—go—the way is open to you. The many ships that followed you from Mycene stand ranged upon the seashore, but the rest of us will stay here till we have sacked Troy. Nay, though these too should turn homeward with their ships, Sthenelus and myself will still fight on till we reach the goal of Ilium, for heaven was with us when we came." The sons of the achaeans shouted applause at the words of diomed, and presently Nestor rose to speak. "Son of Tydeus," said he, "in war your prowess is beyond question, and in counsel you excel all who are of your own years. No one of the achaeans can make light of what you say nor gainsay it, but you have not yet come to the end of the whole matter. You are still young—you might be the youngest of my own children— still you have spoken wisely and have counseled the chief of the achaeans not without discretion. Nevertheless, I am older than you, and I will tell you everything. Therefore, let no man, not even King agamemnon, disregard my saying, for he that foments civil discord is a clanless, hearthless outlaw. "Now, however, let us obey the behests of night and get our suppers, but let the sentinels—every man of them—camp by the trench that is without the wall. I am giving these instructions to the young men. When they have been attended to, do you, son of atreus, give your orders, for you are the most royal among us all. Prepare a feast for your councilors. It is

18 Book ix 155 right and reasonable that you should do so. There is abundance of wine in your tents, which the ships of the achaeans bring from Thrace daily. You have everything at your disposal wherewith to entertain guests, and you have many subjects. When many are got together, you can be guided by him whose counsel is wisest—and sorely do we need shrewd and prudent counsel, for the foe has lit his watchfires hard by our ships. Who can be other than dismayed? This night will either be the ruin of our host, or save it." Thus did he speak, and they did even as he had said. The sentinels went out in their armor under command of Nestor's son Thrasymedes, a captain of the host, and of the bold warriors ascalaphus and Ialmenus. There were also Meriones, aphareus and deipyrus, and the son of Creion, noble lycomedes. There were seven captains of the sentinels, and with each there went a hundred youths armed with long spears. They took their places midway between the trench and the wall, and when they had done so, they lit their fires and got every man his supper. The son of atreus then bade many councilors of the achaeans to his quarters and prepared a great feast in their honor. They laid their hands on the good things that were before them, and as soon as they had had enough to eat and drink, old Nestor, whose counsel was ever truest, was the first to lay his mind before them. He, therefore, with all sincerity and goodwill addressed them thus: "With yourself, most noble son of atreus, king of men, agamemnon, will I both begin my speech and end it, for you are king over much people. Zeus, moreover, has vouchsafed you to wield the scepter and to uphold righteousness, that you may take thought for your people under you. Therefore, it behooves you above all others both to speak and to give ear, and to carry out the counsel of another who shall have been minded to speak wisely. all turns on you and on your

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commands. Therefore, I will say what I think will be best. No man will be of a truer mind than that which has been mine from the hour when you, sir, angered achilles by taking the girl Briseis from his tent against my judgment. I urged you not to do so, but you yielded to your own pride and dishonored a hero whom heaven itself had honored—for you still hold the prize that had been awarded to him. Now, however, let us think how we may appease him, both with presents and fair speeches that may conciliate him." and King agamemnon answered, "Sir, you have reproved my folly justly. I was wrong. I own it. One whom heaven befriends is in himself a host, and Zeus has shown that he befriends this man by destroying much people of the achaeans. I was blinded with passion and yielded to my worser mind. Therefore, I will make amends and will give him great gifts by way of atonement. I will tell them in the presence of you all. I will give him seven tripods that have never yet been on the fire and ten talents of gold. I will give him twenty iron cauldrons and twelve strong horses that have won races and carried off prizes. Rich, indeed, both in land and gold is he that has as many prizes as my horses have won me. I will give him seven excellent workwomen, lesbians, whom I chose for myself when he took lesbos—all of surpassing beauty. I will give him these, and with them her whom I erewhile took from him, the daughter of Briseus. and I swear a great oath that I never went up into her couch, nor have been with her after the manner of men and women. "all these things will I give him now down, and if hereafter the gods vouchsafe me to sack the city of Priam, let him come when we achaeans are dividing the spoil and load his ship with gold and bronze to his liking. Furthermore, let him take twenty Trojan women, the loveliest after Helen herself. Then, when we reach achaean argos, wealthiest of all lands, he shall be my son-in-law, and I will show him like honor with my own dear son Orestes, who is being nurtured in all abundance. I

20 Book ix 157 have three daughters, Chrysothemis, laodice, and Iphianassa. let him take the one of his choice, freely and without gifts of wooing, to the house of Peleus. I will add such dower to boot as no man ever yet gave his daughter and will give him seven well-established cities: Cardamyle, enope, and Hire, where there is grass; holy Pherae, and the rich meadows of anthea; aepea also, and the vine-clad slopes of Pedasus, all near the sea and on the borders of sandy Pylos. The men that dwell there are rich in cattle and sheep. They will honor him with gifts, as though he were a god, and be obedient to his comfortable ordinances. all this will I do if he will now forgo his anger. let him then yield. It is only Hades who is utterly ruthless and unyielding, and, hence, he is of all gods the one most hateful to mankind. Moreover, I am older and more royal than himself. Therefore, let him now obey me." Then Nestor answered, "Most noble son of atreus, king of men, Agamemnon, the gifts you offer are no small ones. Let us then send chosen messengers, who may go to the tent of achilles, son of Peleus, without delay. let those go whom I shall name. let Phoenix, dear to Zeus, lead the way. let ajax and Odysseus follow, and let the heralds, Odius and eurybates, go with them. Now bring water for our hands, and bid all keep silence while we pray to Zeus, the son of Cronus, if so be that he may have mercy upon us." Thus did he speak, and his saying pleased them well. Menservants poured water over the hands of the guests, while pages filled the mixing bowls with wine and water and handed it round, after giving every man his drink offering. Then, when they had made their offerings and had drunk each as much as he was minded, the envoys set out from the tent of Agamemnon, son of Atreus. And Nestor, looking first to one and then to another, but most especially at Odysseus, was insistent with them that they should prevail with the noble son of Peleus.

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They went their way by the shore of the sounding sea and prayed earnestly to earth-encircling Poseidon that the high spirit of the son of aeacus might incline favorably towards them. When they reached the ships and tents of the Myrmidons, they found achilles playing on a lyre, fair, of cunning workmanship, and its cross-bar was of silver. It was part of the spoils which he had taken when he sacked the city of eëtion, and he was now diverting himself with it and singing the feats of heroes. He was alone with Patroclus, who sat opposite to him and said nothing, waiting till he should cease singing. Odysseus and ajax now came in—Odysseus leading the way—and stood before him. achilles sprang from his seat with the lyre still in his hand, and Patroclus, when he saw the strangers, rose also. achilles then greeted them, saying, "all hail and welcome! You must come upon some great matter—you, who, for all my anger, are still dearest to me of the achaeans." With this, he led them forward and bade them sit on seats covered with purple rugs. Then he said to Patroclus, who was close by him, "Son of Menoetius, set a larger bowl upon the table, mix less water with the wine, and give every man his cup, for these are very dear friends, who are now under my roof." Patroclus did as his comrade bade him. He set the chopping block in front of the fire, and on it he laid the loin of a sheep, the loin also of a goat, and the chine of a fat hog. automedon held the meat while achilles chopped it. He then sliced the pieces and put them on spits while the son of Menoetius made the fire burn high. When the flame had died down, he spread the embers, laid the spits on top of them, lifting them up and setting them upon the spit-racks, and he sprinkled them with salt. When the meat was roasted, he set it on platters and handed bread round the table in fair baskets, while achilles dealt them their portions. Then achilles took his seat, facing Odysseus against the opposite wall, and bade his comrade

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Patroclus offer sacrifice to the gods. So he cast the offerings into the fire, and they laid their hands upon the good things that were before them. as soon as they had had enough to eat and drink, ajax made a sign to Phoenix, and when he saw this, Odysseus filled his cup with wine and pledged Achilles.

Embassy to Achilles "Hail," said he, "achilles, we have had no scant of good cheer, neither in the tent of agamemnon nor yet here. There has been plenty to eat and drink, but our thought turns upon no such matter. Sir, we are in the face of great disaster and, without your help, know not whether we shall save our fleet or lose it. The Trojans and their allies have camped hard by our ships and by the wall. They have lit watchfires throughout their host and deem that nothing can now prevent them from falling on our fleet. Zeus, moreover, has sent his lightnings on their right. Hector, in all his glory, rages like a maniac. Confident that Zeus is with him, he fears neither god nor man, but is gone raving mad and prays for the approach of day. He vows that he will hew the high sterns of our ships in pieces, set fire to their hulls, and make havoc of the achaeans while they are dazed and smothered in smoke. I much fear that heaven will make good his boasting, and it will prove our lot to perish at

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Troy, far from our home in argos. Up, then, and late though it be, save the sons of the achaeans, who faint before the fury of the Trojans. You will repent bitterly hereafter if you do not, for when the harm is done, there will be no curing it. Consider ere it be too late and save the danaans from destruction. "My good friend, when your father Peleus sent you from Phthia to agamemnon, did he not charge you, saying, 'Son, athene and Hera will make you strong if they choose, but check your high temper, for the better part is in goodwill. eschew vain quarreling, and the achaeans, old and young, will respect you more for doing so.' These were his words, but you have forgotten them. Even now, however, be appeased and put away your anger from you. agamemnon will make you great amends, if you will forgive him. listen, and I will tell you what he has said in his tent that he will give you. He will give you seven tripods that have never yet been on the fire, and ten talents of gold, twenty iron cauldrons, and twelve strong horses that have won races and carried off prizes. Rich indeed, both in land and gold, is he who has as many prizes as these horses have won for agamemnon. Moreover, he will give you seven excellent workwomen, lesbians, whom he chose for himself when you took lesbos—all of surpassing beauty. He will give you these, and with them her whom he ere while took from you, the daughter of Briseus. and he will swear a great oath—he has never gone up into her couch nor been with her after the manner of men and women. all these things will he give you now down, and if hereafter the gods vouchsafe him to sack the city of Priam, you can come when we achaeans are dividing the spoil and load your ship with gold and bronze to your liking. You can take twenty Trojan women, the loveliest after Helen herself. "Then, when we reach achaean argos, wealthiest of all lands, you shall be his son-in-law, and he will show you like honor with his own dear son Orestes, who is being

24 Book ix 161 nurtured in all abundance. agamemnon has three daughters, Chrysothemis, laodice, and Iphianassa. You may take the one of your choice, freely and without gifts of wooing, to the house of Peleus. He will add such dower to boot as no man ever yet gave his daughter, and will give you seven well-established cities: Cardamyle, enope, and Hire, where there is grass; holy Pherae, and the rich meadows of anthea; aepea also, and the vine-clad slopes of Pedasus, all near the sea and on the borders of sandy Pylos. The men that dwell there are rich in cattle and sheep. They will honor you with gifts, as though you were a god, and be obedient to your comfortable ordinances. all this will he do if you will forgo your anger. "Moreover, though you hate both him and his gifts with all your heart yet pity the rest of the achaeans who are being harassed in all their host, they will honor you as a god, and you will earn great glory at their hands. You might even kill Hector. He will come within your reach, for he is infatuated and declares that not a danaan whom the ships have brought can hold his own against him." achilles answered, "Odysseus, noble son of laertes, I should give you formal notice plainly and in all fixity of purpose that there be no more of this cajoling, from whatsoever quarter it may come. Him do I hate, even as the gates of hell, who says one thing while he hides another in his heart. Therefore, I will say what I mean. I will be appeased neither by agamemnon, son of atreus, nor by any other of the danaans, for I see that I have no thanks for all my fighting. He that fights fares no better than he that does not. Coward and hero are held in equal honor, and death deals like measure to him who works and him who is idle. I have taken nothing by all my hardships—with my life ever in my hand. as a bird when she has found a morsel takes it to her nestlings and herself fares hardly, even so many a long night have I been wakeful, and many a bloody battle have I waged by day against those who

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were fighting for their women. With my ships I have taken twelve cities, and eleven round about Troy have I stormed with my men by land. I took great store of wealth from every one of them, but I gave all up to agamemnon, son of atreus. He stayed where he was by his ships, yet of what came to him he gave little and kept much himself. "Nevertheless, he did distribute some meeds of honor among the chieftains and kings, and these have them still. From me alone of the achaeans did he take the woman in whom I delighted—let him keep her and sleep with her. Why, pray, must the Argives needs fight the Trojans? What made the son of atreus gather the host and bring them? Was it not for the sake of Helen? are the sons of atreus the only men in the world who love their wives? any man of common right feeling will love and cherish her who is his own, as I this woman, with my whole heart, though she was but a fruitling of my spear. agamemnon has taken her from me. He has played me false. I know him. let him tempt me no further, for he shall not move me. let him look to you, Odysseus, and to the other princes to save his ships from burning. He has done much without me already. He has built a wall. He has dug a trench deep and wide all round it, and he has planted it within with stakes. But, even so, he stays not the murderous might of Hector. So long as I fought among the Achaeans, Hector suffered not the battle range far from the city walls. He would come to the Scaean gates and to the oak tree, but no further. Once he stayed to meet me, and hardly did he escape my onset. "Now, however, since I am in no mood to fight him, I will tomorrow offer sacrifice to Zeus and to all the gods. I will draw my ships into the water and then victual them duly. Tomorrow morning, if you care to look, you will see my ships on the Hellespont and my men rowing out to sea with might and main. If great Poseidon vouchsafes me a fair passage, in three days I shall be in Phthia. I have much there that I left behind

26 Book ix 163 me when I came here to my sorrow, and I shall bring back still further store of gold, of red copper, of fair women, and of iron—my share of the spoils that we have taken. But one prize, he who gave has insolently taken away. Tell him all, as I now bid you, and tell him in public that the achaeans may hate him and beware of him should he think that he can yet dupe others—for his effrontery never fails him. "as for me, hound that he is, he dares not look me in the face. I will take no counsel with him and will undertake nothing in common with him. He has wronged me and deceived me enough. He shall not cozen me further. let him go his own way, for Zeus has robbed him of his reason. I loathe his presents and for himself care not one straw. He may offer me ten or even twenty times what he has now done, nay—not though it be all that he has in the world, both now or ever shall have. He may promise me the wealth of Orchomenus or of egyptian Thebes, which is the richest city in the whole world, for it has a hundred gates through each of which two hundred men may drive at once with their chariots and horses. He may offer me gifts as the sands of the sea or the dust of the plain in multitude, but, even so, he shall not move me till I have been revenged in full for the bitter wrong he has done me. I will not marry his daughter. She may be fair as aphrodite and skillful as athene, but I will have none of her. let another take her, who may be a good match for her and who rules a larger kingdom. If the gods spare me to return home, Peleus will find me a wife. There are achaean women in Hellas and Phthia, daughters of kings that have cities under them. Of these, I can take whom I will and marry her. Many a time was I minded, when at home in Phthia, to woo and wed a woman who would make me a suitable wife and to enjoy the riches of my old father Peleus. My life is more to me than all the wealth of Ilium while it was yet at peace, before the achaeans went there, or than all the treasure that lies on the stone floor of Apollo's temple beneath

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the cliffs of Pytho. Cattle and sheep are to be had for harrying, and a man may buy both tripods and horses, if he wants them. But when his life has once left him, it can neither be bought nor harried back again. "My mother Thetis tells me that there are two ways in which I may meet my end. If I stay here and fight, I shall not return alive, but my name will live forever. Whereas, if I go home, my name will die, but it will be long ere death shall take me. To the rest of you, then, I say, 'Go home, for you will not take Ilium.' Zeus has held his hand over her to protect her, and her people have taken heart. Go, therefore, as in duty bound, and tell the princes of the achaeans the message that I have sent them. Tell them to find some other plan for the saving of their ships and people, for so long as my displeasure lasts, the one that they have now hit upon may not be. as for Phoenix, let him sleep here that he may sail with me in the morning, if he so will. But I will not take him by force." They all held their peace, dismayed at the sternness with which he had denied them, till presently the old knight Phoenix, in his great fear for the ships of the achaeans, burst into tears and said, "Noble achilles, if you are now minded to return and, in the fierceness of your anger, will do nothing to save the ships from burning, how, my son, can I remain here without you? Your father Peleus bade me go with you when he sent you as a mere lad from Phthia to agamemnon. You knew nothing neither of war nor of the arts whereby men make their mark in council, and he sent me with you to train you in all excellence of speech and action. Therefore, my son, I will not stay here without you—no, not though heaven itself vouchsafe to strip my years from off me and make me young as I was when I first left Hellas, the land of fair women. I was then flying the anger of my father Amyntor, son of Ormenus, who was furious with me in the matter of his concubine, of whom he was enamoured to the wronging of his wife, my mother. My

28 Book ix 165 mother, therefore, prayed me without ceasing to lie with the woman myself, that so she might hate my father, and, in the course of time, I yielded. "But my father soon came to know and cursed me bitterly, calling the dread erinyes to witness. He prayed that no son of mine might ever sit upon my knees—and the gods, Zeus of the world below and awful Persephone, fulfilled his curse. I took counsel to kill him, but some god stayed my rashness and bade me think on men's evil tongues and how I should be branded as the murderer of my father. Nevertheless, I could not bear to stay in my father's house with him so bitter against me. My cousins and clansmen came about me and pressed me sorely to remain. Many a sheep and many an ox did they slaughter, and many a fat hog did they set down to roast before the fire. Many a jar, too, did they broach of my father's wine. Nine whole nights did they set a guard over me, taking it in turns to watch, and they kept a fire always burning, both in the cloister of the outer court and in the inner court at the doors of the room wherein I lay. But when the darkness of the tenth night came, I broke through the closed doors of my room and climbed the wall of the outer court after passing quickly and unperceived through the men on guard and the womenservants. I then fled through Hellas till I came to fertile Phthia, mother of sheep, and to King Peleus, who made me welcome and treated me as a father treats an only son who will be heir to all his wealth. He made me rich and set me over much people, establishing me on the borders of Phthia, where I was chief ruler over the dolopians. "It was I, achilles, who had the making of you. I loved you with all my heart—for you would eat neither at home nor when you had gone out elsewhere, till I had first set you upon my knees, cut up the dainty morsel that you were to eat, and held the wine cup to your lips. Many a time have you slobbered your wine in baby helplessness over my shirt. I had infinite trouble with you. But I knew that heaven had vouchsafed me

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no offspring of my own, and I made a son of you, Achilles, that in my hour of need you might protect me. "Now, therefore, I say battle with your pride and beat it. Cherish not your anger forever. The might and majesty of heaven are more than ours, but even heaven may be appeased. and if a man has sinned, he prays the gods and reconciles them to himself by his piteous cries and by frankincense, with drink offerings and the savor of burnt sacrifice—for prayers are as daughters to great Zeus. Halt, wrinkled, with eyes askance, they follow in the footsteps of sin, who, being fierce and fleet of foot, leaves them far behind him and, ever baneful to mankind, outstrips them, even to the ends of the world. But, nevertheless, the prayers come hobbling and healing after. If a man has pity upon these daughters of Zeus when they draw near him, they will bless him and hear him too when he is praying. But if he deny them and will not listen to them, they go to Zeus, the son of Cronus, and pray that he may presently fall into sin—to his ruing bitterly hereafter. "Therefore, achilles, give these daughters of Zeus due reverence, and bow before them as all good men will bow. Were not the son of Atreus offering you gifts and promising others later—if he were still furious and implacable—I am not he that would bid you throw off your anger and help the Achaeans, no matter how great their need. But he is giving much now and more hereafter. He has sent his captains to urge his suit and has chosen those who of all the argives are most acceptable to you. Make not then their words and their coming to be of none effect. Your anger has been righteous so far. We have heard in song how heroes of old time quarreled when they were roused to fury, but still they could be won by gifts, and fair words could soothe them. "I have an old story in my mind—a very old one—but you are all friends, and I will tell it. The Curetes and the aetolians were fighting and killing one another round Calydon—the Aetolians

30 Book ix 167 defending the city and the Curetes trying to destroy it. For artemis of the golden throne was angry and did them hurt because Oeneus had not offered her his harvest first fruits. The other gods had all been feasted with hecatombs, but to the daughter of great Zeus alone he had made no sacrifice. He had forgotten her, or somehow or other it had escaped him, and this was a grievous sin. Thereon, the archer goddess, in her displeasure, sent a prodigious creature against him—a savage wild boar with great white tusks that did much harm to his orchard lands, uprooting apple trees in full bloom and throwing them to the ground. But Meleager, son of Oeneus, got huntsmen and hounds from many cities and killed it—for it was so monstrous that not a few were needed, and many a man did it stretch upon his funeral pyre. On this, the goddess set the Curetes and the Aetolians fighting furiously about the head and skin of the boar. "So long as Meleager was in the field, things went badly with the Curetes, and for all their numbers, they could not hold their ground under the city walls. But in the course of time, Meleager was angered, as even a wise man will sometimes be. He was incensed with his mother althaea and, therefore, stayed at home with his wedded wife fair Cleopatra, who was daughter of Marpessa, daughter of euenus and of Ides, the strongest man then living. He it was who took his bow and faced King apollo himself for fair Marpessa's sake. Her father and mother then named her alcyone because her mother had mourned with the plaintive strains of the halcyon-bird when Phoebus Apollo had carried her off. Meleager, then, stayed at home with Cleopatra, nursing the anger which he felt by reason of his mother's curses. His mother, grieving for the death of her brother, prayed the gods and beat the earth with her hands, calling upon Hades and on awful Persephone. She went down upon her knees, and her bosom was wet with tears as she prayed that they would kill her son—and erinys, that walks in darkness and knows no ruth, heard her from erebus.

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"Then was heard the din of battle about the gates of Calydon and the dull thump of the battering against their walls. Thereon, the elders of the aetolians besought Meleager. They sent the chiefest of their priests and begged him to come out and help them, promising him a great reward. They bade him choose fifty plough-gates, the most fertile in the plain of Calydon, the one-half vineyard, and the other open ploughland. The old warrior Oeneus implored him, standing at the threshold of his room and beating the doors in supplication. His sisters and his mother herself besought him sore, but he the more refused them. Those of his comrades who were nearest and dearest to him also prayed him, but they could not move him till the foe was battering at the very doors of his chamber and the Curetes had scaled the walls and were setting fire to the city. Then, at last, his sorrowing wife detailed the horrors that befall those whose city is taken. She reminded him how the men are slain and the city is given over to the flames, while the women and children are carried into captivity. When he heard all this, his heart was touched, and he donned his armor to go forth. Thus, of his own inward motion, he saved the city of the aetolians. But they now gave him nothing of those rich rewards that they had offered earlier, and though he saved the city, he took nothing by it. Be not then, my son, thus minded. let not heaven lure you into any such course. When the ships are burning, it will be a harder matter to save them. Take the gifts and go, for the achaeans will then honor you as a god. Whereas, if you fight without taking them, you may beat the battle back, but you will not be held in like honor." and achilles answered, "Phoenix, old friend and father, I have no need of such honor. I have honor from Zeus himself, which will abide with me at my ships, while I have breath in my body and my limbs are strong. I say further—and lay my saying to your heart—vex me no more with this weeping and lamentation, all in the cause of the son of atreus. love him so

32 Book ix 169 well, and you may lose the love I bear you. You ought to help me rather in troubling those that trouble me. Be king as much as I am and share like honor with myself. The others shall take my answer. Stay here yourself and sleep comfortably in your bed. at daybreak we will consider whether to remain or go." On this, he nodded quietly to Patroclus as a sign that he was to prepare a bed for Phoenix and that the others should take their leave. ajax, son of Telamon, then said, "Odysseus, noble son of laertes, let us be gone, for I see that our journey is vain. We must now take our answer, unwelcome though it be, to the danaans who are waiting to receive it. achilles is savage and remorseless. He is cruel and cares nothing for the love his comrades lavished upon him more than on all the others. He is implacable—and yet if a man's brother or son has been slain, he will accept a fine by way of amends from him that killed him, and the wrongdoer, having paid in full, remains in peace among his own people. But as for you, achilles, the gods have put a wicked, unforgiving spirit in your heart, and this, all about one single girl, whereas we now offer you the seven best we have and much else into the bargain. Be then of a more gracious mind. Respect the hospitality of your own roof. We are with you as messengers from the host of the danaans and would fain he held nearest and dearest to yourself of all the achaeans." "ajax," replied achilles, "noble son of Telamon, you have spoken much to my liking, but my blood boils when I think it all over and remember how the son of atreus treated me with contumely, as though I were some vile tramp, and that too in the presence of the argives. Go, then, and deliver your message. Say that I will have no concern with fighting till Hector, son of noble Priam, reaches the tents of the Myrmidons in his murderous course and flings fire upon their ships. For all his lust of battle, I take it he will be held in check when he is at my own tent and ship."

33 170 THE ILIAD

On this, they took every man his double cup, made their drink offerings, and went back to the ships, Odysseus leading the way. But Patroclus told his men and the maidservants to make ready a comfortable bed for Phoenix. They, therefore, did so with sheepskins, a rug, and a sheet of fine linen. The old man then laid himself down and waited till morning came. But achilles slept in an inner room, and beside him the daughter of Phorbas, lovely Diomedé, whom he had carried off from lesbos. Patroclus lay on the other side of the room, and with him fair Iphis, whom achilles had given him when he took Scyros the city of enyeüs. When the envoys reached the tents of the son of atreus, the achaeans rose, pledged them in cups of gold, and began to question them. King Agamemnon was the first to do so. "Tell me, Odysseus," said he, "will he save the ships from burning, or did he refuse, and is he still furious?" Odysseus answered, "Most noble son of atreus, king of men, agamemnon, achilles will not be calmed but is more fiercely angry than ever, and spurns both you and your gifts. He bids you take counsel with the achaeans to save the ships and host as you best may. as for himself, he said that at daybreak he should draw his ships into the water. He said further that he should advise everyone to sail home likewise, for that you will not reach the goal of Ilium. 'Zeus,' he said, 'has laid his hand over the city to protect it, and the people have taken heart.' This is what he said, and the others who were with me can tell you the same story—ajax and the two heralds, men, both of them, who may be trusted. The old man Phoenix stayed where he was to sleep, for so achilles would have it, that he might go home with him in the morning, if he so would. But he will not take him by force." They all held their peace, sitting for a long time, silent and dejected, by reason of the sternness with which achilles had refused them, till presently diomed said, "Most noble son of

34 Book ix 171 atreus, king of men, agamemnon, you ought not to have sued the son of Peleus nor offered him gifts. He is proud enough as it is, and you have encouraged him in his pride still further. let him stay or go as he will. He will fight later when he is in the humor, and heaven puts it in his mind to do so. Now, therefore, let us all do as I say. We have eaten and drunk our fill. Let us then take our rest, for in rest there is both strength and stay. But when fair rosy-fingered morn appears, forthwith bring out your host and your horsemen in front of the ships, urging them on, and yourself fighting among the foremost." Thus he spoke, and the other chieftains approved his words. They then made their drink offerings and went every man to his own tent where they lay down to rest and enjoyed the boon of sleep.

35 36 37 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson III

EXERCISES FOR DAY 4: 35. List the three things of which rhetorical propositions consist and explain each: 1. Complete proofs Explanation: Complete proofs (also called infallible signs) are ones on which syllogisms proper may be based and bear to the propositions they support the relation of particular to universal. 2. Probabilities Explanation: Probabilities are things which usually happen, but not always. 3. Signs Explanation: Signs (or infallible signs) are refutable and bear to the propositions they support the relation of particular to universal.

LATIN REVIEW EXERCISE 2-1: Translation: Lord Jesus Christ, Only Begotten Son, Lord God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father, Thou who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Parse: Domine: Vocative of Dominus, Lord Patris: Genitive singular masculine of pater, father tollis: 2nd person singular of tollo, tollere, sustuli, sublatus, to take away nobis: Dative plural of nos, us Figure: Hendiadys Explanation: Hendiadys occurs where there are two or more words with the same meaning. In this case, several titles are used, all referring to Jesus.

36. Fill in the chart below. Note that the last two columns may require a review of Lesson I material.

Mode of Audience Time Aim of End of Mode of Able to Do Persuasion of Speech Concerned w/ Speech Speech Pers Dep. on Understand

Political Assemblyman Future To do or not do Expediency or Personal Virtue something Inexpediency character

Forensic Juror Past To accuse or to Justice or Words of Syllogism defend Injustice speech

Ceremonial Observer/ Present To praise or to Honor or Disposition Emotions Critic blame Dishonor of audience

ANSWER KEY: LESSON III, pp. 13-17

Exercises for Day 1 1. What does Aristotle say a political speaker must ascertain? The things, good or bad, about which the political speaker must offer counsel.

2. With what does the political speaker deal? The political speaker addresses only those things with which we have the power to deal and deliberate.

3. According to Aristotle, what are the five chief things upon which men deliberate? 1. Ways and means 2. War and peace 3. National defense 4. Imports and exports 5. Legislation

4. What does the political speaker need to know about ways and means? The speaker must know the number and extent of the country’s resources of revenue, as well as all of its expenditures.

38 7 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson III

READING EXERCISE 3-1: Read and mark How to Read a Book, Chapter 2, “The Levels of Reading.” • Explain the four levels of reading and which are applicable to Aristotle’s Rhetoric. 1. Elementary Reading asks, “What does the sentence say?” 2. Inspectional Reading is the art of systematic skimming. It asks, “What is the book about?” and, “What kind of book is it?” 3. Analytic Reading is for the sake of understanding. It asks a number of organizational questions. 4. Syntopical Reading is the reading of many books at once. Its purpose is to construct an analysis that is derived from many books. The level applicable to Aristotle’s Rhetoric: All are applicable to Rhetoric

5. Why must the political speaker know these things? The political speaker must know these things in order to determine if there are any resources of revenue that are being overlooked so that they may be added or any that are excessive that may need to be subtracted.

6. What does it take on the part of a political speaker to advise on ways and means? In order for a political speaker to advise on the issue of ways and means he must be keenly interested in the methods worked out in other countries.

LATIN REVIEW EXERCISE 3-1: Translate the following into English and parse the italicized words. Indicate which of the two figures you studied it exemplifies and why. Translation: Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost. As it was in the beginning, is now and always, and in the age to come. Amen. Parse: Filio: Dative singular masculine of filius, -i, son. erat: 3rd person singular, imperfect active indicative of sum, I am. principio: Ablative singular neuther of principium, -i, beginning saeculorum: Genitive plural masculine of saeculus, -i, age Figure: Polysyndeton Explanation: Polysyndeton is the repetition of the word ‘and’ at the beginning of successive phrases. The first sentence in the translation is a classic example of this.

7. What does the political speaker need to know about war and peace? The speaker must know the extent and nature of the actual and potential strengths of his country. He also must know the histories of past wars for both his own country and others. He should also know the strengths of other countries which are near his country or with which war is likely.

8. Why must the political speaker know these things about war and peace? The political speaker must know these things about war and peace in order to keep peace with countries stronger than his and in order to know his country’s strengths as they relate to the strengths of others.

9. What does the political speaker need to know about national defense? The political speaker must know the disposition of the defenses in his country.

10. Why must the political speaker know these things about national defense? The political speaker must know about these things so that his defensive forces may be redeployed if necessary for the better defense of his nation.

Exercises for Day 2 11. What must the political speaker know about imports and exports? The political speaker must know the degree of outlays that meets his country’s needs, as well as what resources are produced at home and abroad. He should also know what must be imported and exported.

12. Why must the political speaker know these things about imports and exports? The political speaker must know these things in order that the appropriate agreements may be made with other countries.

13. What kinds of countries must the political speaker’s own country be careful not to offend? The political speaker’s country must be careful not to offend any country whose military is more powerful than his own and those with whom it is advantageous to trade.

14. What must the political speaker know about legislation? The political speaker must understand the many forms of constitution and the charac- teristics of each kind. Being widely traveled and familiar with the historical research of those who have written of such affairs are both useful.

15. Why must the political speaker know these things about legislation? Because it is on the country’s laws that the whole of the nation’s welfare depends.

8 39 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson IV

Exercises for Day 3 16. What does Aristotle say is the end to which all men aim? Aristotle says that happiness is the end of all human action.

17. What does Aristotle say he is going to do in this section? He says he is going to discuss the nature of human happiness and its constituent parts.

18. What does Aristotle say his advice to do things or not to do them is concerned with? All advice to do things or not to do them is concerned with happiness and with the things that make for or against it.

TRADITIONAL LOGIC REVIEW EXERCISE 3-1: Ensure that these answers provide the formal cause (what kind of thing it is), the material cause (what its characteristic features are), the ef- ficient cause (what brought it about or sustains it in existence), and the final cause (what its purpose is).

Exercises for Day 4 19. Give a list of the things that Aristotle mentions in this section as the constituents or parts of (he really means things leading up to) happiness. 1. good birth 2. plenty of friends 3. good friends 4. wealth 5. good children 6. plenty of children 7. a happy old age 8. health 9. beauty 10. strength 11. large stature 12. athletic powers 13. fame 14. honour 15. good luck 16. virtue

ANSWER KEY: CASE STUDY EXERCISES FOR LESSON 3, pp. 19-21 1. What divisions or elements are employed? Write a paragraph explaining your answer (See Questions 29 & 30). Ulysses is here giving a political speech for the benefit of Achilles. He is urging Achilles to return to the battle. He does so by appealing both to his monetary interest as well as his honor. It is political because it has to do with expedient action in the future. Achilles responds by arguing that the one who fights is esteemed no more than the coward, and that he has access to all the riches he could want anyway.

2. What time does the speech address? Both speeches address the future: whether Achilles should come back to the battle or not.

3. What is the aim of the speech? The aim of Ulysses’ speech is to convince Achilles to come back to the battle. The aim of Achilles’ speech is to convince Ulysses that he has resolved not to come back to the battle because of the injustice done to him by Agamemnon, and that this resolve is no more dishonorable than fighting.

4. What is the end of the speech? The end of Ulysses’ speech is the conviction by Achilles that returning to the battle would be the expedient thing. He does this by offering the prospect of wealth and honor. The end of Achilles’ speech is the understanding of Ulysses that it is no more expedient for him to leave than to fight, since honor will be no less his if he leaves than if he fights.

5. Indicate which of the persuasive appeals or modes of persuasion is employed in this passage. Ulysses utilizes ethos by indicating to Achilles that he is concerned about the outcome of the battle and the fate of the Greeks. He also appeals to ethos on the part of Achilles by invoking the honor that could be his if he fights. He invokes pathos by appealing to the charge given Achilles by Achilles’ father. He also appeals to logos by arguing that, without the help of Achilles, the Greeks will be defeated. Achilles addresses the logos by refuting Ulysses’ invocation of honor by pointing out that the coward is honored as much as the fighter. He also points out that he has been done an injustice by Agamemnon. He utilizes pathos by pointing out that the injustice done was to take away his woman, whom he cherished “as his own … with my whole heart.”

40 9 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson IV

ANSWER KEY: LESSON IV, pp. 23-30

Exercises for Day 1 1. What does Aristotle say is the political orator’s aim? Aristotle says that the political orator’s aim is utility.

2. What does political rhetoric seek to determine? Political rhetoric does not seek to determine ends, but means to ends.

3. Explain how your answer to Question 1 relates to your answer to Question 2. Aristotle says that men do not deliberate about the ends to be attained, but only about the means to attaining them because he believes that everyone holds the same aim: happiness. There is no need for debate about the aim when everyone wants the same thing. The only debate is over how to get to that goal in the most expedient manner.

4. What is Aristotle’s general definition of a good thing? Aristotle defines a good thing in general as that at which all men in common aim. [See 1360b, line 4]

5. List at least ten things Aristotle considers goods. 1. utility 2. that which ought to be chosen for its own sake 3. that for the sake of which we choose something else 4. that which is sought after by all things 5. that which is sought after by all things that have sensation or reason 6. that which will be sought after by any things that acquire reason 7. that which must be prescribed for a given individual by reason generally 8. that which is prescribed for him by his individual reason (this being his individual good) 9. that whose presence brings anything into a satisfactory and self-sufficing condition 10. self-sufficiency 11. what produces, maintains, or entails characteristics of this kind, while preventing and destroying their opposites

6. What are the two ways in which one thing may entail another? Explain how. 1. Subsequently or 2. Simultaneously Explanation: One thing may entail another as learning produces knowledge subsequently, and health entails life simultaneously.

7. Indicate the three senses in which things are productive of other things. 1. As being healthy produces health; 2. As food produces health; 3. As exercise produces health

READING EXERCISE 4-1: Read, mark, and outline How to Read a Book, Chapter 5, “The Essence of Active Reading: The Four Basic Questions a Reader Asks.” • List the four questions a reader asks. 1. What is the book about as a whole? 2. What is being said in detail and how? 3. Is the book true in whole or in part? 4. What of it? • What is Aristotle’s Rhetoric about as a whole? Aristotle’s Rhetoric is about the nature, characteristics, and purpose of the art of rhetoric.

Exercises for Day 2 8. List at least 15 other particular things that Aristotle considers goods. (Any 15 of those below are acceptable) 1. The acquisition of a greater in place of a lesser good, or of a lesser in place of a greater evil 2. The virtues 3. Pleasure 4. Beautiful things 5. Happiness 6. Justice 7. Courage 8. Temperance 9. Magnanimity 10. Magnificence 11. Health 12. Wealth 10 41 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson IV

13. Friends and friendship 14. Honor and reputation 15. The faculty of speech and action 16. Good parts 17. Strong memory 18. Receptiveness 19. Quickness of intuition 20. The science and arts 21. Life 22. Justice (same as 6. above) 23. Pleasant things 24. Beauty

9. In those cases in which the Good is disputed, what are the different ways in which to argue? (Note that the student may find several more than are listed below.) 1. Whatever is contrary to the bad is good 2. Whatever is contrary to the good of our enemies is good 3. Whatever is not in excess is good and whatever is in excess is bad 4. Whatever has had much money and labor spent on it is good (since it is assumed that such a thing is an end, and all ends are good) 5. Whatever most people seek after and which is an object of contention is good 6. Whatever is praised is good 7. Whatever is praised by our enemies is good 8. Whatever has been distinguished by the favor of a discerning or virtuous man or woman 9. Whatever men deliberately choose to do is good 10. Whatever men wish is good 11. Whatever is possessed by a man and no one else is good 12. Whatever is easily affected is good 13. Whatever gratifies our friends or annoys our enemies is good 14. Whatever things chosen by those we admire are good 15. Whatever we are fitted to do by nature or experience is good 16. Whatever things in which no worthless man can succeed are good

TRADITIONAL LOGIC REVIEW EXERCISE 4-1: Ensure that each of these is constructed according to the form of any of the 19 valid argument forms listed on p. 12 of Traditional Logic, Book II, by Martin Cothran

10. Explain why a knowledge of what people consider goods is important in political speech. Since the political orator is concerned with the means toward ends, and goods are kinds of ends toward which means can be found, it is therefore important for the political orator to know them.

Exercises for Day 3 11. How does Aristotle identify what it is to be greater? Aristotle says that a thing which surpasses another (and is therefore greater) may be regarded as being that other thing plus something more.

12. How does Aristotle identify what it is for a thing to be lesser? Aristotle says that a thing which is surpassed, as being what is contained in the first thing, is the lesser thing.

13. How does Aristotle define the Great? Aristotle defines the Great as that which surpasses the normal.

14. How does Aristotle define the Small? Aristotle defines the Small as that which is surpassed by the normal.

15. To what does Aristotle say we are applying the term good? Aristotle says that we are applying the term good to that which is desired for its own sake rather than the sake of something else.

16. Explain the difference between an end and a means. An end is a thing that is desired for its own sake; a means is that which is desired for the sake of something else.

Exercises for Day 4 17. Write down all the reasons Aristotle gives for one thing being considered greater than another. 1. A greater number of goods is a greater good than one or than a smaller number; 2. If the largest member of one class surpasses the largest member of another, then the one class surpasses the other;

42 11 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson IV

3. Where one good is always accompanied by another, but does not always accompany it, it is greater than the other; 4. When two things each surpass a third, that which does so by the greater amount is the greater of the two; 5. A thing productive of a greater good than another is productive of is itself a greater good than that other; 6. That which is produced by a greater good is itself a greater good; 7. A thing which is desirable in itself is a greater good than a thing that is not desirable in itself; 8. If one of two things is an end and the other is not, the former is the greater good, as being chosen for its own sake and not for the sake of something else; 9. Of two things, that which stands less in need of the other, or of other things, is the greater good; 10. That which is a beginning of other things is a greater good than that which is not; 11. That which is a cause is greater than that which is not; 12. Where there are two sets of consequences arising from two different beginnings or causes, the consequences of the more important begin- ning or cause are themselves the more important; 13. That beginning or cause is in itself greater which has the more important consequences; 14. What is rare is a greater good than what is plentiful; reversely, the plentiful is a better thing than the rare (because we can make more use of it); 15. Generally, the hard thing is better than the easy; reversely, the easy thing is better than the hard; 16. That is the greater good whose contrary is the greater evil, and whose loss affects us more; 17. Positive goodness and badness are more important than the mere absence of goodness and badness; 18. In proportion as the functions of things themselves are noble or base, the things themselves are good or bad: conversely, in proportion as the things themselves are good or bad, the functions also are good or bad; 19. Those things are greater goods, superiority in which is more desirable or more honorable; 20. Ordinary love of friends is greater than ordinary love of money; conversely, if one or two normal things is better or nobler than the other, an unusual degree of that thing is better or nobler than an unusual degree of the other; 21. One thing is more honorable or better than another if it is more honorable or better to desire it; 22. If one science is more honorable and valuable than another, the activity with which it deals is also more honorable and valuable; 23. The more valuable and honorable the object of a science, the more valuable and honorable the science itself is in consequence; 24. That which would be judged, or which has been judged, a good thing, or a better thing than something else, by all or most people of under- standing, or by the majority of men, or by the ablest, must be so; 25. That is a better thing which attaches to better men, either absolutely, or in virtue of their being better; 26. That is a greater good which would be chosen by a better man, either absolutely or in virtue of his being better; 27. The pleasanter of two things is the better, since all things pursue pleasure, and things instinctively desire pleasurable sensation for its own sake; 28. One pleasure is greater than another if it is more unmixed with pain, or more lasting; 29. The nobler thing is better than the less noble; 30. Those things also are greater goods which men desire more earnestly to bring about for themselves or for their friends, whereas those things which they least desire to bring about are greater evils; 31. Those things which are more lasting are better than those which are more fleeting; 32. The more secure is better than the less secure; 33. If the action qualified by one term is more noble and desirable than the action qualified by another term; 34. That which is chosen by all is a greater good than that which is not, and that chosen by the majority than that chosen by the minority; 35. That is a better thing which is considered so by competitors or enemies or by authorized judges or those whom they select to represent them; 36. The more praiseworthy a thing is the nobler and therefore the better it is; 37. What all share is the better thing, and at other times, that what none or few share is better; 38. What is natural is better than what is acquired; 39. The best part of a good thing is better than another part of that thing; 40. Of two things that which leads more directly to the end in view is the better; 41. That which is better for people generally as well as for a particular individual is better; 42. What can be got is better than what cannot be got; 43. What is the end of life is better than what is not; 44. What aims at reality is better than what aims at appearance; 45. What a man wants to be is better than what a man wants to seem; 46. That is better than other things which is more useful than they are for a number of different purposes; 47. That is better than other things whch is accompanied both with less pain and with actual pleasure; 48. Of two good things that is the better whose addition of a third thing makes a better whole than the addition of the other to the same thing will make; 49. Those things which we are seen to possess are better than those which we are not seen to possess; 50. That which is dearly prized is better than that which is not.

18. What are the three ways in which something may be accompanied by another? 1. simultaneously 12 43 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson V

2. subsequently 3. potentially

19. What example does Aristotle give of something that accompanies another thing in these three different ways? 1. Simultaneously: Life necessarily accompanies health (although health does not necessarily accompany life) 2. Subsequently: Knowledge accompanies the act of learning 3. Potentially: Cheating accompanies sacrilege (since a man who is willing to commit sacrilege is likely to be willing to cheat: probably a commen- tary by Aristotle on the importance of religion to morality)

20. Give your own examples of a thing accompanying other things in these three ways. 1. Simultaneously: This answer should be similar to that in Q. 19, 1 2. Subsequently: This answer should be similar to that in Q. 19, 2. 3. Potentially: This answer should be similar to that in Q. 19, 3.

21. What are the two “opposite points of view” from which one thing may appear to be more important than another? 1. Because it is a beginning and the other thing is not; and 2. Because it is not a beginning and the other thing is

ANSWER KEY: CASE STUDY EXERCISES FOR LESSON IV, p. 31 1. Review your answers to Question 8 in this lesson and list four goods to which Ulysses appeals in his plea to Achilles. For each good, quote the relevant passage from Ulysses’ speech: 1. Magnanimity; also: “Up, then, and late though it be, save the sons of the Achaeans who faint before the fury of the Trojans. You will repent bitterly hereafter if you do not, for when the harm is done there will be no curing it; consider ere it be too late, and save the Danaans from destruction.” 2. Magnificence, magnanimity; wealth: “Agamemnon will make you great amends if you will forgive him; listen, and I will tell you what he has said in his tent that he will give you …” 3. Beautiful things: “You can take twenty Trojan women, the loveliest after Helen herself. Then, when we reach Achaeam Argos, wealthiest of all lands, you shall be his son-in-law …” 4. Honor and reputation: “Moreover, though you hate both him and his gifts with all your heart, yet pity the rest of the Achaeans who are be- ing harassed in all their host; they will honour you as a god, and you will earn great glory at their hands.”

2. Review your answers to Question 9 and list two lines of argument used by Ulysses in appealing to Achilles. For each line of argument, quote a few words of the relevant passage from Ulysses’ speech: 1. Whatever is contrary to the good of our enemies is good: “Up, then, and late though it be, save the sons of the Achaeans who faint before the fury of the Trojans. You will repent bitterly hereafter if you do not, for when the harm is done there will be no curing it; consider ere it be too late, and save the Danaans from destruction.” 2. Whatever most people seek after and which is an object of contention is good: “All these things he will give you now down, and if hereafter the gods vouchsafe him to sack the city of Priam, you can come when we Achaeans are dividing the spoil, and load your ship with gold and bronze to your liking.”

3. List the one good to which Achilles appeals in rejecting Ulysses’ plea. Life

4. In the second-to-the-last paragraph, he compares life favorably with one thing, and in the last paragraph he compares it favorably to another thing. Name these things. 1. Wealth 2. Honor

ANSWER KEY: EXERCISES FOR LESSON V, pp. 33-38

Exercises for Day 1 1. According to Aristotle, what is the most important and effective qualification for success in persuading audiences and speaking well on public affairs? The most important and effective qualification is to understand all the forms of government and to discriminate all their respective customs, institutions, and interests.

2. What reasons does he give for saying there is benefit in knowing these forms of government? He says that all are persuaded by considerations of their interest and their interest lies in the maintenance of the established order.

TRADITIONAL LOGIC REVIEW EXERCISE 5-1: In Question 3 indicate the logical whole Aristotle is dividing, the subjective parts, and the principle of division being used. 1. The Logical Whole: forms of government 44 13 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson V

2. The Subjective Parts or Members: Democracy, Oligarchy, Aristocracy, and Monarchy 3. The Principle of Division: the locus of authority

3. What are the four forms of government as Aristotle numbers them? 1. Democracy 2. Oligarchy 3. Aristocracy 4. Monarchy

Exercises for Day 2: READING EXERCISE 5-1: Read, mark, and outline How to Read a Book, Chapter 6, “Pigeonholing a Book.” • What is Rule #1 of analytical reading? You must know what kind of book you are reading, and you should know this as early in the process as pos- sible, preferably before you begin to read. • How, specifically, do you go about following the rule? You go about following the rule by first by giving the book an inspectional reading, which includes reading the title and table of contents. • The first distinction in this chapter is between what two things? The first distinction mentioned in the chapter is between fiction and expository books. • What is an expository book? An expository book is a book that conveys knowledge, broadly construed. • What are some distinctions among expository works? The main distinctions among expository works are between history, philosophy, science, and mathematics. • What are the two kinds of expository books, and how do they differ? The two kinds of expository books are practical books and theoretical books. Practical books teach you how to do something you want to do. Theoretical books teach you that something is the case. • What are some distinctions among theoretical works? Theoretical books can be categorized as historical, scientific, or philosophical. • Using the methods and classifications discussed in this chapter of How to Read a Book, classify Aristotle’s Rhetoric (ie., what kind of book is it?), and explain. Aristotle’s Rhetoric is a theoretical book. See “Introduction” of this book for an explanation.

4. Give a brief description of the first form of government discussed by Aristotle. Democracy is that constitution in which offices are assigned by lot.

5. Give a brief description of the second form of government discussed by Aristotle. Oligarchy is that in which offices are assigned to men of property.

6. Give a brief description of the third form of government discussed by Aristotle. Aristocracy is that in which offices are assigned according to the individual’s level of education (i.e., that education laid down by law).

7. Give a brief description of the fourth form of government discussed by Aristotle. Monarchy is the constitution in which one man has authority over all.

8. What are the two forms of Monarchy? Describe each.

1. 1st Form of Monarchy: Kingship Description: That form of government which is limited by prescribed conditions. 2. 2nd Form of Monarchy: Tyranny Description: That form of government which is not limited by anything.

LATIN REVIEW EXERCISE 5-1: Translate the following passage from the Vulgate into English. Indicate the book, chapter, and verse it is from, and identify the zeugma con- tained in it. Translation: And many people shall go and say, Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of the LORD, to the house of the God of Jacob; and he will teach us of his ways, and we will walk in his paths: for out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. Bible reference: Isaiah 2:3 Zeugma: Zeugma in regular type: ‘shall go’—’exhibit,’ is yoked to both ‘the law’ and ‘the word of the Lord.’

TRADITIONAL LOGIC REVIEW EXERCISE 5-2: Syllogism 1: All actions as will lead to the realization of people’s ends are things we must notice. All ends which various forms of government pursue are actions as will lead to the realization of people’s ends. All ends which various forms of government pursue are things we must notice.

14 45 Answer Key: Book I, Lesson VI

Syllogism 2: All those things which are the means to the end of the ideal constitution are things which must be distinguished. All those particular customs, institutions, and interests which tend to realize the ideal of each constitution are means to the end of the ideal constitution. All those particular customs, institutions, and interests which tend to realize the ideal of each constitution are things that must be distin- guished. Syllogism 3: All things which provide us with the most effective means of persuasion in dealing with a thing are things we should know. All moral qualities characteristic of each form of government are things which provide us with the most effective means of persuasion in dealing with a thing. All moral qualities characteristic of each form of government are things we should know.

9. Why is it important to notice the ends of various forms of government? It is important to notice the ends pursued by the various forms of govern- ment because people choose in practice such actions as will lead to the realization of their ends.

10. What are the respective ends of each form of government? 1. Democracy: The purpose of democracy is freedom. 2. Oligarchy: The purpose of oligarchy is wealth. 3. Aristocracy: The purpose of aristocracy is the maintenance of education and the preservation of customs. 4. Tyranny: The purpose of tyranny is security (preservation of himself).

11. Why must we distinguish those particular customs, institutions, and the interests which tend to realize the ideal of each constitution? Ex- plain in your own words. See syllogism 2 in Traditional Logic Review Exercise 5-2 above.

12. Why should we know the moral qualities characteristic of each form of government? We should know the moral qualities characteristic of each form of government because this information provides us with the most effective means of persuasion in dealing with it.

Exercises for Day 3 13. Fill out this chart. Note that Aristotle does not explicitly address one of these, but it is provided here:

Method of Form of Supreme Selection for Government Authority Offices of State Ends

Democracy people by lot freedom

Oligarchy wealthy by determination wealth of propertied class

Aristocracy educated class by level of education preservation of custom/tradition

Monarchy (1) ordained successor organized succession preservation of monarch Kingship

Monarchy (2) most powerful exercise of power preservation of tyrant Tyranny

ANSWER KEY: EXERCISES FOR LESSON VI, pp. 39-44

Exercises for Day 1 1. What does Aristotle say he is discussing in this section? Aristotle says that he is discussing virtue and vice, and nobility and baseness, which are the objects of those who praise and blame.

2. Why do you think that creating the appropriate impression of the speaker’s character is particularly relevant to ceremonial speech? This im- pression that the speaker is of a particular character is particularly relevant to ceremonial speech because the speaker’s main topic is either character, or lack of it, in another. An audience will naturally not trust a speaker who has no perceived character and who discourses on the character of another.

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