Reducing the Incidence of Workplace Bullying and Mitigating Its Impact on Employee Performance

REDUCING THE INCIDENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING AND MITIGATING ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

MUHAMMAD MUNIR

13-arid-3856

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES PIR MEHR ALI SHAH ARID AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, RAWALPINDI PAKISTAN 2019 REDUCING THE INCIDENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING AND MITIGATING ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

MUHAMMAD MUNIR

(13-arid-3856)

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Management Sciences

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES PIR MEHR ALI SHAH ARID AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY RAWALPINDI PAKISTAN 2019

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DEDICATION

I dedicate my work effort to my father (Late) Amir Hussain, my mother, my spouse and my children (Abdullah Munir, Abdur Rafeh Munir, Amina and Ayesha) and my brothers & sisters. They always have been the greatest motivation for me. I pray that Almighty Allah bless my father’s soul in heavens. I wish them all a great life in this world and world hereafter.

CONTENTS

Page List of Tables viii List of Figures x Abbreviations xi Acknowledgment xii ABSTRACT xiv Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. BACKGROUND 1 1.2. WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ITS EFFECTS 8 1.3. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 10 1.4. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ENHANCEMENT 11 1.5. EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE 12 1.6. IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM 13 1.7. PROBLEM STATEMENT 15 1.8. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 15 1.9. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 16 1.10. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 16 1.11. DELIMITATIONS OF STUDY 21 1.12 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 22 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 23 2.1. INTRODUCTION 23 2.2. WORKPLACE BULLYING 25 2.3. TYPES OF WORKPLACE BULLYING 29 2.4. WHY PEOPLE BULLY? 31 2.5. PREVALENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING 36 2.6. IMPACT OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONS 37 2.7. IMPACT OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON VICTIMS 40 2.8. WORKPLACE BULLYING AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE 44 2.9. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND WORKPLACE BULLYING 45 2.10. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SKILLS 47 2.11. CAN EI BE LEARNT AND ENHANCED? 48 2.12. EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE 49 2.13. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EI AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE 49

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2.14. BULLYING INTERVENTION IN THE WORKPLACE 51 2.15. INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR WORKPLACE BULLYING 52 2.16. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 56 2.17. THEORETICAL SUPPORT FOR THIS STUDY 56 Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 58 3.1. POPULATION 58 3.2. SAMPLING FRAME AND SAMPLE SIZE 59 3.3. INTERVENTIONS IN THE EXPERIMENTS 60 3.4. RESEARCH DESIGN 61 3.5. COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS 62 3.6. PROCEDURE 63 3.7. MEASUREMENTS 73 3.8. DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE AND TECHNIQUES 73 3.9. CONSTRUCTS OF THE STUDY 73 3.10. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 76 Chapter 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 77 4.1. STAGES OF THE STUDY 77 4.2. SEQUENCE OF THE STUDY 77 4.3. STAGE 1: PRETEST 78 4.4. STAGE 2: TREATMENT OF BULLY GROUP 90 4.5. WILCOXON SIGNED RANKS TEST 96 4.6. STAGE 3: TREATMENT OF VICTIM GROUP 99 4.7. PAIRED SAMPLE T-TEST 110 4.8. CONTROL VARIABLES 114 4.9. MODERATING EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE-PRETEST STAGE 118 4.10. MODERATING EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE-POSTTEST STAGE 120 4.11. COMPARATIVE MODERATING EFFECT AT PRE-TEST AND POSTTEST 121 4.12. ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION OF HYPOTHESES 122 4.13. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 123 4.14. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 124 4.15. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 129

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4.16. RECOMMENDATIONS 131 SUMMARY 132 LITERATURE CITED 134 ANNEXURES 175 APPENDICES 222

List of Tables

Table No. Page 2.1: Organizational impacts of workplace bullying 40 3.1: One group pretest-posttest design 61 3.2: Bully group and stages of change 66 3.3: Pros and cons of ceasing bullying behavior 68 4.1: Bullies’ group 79 4.2: Demographics of bullies’ group 80 4.3: Personality traits of bullies’ group 82 4.4: Victims’ group 83 4.5: Demographics of victims’ group 87 4.6: Personality traits of victims’ group 89 4.7: Pre-training identification of stage of change 90 4.8: Case processing summary 92 4.9: Skewness and kurtosis 93 4.10: Tests of normality 95 4.11: Descriptive statistics 96 4.12: Signed ranks 97 4.13: Test statistics 97 4.14: Employee performance and emotional intelligence of identified victims 99 4.15: Skewness and kurtosis 105 4.16: Normality tests 107 4.17: Homogeneity of variances 108 4.18: Homogeneity of variances 109 4.19: Paired samples test 110 4.20: Paired samples test 111 4.21: Gender as control variable 115 4.22: Gender as control variable 116 4.23: Marital Status as control variable 116 4.24: Education as control variable 117 4.25: Job Experience as control variable 118 4.26: Impact of bullying on employee performance with moderating role of EI at pre-intervention implementation 118 4.27: Statistics for moderator variable-pre-interventions 119

4.28: Impact of bullying on employee performance with moderating role of EI at post-intervention implementation 120 4.29: Statistics for moderator variable-post interventions 120 4.30: Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator 121 4.31: Status of hypotheses 123

List of Figures

Figure No. Page 2.1: Multiplier effect of workplace bullying on employee performance 44 2.2: Intervention strategies to overcome workplace bullying 55 2.3: Theoretical framework 56 4.1: Histogram for bullies’ group-pre-intervention 94 4.2: Histogram for bullies’ group-post-intervention 95 4.3: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-pre-intervention 98 4.4: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-post-intervention 98 4.5: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-comparison 99 4.6: Histogram for victims’ group-pre-intervention 106 4.7: Histogram for victims’ group-post-intervention 107 4.8: Trend line for pre-EI interventions implementation stage 112 4.9: Trend line for post-EI interventions implementation stage 113 4.10: Trend line for emotional intelligence-comparison 113

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ABBREVIATIONS

EI: Emotional Intelligence TTM: The Transtheoretical Model NAQ-R: Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Being a Muslim, I consider it my utmost duty to express my deep gratitude to Almighty Allah, the Compassionate and Merciful, Who gave me health and opportunity to complete this study. I offer my humble thanks from the core of my who is my hero, a role model and a ,(ﷺ) heart to the Holy Prophet Muhammad source of guidance and knowledge for entire humanity.

I pay deep gratitude to my Supervisor, Professor Dr. Rauf I Azam, Vice Chancellor, University of Education Lahore, for his continuous encouragement, scholarly guidance, timely help, sympathetic attitude and exclusive cooperation throughout my doctoral program in Management Sciences. I acknowledge his scholarly contributions to my study and gratitude him for the patience he showed on all my queries and needs. He always remained and will also remain a source of inspiration and motivation for me. Without his kind help, I could not have completed conduct of this research and consequent report writing. I am really very grateful to him in every possible way. I hope that this collaboration will also continue in future. No doubt, without his kind guidance and contribution, this study would not have been possible.

I extend deep gratitude to the member of my Supervisory Committee, Dr. Hassan Rasool, Assistant Professor, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) Islamabad. He helped me in addressing methodological issues rigorously. I could not have completed this experimental study without his help, guidance, and scholarly contribution.

I extend deep gratitude to the member of my Supervisory Committee, Dr. Farida Faisal, Director, University Institute of Management Science, PMAS- Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. She always helped me in all matters regarding my dissertation and academia. She promptly responded and guided me in completing the write up of my doctoral dissertation. I pay my gratitude to her for her valuable efforts towards successful completion of my doctoral dissertation.

I extend deep gratitude to Professor Dr. Hassan Mobeen Alam, Principal, Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab Lahore who supervised my dissertation in masters (MS) program. During his supervision, I xiv learnt a lot from him and this was the point where my aptitude for research was flourished.

As doctoral research is not an easy task, a lot of people helped me out of which I want to mention some of them and pay my gratitude to them. They include Dr. Muhammad Farooq Nasir, Deputy Director DAS, Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi for his continuous encouragement and guidance regarding dissertation especially EndNote usage; Mr. Muhammad Shahzad Ijaz, PhD Scholar, Capital University of Science and Technology Islamabad, who helped me a lot in selecting appropriate type of test for the experiments; Dr. Majid Mehmood Bagram, Associate Professor, Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) Islamabad; Mr. Abdul Rehman Jami, Principal, Government Institute of Commerce, Shabbir Lane, Rawalpindi; Mr. Hammad Tariq Janjua and Mr. Atif Farooq Solangi, Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) Islamabad who helped me in obtaining various copy righted study materials from United States of America (USA); Syed Haider Abbas, Director Strategic Planning, Fanatix Corporate Solutions (Pvt.) Limited, Islamabad, Mr. Shahid Ghufran, GIS Analyst, UAE and Muhammad Farooq for their generous financial support regarding purchase of various materials; Dr. Arshad Ahmad Nashad, Associate Professor, Urdu Department, AIOU; Mrs. Iffat Perveez (Late) Incharge Editing Cell, AIOU Islamabad for translation of scales into Urdu language; and Mr. Muhammad Ayas, Editing Cell, AIOU Islamabad for auxiliary help and support. I am also thankful to my dear students; Mr. Saad Ali and Mr. Adeel Iqbal (MS, Management Sciences) who helped &assisted me during the experiments.

I am also thankful to University`s staff, especially staff of University Institute of Management Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi and all my warm-hearted friends for their friendly attitude and valuable guidance both in study and daily life, without their support, my dissertation would not have been completed.

Muhammad Munir

ABSTRACT

Motivating work environment enhances performance of human resources whereas workplace hurdles, stressors and hazards result in a decline in their performance. Workplace bullying is a major workplace hazard that results in low employee performance. Hence, its incidence must be controlled and impact on employee performance must be mitigated. The current study was conducted to analyze the workplace bullying phenomenon, reduce its incidence by implementing anti- bullying interventions and mitigating its impact on employee performance by enhancing the level of emotional intelligence of the victims through emotional intelligence training interventions in health care sector of Pakistan. This study was carried in three stages: (i) Pretest stage, (ii) Treatment of Bully Group and Victim Group, (iii) posttest stage. In Pretest Stage, bullying incidence was reported and groups of bullies and victims were identified. There were 25 bullies who were lacking personality trait of agreeableness and 126 victims who had personality trait of agreeableness. In Stage 2: Treatment of Bully Group, anti-bullying interventions developed through The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) to change bullies’ behavior were applied to 22 bullies who agreed to be the part of TTM anti-bullying interventions. Moreover, in Stage 2: Treatment of Victim Group was carried out where employee performance and emotional intelligence level of 101 identified victims were assessed. By providing an informed consent, 36 victims with low level of emotional intelligence became the part of EI training interventions. In stage 3: posttest data was collected and analyzed. Results of Wilcoxon Signed Ranked test revealed significant decrease in bullying incidence and paired sample T-Test showed significant increase in emotional intelligence. Results of moderation analysis revealed that EI had significantly moderated relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance. Significant decrease in negative effect of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance was found when the level of emotional intelligence was enhanced. Similar results were reported in both pre and post-EI-interventions implementation stages. However, negative effect in post-EI-interventions implementation stage was relatively lower as a resultant higher level of emotional intelligence. Current study also discussed limitations or directions for future research and various important implications for theory, research and practice.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND

Organizations come into existence to accomplish certain goals and objectives set by their founders. To achieve these goals and objectives, they need financial resources, human resources and a motivating workplace environment. Motivating work environment can enhance performance of human resources whereas workplace hurdles, stressors and hazards can result a decline in performance of employees working in such environment (Hobfoll et al., 2018; Van Vianen, 2018). Occupational psychologists have developed various work environment models free from stressors and hazards for the organizations that motivate the people at workplace and contribute positively in the accomplishment of the organizational objectives (Marinova, Cao & Park, 2018; Van Vianen, 2018).

Business community and academia have continuously been putting a special focus on provision of positive psychosocial environment at workplace that positively contributes towards employee performance and organizational performance (Brown & Leigh, 1996; Van Vianen, 2018). Hence, provision of healthy psychosocial environment at workplace is an area of fundamental concern. Occupational psychologists and researchers argue that healthy psychosocial environment within the organization brings positive results for organizations including but not limited to decreased employee turnover; decreased absenteeism rate; decreased stress; better change management; increased creativity; increased productivity; high morale; better wellness; decreased conflicts; increased job satisfaction; positive social image of the organization; better employee performance; and enhanced organizational performance (Bakker, 2010; Brown & Leigh, 1996; Chan, 2010; Froman, 2010; Ganster, Rosen & Fisher, 2018; Glomb et al., 2011; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Rahim, 2018; Schnall et al., 2018; Stewart & Zucker, 2018; Yamada, Duffy & Berry, 2018; Wood & Burchell, 2018). Some of the significant characteristics of healthy work environment are; social interaction; occupational stress; leadership style, job autonomy; organizational culture; and human resource management practices. However, various work contexts require unique work environment & work characteristics for a motivating work environment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Hiler et al., 2018; Schnall et al., 2018) e.g hospital work environment requires various emotional demands that are not necessarily required in engineering

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consultancy. Hence, a vigilant analysis of organizational context is necessary to comprehend the desired work environment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Cohen, 2018; Parker, Wall & Cordery, 2001; Sparks, Faragher & Cooper, 2001).

A global poll of Gemini Consulting (1999) about work needs among 10,339 employees from 13 countries revealed five most desired universal qualities in the workplace. They include the following qualities: (i) Better work and personal life balance (ii) A truly enjoyable work (iii) Future job security (iv) Fair level of wages or salary (v) Co-workers who are enjoyable to be around

Organizations with healthy workplace environment learn from facts mentioned above and use employee-oriented approach for workplace environment management while toxic organizations use profit-driven approach that mainly focuses on profit instead of employees’ mental and physical health. Organizations having workplace environment with the elements of toxicity have poor people management practices and operate in a fast-paced and profit-driven manner rather than people-oriented manner. Poor human resource management practices and toxic environment make workplace environment quite unpredictable with the feelings of low decision autonomy, job-insecurity and perception of devaluation. These negative feelings of employees ultimately develop stress, anxiety and depression in the workplace which are toxic to employees’ health and well-being. Hence, it is sensible to presume that an organization has toxic workplace environment when it becomes ineffective and destructive towards its employees (Appelbaum & Roy-Girard, 2007; Singh, Dev & Sengupta, 2018). Such conditions worsen psychological work conditions for employees (Brown & Duffy, 2018; Landsbergis, 2003). Unsurprisingly, all types of toxic elements at workplace negatively affect employees’ health and well-being.

There are three general categories of the elements that are central to workplace toxicity in organizations: (i) organizational principles, (ii) work conditions, and (iii) intra- office relationship conflicts (Bar-Eli, 2017; Egan, 2018; Linroth, 2010; Tyler, 2010). Most of the times, organizational climate tolerates these toxic elements in the workplace. For example, signing a daunting job contract, requiring longer working hours from employees, and assigning employees additional job tasks may not appear toxic when 3

pondered in separation, but when taken together, these may establish a toxic workplace environment. Moreover, toxic elements grow slowly in workplace environment until they bring noticeable negative effects. Ultimately, toxicity flies in workplace when employees face worse physical and psychological situations which bring negative feelings among the employees. When workplace toxicity crosses the threshold of perceived toxicity into the realm, it creates four major signs: (i) turf wars between employees, (ii) complaints of verbal or physical intimidation, (iii) utterances of threats and profanities, and (iv) poor turnouts during social functions, and decline in workplace mental health. The greater the frequency of these signs, the more are the chances that the organization has surpassed its threshold of workplace toxicity.

Social interactions of employees with their bosses and co-workers develop employee relations and are also deemed obligatory in nature. So, an organization expects from all of its employees to create and maintain civilized & pleasant working relationships in workplace environment (Follmer et al., 2017; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2018). Most of the times, employees observe guidelines developed to create pleasant working relationships. However, sometimes, some employees fail to manage such pleasant working relations with others. As an organizations has a blend of personalities, chances of clashes and conflicts are obvious. When these clashes and conflicts are addressed immediately and properly, their negative effects on employee relations are neutralized effectively without further retaliation. On the contrary, toxic organizations tolerate, endorse, and at times stimulate toxicity which results in adverse employee relations and interactions at workplace. Such type of toxic organizations do not have employee disputes resolution systems and ignore the warning signs of workplace toxicity. In fact, workplace toxicity and toxic human resource management practices congregate negative emotions in employees which arouse toxicity in employee relations.

Workplace bullying is an important type of toxic employee relations which is the result of role conflicts, dissatisfaction with management, low decision latitude, and monotonous work environments (Einarsen, Raknes & Mathieson, 1994; Oriol, 2016; O'Toole & Lawler, 2008). In such a case, negative emotions are cultivated among employees by toxic workplace conditions which are transferred onto other innocent employees who become the targets of unsolicited physical and psychological intimidations. Usually, toxic employee relations are indirect, discrete, and are often unnoticed (Antoniou & Cooper, 2017; Field, 2014; Hodges, 2017). These toxic relations 4

include all sorts of incivility, verbal aggression, and victimization. All types of acts cultivating toxic employee relations are typically exhibited by the difficult employees who are judgmental and overly critical. Usually, these difficult employees cultivate workplace toxicity by identifying a flaw in a potential victim and play a game of cat and mouse. They are engaged in negative social interactions and often methodically use, manipulate, and expose that flaw which leave the victim employees defenseless. If the victim employees are unable to defend themselves, the difficult employees upturn the consistency and intensity of their attacks. These attacks are performed in an attempt to gain an advantage over the target. Perhaps an example will clarify how this vicious cycle can be perpetuated. However, all types of such attacks are executed in an attempt to achieve an advantage over the target. Such types of toxicity in social interactions at workplace result in various forms of employees’ deviant behaviors aimed at violating institutionalized norms, brining harms, creating threats to the well-being and creating hindrances in accomplishment of organizational goals (Bias, Tripp & Kramer, 1997; Griffin & O’Leary-Kelly, 2004; Hollinger & Clark, 1982; Maritz et al., 2017; Neuman & Baron, 1997; Newman, Papadopoulos & Sigsworth, 1998; Sackett et al., 2006; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). All types of these toxic behaviors such as workplace bullying, incivility, abusing, cyber bullying, cyber loafing, sabotage, sexual harassment, verbal or physical violence, intentional exclusions from meaningful gatherings, and counter productive workplace behaviors not only result in adverse employee relations at workplace but also increase their frequency. All dimensions of toxic behaviors depict a clear picture of various types of negative behaviors which result in poor organizational and employee performance (Sackett et al., 2006).

Workplace bullying, being an important type of toxic behavior, negatively but significantly affects healthy workplace environment (Cowan, 2018; Kawamoto, 2018; Schutte & Loi, 2014; Wolf et al., 2017) and results in low employee and organizational performance (Cowan, 2018; McCormack, Djurkovic & Casimir, 2014; Oladapo & Banks, 2013). That is why, it has been congregating the attention of managers and organizational researchers. Workplace bullying is one of the major & powerful workplace hazards and work stressors which results in low employee performance. Hence, its incidence must be controlled and impact on employee performance must be mitigate as an occupational concern.

Workplace bullying refers to all types of negative behaviors which are regular in 5

nature, consistently exhibited and repeated over six months’ time period. These negative behaviors, aggregately called workplace bullying, are not only intended to harass, offend, retaliate, and isolate the victims but also bring negative effects to healthy organizational workplace environment (McCormack et al., 2014). Regardless of the nature of workplace bullying, it may be exhibited by any of the organizational member including employers, managers, boss, colleagues, and subordinates (Branch, Ramsay & Barker, 2013). Salin (2003) also agreed with the above notion and argued that bullying included unfavorable behaviors which were repetitive, unreasonable, and inappropriate while treating an employee or group of employees at workplace. She further argued that the objectives of those negative behaviors included intimidation, offence, degradation, humiliation and creation of risks to the physical, emotional and social wellbeing. However, Woodrow & Guest (2014) included all types of both intentional and unintentional, negative behaviors into the construct of bullying which were aimed at harming others. They systematically included lesser severe behaviors and more severe behaviors gradually. They argued that the aim of these behaviors included victimization, humiliation, intimidation and threatening of an employee or a group of employees. They further added that those behaviors also included abusive comments as a “starting point” which afterwards went through physical violence and public humiliation. Hence, it can be concluded that if a negative behavior is aimed at victimizing, humiliating, intimidating and threatening of an employee or a group of employees and also is repetitive in its nature, can be termed as workplace bullying. However, mere/single incident of unwanted negative behavior cannot be considered and treated as workplace bullying incidence (Carbo, 2017; Hor, 2012; Lee & Lovell, 2014; Work, 2001: Health & Safety Authority, 2001). However, ignoring such mere incidents may also result in eventual actual problem of workplace bullying incidence. Hence, a careful examination of such incidents is mandatory in order to conceptualize workplace bullying phenomenon.

Ariza-Montes et al. (2014) and Glambek, Skogstad & Einarsen (2018) argue that workplace bullying incidents may be initiated by management or supervisors or other employees irrespective of their hierarchical level. The incidence of workplace bullying create tough employment conditions for both the managers and employees. Some studies also found that the parties involved in workplace bullying incidence perceived themselves as better compliant employees obeying organizational “standard practices”. The perpetrators perceived their involvement in bullying as their right to clinch the victims while the victims perceived that they deserved such treatment and did not react strongly 6

because of their fears (Randall, 2003; Rigby, 2002).

There may be different effects of workplace bullying on the victims and the reactions or responses of the victims to perpetrators of workplace bullying may also differ. Such variations in the effects and responses happen due to two major differences: (i) difference in personal characteristics, and (ii) nature of a specific situation or time (Aquino & Lamertz, 2004; Duffy, 2018; McCormack et al., 2014). Most common effects of bullying include, decreased employees’ motivation, lowered workplace performance, decreased work productivity, and increased time taken to complete a job task (McCormack et al., 2014). Moreover, the victims may also experience hypertension; thoughts of suicide; distress; panic attacks or sleep disturbance; loss of confidence; loss of self-esteem; feelings of isolation; deteriorating relationships with colleagues, family and friends; burnout; high rate of employee turnover; increased anxiety; increased absenteeism rate; workplace violence; depression; and even physical illnesses such as muscular tension, headaches and digestive problems (Einarsen, Hoel & Cooper, 2011).

Fortunately, there is a skill which can mitigate the negative effects of workplace bullying on employees, called emotional intelligence (Goleman, 2006; Lee, 2018; Van der Nest, 2010; Walsh, 2018). Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior (Goleman, 1996). Current study has used ability model of EI, developed by Peter Salovey & John Mayer, which focuses on an individual's ability to process emotional information and consequently use it to navigate social environment (Salovey et al., 2004). Various studies found that the people who had higher level of emotional intelligence, had greater mental health, exemplary job performance, and more persuasive leadership skills. As compared to the previous practices, in two recent decades the scholars have put greater emphasis on markers of EI and did a great job by developing methods, techniques and interventions to teach, learn and enhance emotional intelligence. In addition, studies also have provided the evidence to characterize neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence for better EI management (Barbey et al., 2014; US News & World Report, 2013).

The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional stress, seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. Hutchinson and Hurley (2013) make the case that emotional intelligence and leadership skills, both are necessary for successful implementation of anti-bullying interventions in workplace. They also 7

illustrate a significant relationship between EI, leadership and reduction in bullying incidence. EI and ethical behavior among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behavior of work groups (Deshpande & Joseph, 2009). Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013). Self-awareness and self-management dimensions of EI both have been elucidated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments & work culture (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013).

Some recent studies also found statistically significant relationship of emotional intelligence with workplace bullying (García‐Sancho, Salguero & Fernández‐Berrocal, 2017; Van der Nest, 2010). Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as a set of abilities related to the understanding, use and management of emotion as it relates to one's self and others. Mayer, Salovey & Caruso (2008) defines the dimensions of overall EI as: "accurately perceiving emotion, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotion, and managing emotion" (Mayer et al., 2008). The concept combines emotional and intellectual processes (Tolegenova et al., 2012). Lower emotional intelligence appears to be significantly correlated to involvement in bullying. People with low level of emotional intelligence can either be the bully, the victim or the bully-victim. EI seems to contribute an important role in both bullying behavior and victimization in bullying. As EI is illustrated to be malleable skill, its can greatly support bullying prevention and intervention initiatives (García‐Sancho et al., 2017; Mckenna & Webb, 2013).

The study of workplace bullying and emotional intelligence in connection with employee performance is highly recommended due to wide prevalence of bullying in all types of organizations and its detrimental effects on employee well-being (Høgh, Mikkelsen, & Hansen, 2010). According to Giga, Hoel & Lewis (2008), costs of workplace bullying are high for organizations. For a number of reasons, organizations try to systematically manage workplace bullying hazard (Vartia & Leka, 2011; Yamada et al., 2018) as recommended by the scholars and practiced by occupational professionals around the world (Spurgeon, 2003).

Previous studies suggest different ways to reduce the incidence of workplace bullying such as supervisory support (Zapf, Knorz & Kulla, 1996), correcting the perception about the cost of bullying among employees (Cowan, 2018; Hansen & 8

Søndergaard, 2018; Salin, 2003a), role of senior management in making anti-bullying policy (Balado, 2018; Clift & Thelenwood, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Mollo, 2009; Nazir, 2018; Rayner & McIvor, 2008; Salmivalli, Kärnä & Poskiparta, 2010; Ullman, 2018) and control on the laissez-faire management styles (Glambek et al., 2018; Hoel & Salin, 2003b; Hoel et al., 2010; Jung & Yoon, 2018; Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011).

Unfortunately, the management has failed to control prevalence & growth of workplace bullying incidence, nor it has mitigated negative effects of bullying due to various legal, moral and procedural limitations (Glambek et al., 2018; Jung & Yoon, 2018; Namie & Namie, 2018a; Namie & Namie, 2018b). This unfortunate situation may have resulted due to the position of bullies, application of traditional HR tools for conflict resolution or mediation. Moreover, it is the responsibility of every member of an organization to contribute his/her efforts in eliminating bullying incidents (Glambek et al., 2018; Riley et al., 2014). The management may also intervene to reduce workplace bullying incidents and mitigate its impact on employee and organizational performance (Clift & Thelenwood, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; McCormack et al., 2014; Mollo, 2009; Nazir, 2018; Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011; Oladapo & Banks, 2013; Riley et al., 2014). Hence, it becomes necessary to develop a clear understanding of workplace bullying, types of bullying incidents & behaviors, and consequent negative impact on employee performance and organizational performance.

1.2. WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ITS EFFECTS

Workplace bullying is an aggressive behavior (Aquino & Thau, 2009) exhibited to harass others irrespective of the actor’s or target’s personal characteristics such as age, gender, race, religion, and organizational characteristics such as boss, subordinate, colleague, senior, junior, stage of career (Adams & Bray, 1992). From the actor’s perspective, such intended aggressive behavior transforms the power into unwanted & repeated verbal or physical hostile actions to create distress for the target (Hodgins, 2008). The target's perspective describes bullying as non-defendable experiences of consistent unwanted aggressive behavior intended to bring psychological and/or physical harms for him/her (Clift & Thelenwood, 2018; Cowan, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Hansen & Søndergaard, 2018; Raynor & Keashly, 2004; Salin, 2003b; Salmivalli et al., 2010).

There are four most important facets of workplace bullying: (i) frequency, (ii) 9

intensity, (iii) duration, and (iv) power disparity (Agervold, 2007; Einarsen, 1999; Leymann, 1990). These four basic facets are mentioned in the discussion of the lines provided below in current paragraph. With respect to first facet of frequency, workplace bullying includes all types of negative acts that occur at least once in a week (Mikkelsen, 2001; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002). With respect to first facet of intensity, workplace bullying behaviors encompass through a wide range of negative acts which can significantly bring major changes in the victims’ behavior (Leymann, 1990; Agervold, 2007; Einarsen, Hoel & Notelaers, 2009). With respect to first facet of duration, negative acts continue to triumph for a period of minimum six months (Einarsen, 2000a; Einarsen, 2000b; Hoel, Cooper & Faragher, 2001). With respect to first facet of power disparity, there is real or perceived power difference between actor (bully) and target (victim) which makes target (victim) compromised, highly vulnerable and incapable of defending himself/herself against those negative acts (Hodson, Roscigno & Lopez, 2006). Thus, it is concluded that workplace bullying include intentional negative acts exhibited on weekly basis, which have intense influence on the target’s behavior, which continue for a minimum time period of six months, and there is a real or perceived power difference (which ignites existence of negative acts) between the actor and the target. Based on these facets of workplace bullying, it becomes a really tough piece of work to notice workplace bullying as four-stage process. However, one can easily overcome this issue by managing proper examination and evaluation skills within him/her.

There are various negative effects of workplace bullying which encompass employees, organization and society. Some studies (Hoel & Cooper, 2000, Sheehan, 1999; Speedy, 2006) have also revealed that workplace bullying brings direct financial costs to the organizations by creating high rate of absenteeism, sick leave, decreased productivity, recruitment costs, payouts, counseling, rehiring and legal fees. Most of the times, 25% of the victims leave organization within three (03) years (Rayner, 1997, 2000; Sasha-Corporation, January 2007). The victims may also start using various types of toxic drugs (Shannon, Mathias, Marsh, Dougherty, & Liguori, 2007); lack cooperation (Agervold, 2007); health issues even suicide (Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy & Alberts, 2007); experience hostile physiological, psychological, organizational, and clinical symptoms (Baron & Neuman, 1996; Hoel & Cooper, 2000; Leymann, 1990; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002; Sheehan, 1999); and yield poor employee performance (Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Cowan, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Hansen & Søndergaard, 2018; McCormack et al., 2014; Riley et al., 2014; Salin, 2003a; Woodrow & Guest, 2014). 10

1.3. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability of a person through which he/she can screen his/her own emotions, other persons’ emotions, differentiate between various emotions, properly label emotions, and consequently he/she uses these emotional information to guide his/her thinking and behavior in a beneficial way. In the similar context Mayer et al. (2008) defined EI as a skill which can help a person to accurately perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in facilitating appropriate thoughts and behaviors. Schutte, Malouff & Thorsteinsson, (2013) argue that a person is considered to be competent in perception of emotions if he/she is able to recognize others’ voice related to emotions and their facial cues and is also well aware of one’s own emotional state and reactions. An emotionally intelligent person is able to differentiate between different emotions and he/she devises an accurate and effective plan of actions to respond in different situations and scenarios (Goleman, 1998). Goleman further argues that a person can be an effective handler of others’ emotions if he/she can manipulate situations, utilize body language & conversations to manage and regulate others’ emotions in a direction favorable to the situation or goals of the parties. On the bases of these features, researcher believes EI to be a skill which can be developed and enhanced in all types of people as well as employees. The researcher further believes that enhanced level of EI results in positive outcomes especially enhanced employee performance.

Being a skill, EI can be the competency (Bar-On, 2000; Goleman, 1995; Schulte, Ree & Carretta, 2004); ability (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000; Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999); and personality trait (Schutte & Malouff, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998) through which a person perceives, understands, utilizes, and manages emotions effectively (Maul, 2012; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004). There are three main EI models: (i) The ability model which focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate social environment (Mayer et al., 2004); (ii) The trait model which encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured through self-report” (Petrides & Furnham, 2001); and (iii) The mixed model, combination of ability and trait models defines EI as an array of skills and characteristics which predict leadership performance (Goleman, 2011). Hence, researcher treated EI as the ability of an employee to understand his/her emotions, regulate his/her emotions, understand emotions of others, and effectively manage fruitful relationships with others. Consequently, current study used ability model of amotional intelligence. 11

In ability model, there are four basic emotional intelligence skills or abilities which are, sometimes, named differently by various scholars. Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) included self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and social management in emotional intelligence skills. A brief description of these four skills is provided as under: i. Self-Awareness: Self-awareness is a person’s ability to accurately perceive his/her own emotions and stay aware of them as they happen. This ability is the mirror of a person’s tendencies while responding to specific situations and/or people. ii. Self-Management: This is a person’s ability to use awareness of his/her emotions to stay flexible and direct his/her behavior positively. This is a practical phase in which a person controls his/her own emotional reactions to specific situations and/or people. iii. Social Awareness: Social-awareness is a person’s ability to accurately understand and focus on other people’s emotions in a true sense. This ability enables a person to understand what other people are thinking and feeling even if he/she does not feel in the same way. Through this ability, a person can evaluate others’ emotions irrespective of his/her own emotion. iv. Relationship Management: This is a person’s ability to effectively use self- awareness and social-awareness skills while interacting with other people and/or situations. This ability focuses on effective communication and conflict management in difficult situations.

The first two skills are related to a person’s oneself while the third and fourth skills are related to the other persons with which a person has interaction. A later study on this array of skills (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013) revealed that all four skills are deemed necessary while building healthy work environment and conflict management in an organization. Hence, the researcher concludes that, aggregately, all these skills equally contribute to the holistic ability of emotional intelligence.

1.4. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ENHANCEMENT

journals of the world, upon the notion that emotional intelligence can be taught, learnt, and enhanced in all age groups and professions (Beniss, 2004; Boyatzis & Van Oosten, 2002; Côté, 2014; Davidson, 2003; Enríquez et al., 2017; Gilbert et al., 2017; Luthans, 2002; Matthews, Zeidner & Roberts, 2017; Miao, Humphrey & Qian, 2017; Schabram & Maitlis, 2017; Serrat, 2017).

There are two main complementary approaches used and recommended by various studies to cultivate and develop emotional intelligence: (i) training, and (ii) coaching (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Goleman et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2009). Various researchers, behaviorists and psychologists treat training as a group-based systematic learning method of transferring skills while they treat coaching as an individually-focused method of transferring skills (Fullan, 2011a; Fullan, 2011b; Giber et al., 2009; Hughes et al., 2009; Parsloe & Leedham, 2009). Hence, training followed by coaching can bring best results by improving weaknesses if left by the training process. There are four (04) recent studies on the topic of transfer of training (Baldwin, Kevin Ford & Blume, 2017; Kahn & Girvan, 2017; Massenberg, Schulte & Kauffeld, 2017; Sparr, Knipfer & Willems, 2017) published in Human Resource Development Quarterly in 2017 which focus on training and its outcomes especially employee performance. These studies recommend researchers to conduct training programs to reap the benefits of transfer of training. They also recommend that training programs are compatible with all types of organizations and can bring positive organizational outcomes (positive transfer) especially enhanced employee performance and overall organizational performance. Hence, the researcher believes that emotional intelligence intervention can be developed, trained, and coached which would bring positive results for the organizations in terms of enhanced employee performance.

1.5. EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Employee performance refers to the achievement of goals in an effective and efficient manner. High performance of an employee shows how well he/she performs his/her job duties and extra-role activities needed for the achievement of organizational goals. Employee performance is an individual level variable considered to be important predictor of overall organizational performance and success (Campbell et al., 1970). Some scholars divided employee performance into two (02) distinct dimensions: (i) in- role performance, and (ii) extra-role performance (Borman et al., 2001; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). In-role performance consists of completing obligatory job tasks 13

formally required by a job whereas extra-role performance includes organizational citizenship behaviors which positively contribute in achievement of organizational goals by creating a positive impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Therefore, the researcher takes employee performance as a two-dimensional variable including in-role performance and extra-role performance.

1.6. IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Motivating work environment enhances performance of human resources which enables an organization to achieve its strategic goals. On the contrary, workplace hurdles, stressors and hazards deteriorate performance of human resources and consequently organizational performance is deteriorated. Workplace bullying is a major workplace hazard that has substantial negative effects on employee performance (McCormack et al., 2014; Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Woodrow & Guest, 2014; Riley et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2018; Olafsen et al., 2017; Fernandez et al., 2017). Beware, workplace bullying is a serious problem that is experienced by a majority of adolescents, whether they were bullied, they bullied someone else, or saw someone being bullied (U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources, 2011). U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources observes bullying as a serious problem that can be prevented or stopped by implementation of suitable interventions by the parties involved in the bullying process. Hence, its incidence must be controlled and impact on employee performance must be mitigated as an occupational concern (Kowalski, Toth & Morgan, 2018).

Unfortunately, incidence of workplace bullying could not be reduced and the problem is thriving in all sectors and all types of organizations with the worst impact on employee performance (Mitchell et al., 2018; Olafsen et al., 2017). Although there are some laws that protect employees from workplace bullying done in the form of harassment, mobbing, hazards and stressors but they are not enforced by letter and spirit. This has resulted in the existence and prevalence of workplace bullying problem. The problem needs to be addressed in a more professional manner so that its incidence can be reduced and the negative impacts on the performance can be effectively mitigated (Clift & Thelenwood, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Hansen & Søndergaard, 2018).

Although previous studies suggested ways to reduce the incidence of workplace bullying such as providing supervisory support (Zapf et al., 1996); correcting the 14

perception about cost of bullying (Salin, 2003a; Salin, 2003b); getting effective role of senior management in making anti-bullying policy (Rayner & McIvor, 2008); and controlling on laissez-faire management styles (Hoel et al., 2010). However, management has failed to control its prevalence and failed to mitigate its negative impact on employee performance due to legal, moral and procedural limitations. It is responsibility of every member of an organization to endow his/her efforts in eliminating bullying incidence (Riley et al., 2014). This necessitates a clear understanding of workplace bullying phenomenon, reasons behind its occurrence, its adverse impact on employee performance and interventions needed to reduce it. One of the ways is the management that can intervene to reduce workplace bullying incidents and mitigate its impact on employee and organizational performance (Riley et al., 2014). Previous literature suggests to develop anti-bullying interventions at policy level (Vartia et al., 2008); organization/employer level (Rayner & Lewis, 2011; Salin, 2008; Vartia et al., 2008); workplace/group/task level & individual level (Giga et al., 2008; Keashly & Neuman, 2004); on one hand &and pre- bullying (primary) interventions (Einarsen et al., 2011; Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Vartia & Tehrani, 2012; Swearer & Espelage, 2009); bullying episodic (secondary) interventions (Meloni & Austin, 2011; Pate & Beaumont, 2010); and post-bullying (tertiary) interventions (Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Salin et al., 2014; Schwickerath & Zapf, 2011) on the other hand to reduce bullying incidents. Hence, there is a need to develop effective anti-bullying interventions to reduce workplace bullying incidence in order to elude its adverse impact on employee performance (Bjørkelo, 2013; Curtin, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011; Walsh, 2018). However, during the development of interventions various organizational aspects must be kept in mind like improving physical and psychosocial work environment, improving leadership effectiveness, conflict management and setting fair complaints procedures that work as stimulating factors (Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011). On the contrary, various organizational aspects which work as obstructing factors such as lack of continuous management commitment, lack of clarification of roles and expectations, poor planning and implementation of interventions, lack of identification of stressors, reluctance to confront the problems and cultural aspects must also be kept in mind so that they cannot lessen the effectiveness of interventions (Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011). Therefore, researcher comes to the conclusion that a research problem is elevated.

On the contrary, for victims (targets), literature has highlighted various interventions to be implemented. Salin et al. (2014) suggest to develop counseling and 15

therapeutic interventions for the victims in order to mitigate negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims. In connection with this notation, enhancing emotional intelligence of victim employees is deemed mandatory so that they can absorb bullying incidence and emancipate its negative impact on their employee performance. Emotional intelligence was a ground-breaking, paradigm-shattering, and one of the most influential business idea of first decade in 21st century published in Harvard Business Review (Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee, 2013). Organizations also consider EI as a key skill of in the processes of hiring, promoting, and developing their employees because it positively contributes in enhancing employee performance and productivity which is the ultimate goal of all organizations (Longenecker, Sims & Gioia, 1987). Studies reported EI as a prime predictor of mental health, job performance, and effective leadership skills (Bande et al., 2015; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2001; Goleman et al., 2013; Prentice & King, 2011 & 2013; Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Wong & Law, 2002).

1.7. PROBLEM STATEMENT

What really reduces the incidence of workplace bullying? Does emotional intelligence really mitigate the negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims?

1.8. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

After getting insight into broader problem area and consequently identifying research problem, researcher set the aim of reducing workplace bullying incidence by implementing anti-bullying TTM interventions. On the complement, researcher aimed to mitigate the negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims by providing them emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. Remaining consistent with the aims, following objectives were set to be be achieved after successful completion of current study:

i. To identify bullies and victims in workplace bullying incidence. ii. To reduce workplace bullying incidence of bullies by implementing tertiary (post-bullying) stage anti-bullying interventions developed by using The Transtheoretical Model. iii. To evaluate effectiveness of anti-bullying The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) interventions implemented at posttest settings. 16

iv. To enhance the level of emotional intelligence in the victims, if required. v. To evaluate the effectiveness of Emotional intelligence intervention implementation in posttest settings. vi. To evaluate moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance.

1.9. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

After discussing available research gaps in the area of workplace bulliyng, it prevalence, ways to reduce its incidence and mitigate its negative impact on employee performance, researcher identified and defined research problem and set the objectives of reducing incidence of workplace bullying by implementing separate sets of interventions for bullies and victims. The following congruent research questions were designed to effectively test the hypotheses and achieve objectives:

i. Does tertiary (post-bullying) stage anti-bullying interventions developed by using The Transtheoretical Model reduce the incidence of workplace bullying? ii. Can level of emotional intelligence of the victims be enhanced through emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions? iii. Does emotional intelligence has moderating role in relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance? iv. Do emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions effectively mitigate negative effect of workplace bullying on employee performance?

1.10. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Researcher believes that current study holds great worth for academia, industry and methodological significance in research. Current study has developed and implemented tertiary interventions by utilizing TTM for bullies in order to successfully control and reduce prevalence of workplace bullying. Researcher also has implemented emotional intelligence training interventions for victims in order to enable them to successfully mitigate negative impact of workplace bullying on their performance. TTM interventions for bullies would reduce incidence of workplace bullying which would create a healthy workplace environment. Consequently, the work environment would be improved and such environment at workplace would definitely contribute in achievement of higher level of employee performance and organizational performance. 17

1.10.1. Academic Significance

This study has contributed to the existing literature of workplace bullying by filling the grey area of developing appropriate anti-bullying interventions and evaluating effectiveness of those interventions as desired by the leading scholars in the field (Brown & Duffy, 2018; Einarsen et al., 2017; Hotz et al., 2003; Hutson, Kelly & Militello, 2018; Namie & Namie, 2018a; Namie & Namie, 2018b; Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011; Trépanier, Fernet & Austin, 2016; Walsh, 2018). By developing anti-bullying interventions by using TTM, this study has contributed in both the literature of anti- bullying intervetnions and advancement of TTM by its application in anti-bullying intervetnions. The study has also filled gap left unfilled by the literature by taking keen observation of both the bullies and victims in the incidence of workplace bullying. Current study has applied anti-bullying TTM interventions on tertiary level (post-bullying stage) as desired by study of Salin et al. (2014).

On the other hand, this study has also applied emotional intelligence training interventions to victims of workplace bullying incidence in order to mitigate negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance. Such research gaps were available and hence, filled by this study. Research gaps available in the area of emotional intelligence interventions development and implementation for victims were filled which were revealed by recent studies of Brown & Duffy (2018) and Duffy & Brown (2018). Research gaps available in the area of methodology used to explore association between emotional intelligence and employee performance were also filled by this study as desired by (Goleman, 2001; Luthans, 2002; Miao et al., 2017; Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017; Samiuddin, Ahmad & Kazmi, 2017; Zeidner & Matthews, 2017). Besides the said studies, there were four (04) recent studies on the topic of transfer of training (Baldwin, Kevin Ford & Blume, 2017; Kahn & Girvan, 2017; Massenberg et al., 2017; Sparr et al., 2017) published in Human Resource Development Quarterly in 2017 which focus on training and its outcomes especially employee performance. All studies recommended researchers to conduct training programs in all types of organizations to reap positive organizational outcomes (positive transfer) especially enhancing employee performance.

Hence, researcher believes this study to be an important contribution towards theory, practice and methodological advancement in the area of developing tertiary level anti-bullying interventions, learning of emotional intelligence skills, developing and enhancing emotional intelligence skills through training and coaching interventions in 18

order to mitigate negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance of victims.

1.10.2. Managerial Significance

Main beneficiaries of this study are the organizations which can utilize the findings in creating healthy environment at workplace. This study has envisioned practitioners to scientifically address workplace bullying problem by implementing anti-bullying interventions at tertiary stage. This study has developed and implemented tertiary level (post-episodic bullying) interventions by utilizing The Transtheoretical Model (TTM).

In the late 1970s, Prochaska and DiClemente analyzed experiences of smokers who quit smoking on their own in order to understand why they were capable of quitting on their own. They found that those smokers were able to quit smoking because they had strong will to quit and they were also ready to quit smoking. On this principle, they postulated The Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Hence, TTM puts emphasis on individuals’ decision-making by provoking their intentional change. However, the resultant change cannot be achieved quickly and decisively rather through a continuous cyclical process. TTM postulates that individuals have to move through six adjacent stages of change termed as precontemplation (individuals have no intentions to change within next 6 months), contemplation (individuals have intentions to change within next 6 months), preparation (individuals are ready to change within next 30 days), action (individuals successfully change and continue to keep new behaviour for next 6 months), maintenance (individuals successfully sustain new behaviour for next 6 months), and termination (individuals have no intentions to return back to old behaviour at any cost) stages. Interestingly, each stage of change uses different intervention strategies that are most effective in moving a person to next stage. Here, researcher concludes that willingness to change and readiness to change are the basic propositions of TTM.

TTM is a model rather than a theory. Therefore, different behavioral theories and constructs can be applied to various stages of the model where they may be most effective. Moreover, this model integrates the most powerful principles and processes of change from leading theories of counselling and behavior change. Hence, researcher believes that bullying incidence exhibited by the bullies can effectively be reduced by using these anti- bullying interventions. Reduction in workplace bullying incidence would ultimately, create a motivating work environment which would prove to be a stimulating factor in 19

achieving organizational goals and objectives. These anti-bullying tertiary interventions would provide organizations a starting point beyond which they can keep a proper check and balance on bullying incidence without time-wasting mere blame game. They would effectively say goodbye to past and welcome to bright future in a resultant win-win situation. That is why this model is also known as “Stages of Change Model” due to its effectiveness to change various types of negative behaviors by enabling people to quit those behaviors on their own.

On the other hand, this study provides organizations a sponge (emotional intelligence) against workplace bullying incidence. Being a sponge, emotional intelligence mitigates negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims. This study not only has proved emotional intelligence as a learnable skill but also has enhanced existing level of EI in victims of workplace bullying. Hence, organizations have a great way to deal ever-spreading bullying problem in workplace environment. Besides, participants of this study are also major beneficiaries who have been a part of emotional intelligence training interventions. Enhanced level of emotional intelligence would definitely help them to manage success in their personal and professional lives.

1.10.3. Research Design Significance

This study has used pretest-posttest experimental design to check effectiveness of tertiary stage interventions developed & implemented for bullies and emotional intelligence training & coaching interventions implemented to victims. Anti-bullying interventions were developed by using The Transtheoretical Model (TTM). This model integrates powerful principles and processes of change from leading theories of counselling and behavior change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska, DiClemente & Norcross, 1992a; Evers et al., 2007; Prochaska, 2013). TTM is an integrative, biopsychosocial model to conceptualize the process of intentional behavior change that seeks to include and integrate key constructs from other theories into a comprehensive theory of change. As self-efficacy and resilience are central propositions of this model, it theorizes that all individuals can change their behaviors if they have belief that change would bring positive outcomes for them. TTM can be applied to a variety of behaviors, populations, and settings such as treatment settings; intervention development and implementation settings; prevention and policy-making settings. TTM has been used by most of the professionals around the world. That is why, researcher has used TTM by 20

realizing the fact that other models exclusively focus on only some certain dimensions of change whereas TTM focus on overall aspects of behavior by providing a holistic approach. As desired by Lipschitz et al. (2018), researcher has already used decisional balance and self-efficacy measures as complementary parts to develop anti-bullying interventions. This adds value to the field of The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) as a measure of tertiary stage anti-bullying interventions.

Another methodological problem with the studies of workplace bullying is the appropriateness of methods used to measure the phenomenon. Most of previous published studies have used either self-labelling approach or behavioural experience approach of survey research to identify, quantify, and develop anti-bullying interventions (Adams, 2014; Agervold, 2007; Baillien, et al., 2009; Brodsky, 1976; Brown & Duffy, 2018; Dormann & Griffin, 2015; Einarsen & Hoel, 2001; Einarsen, et al., 2009; Einarsen, et al., 2010; Einarsen et al., 2017; Felblinger, 2008; Garthus-Niegel et al., 2016; Harvey & Keashly, 2003; Hoel & Faragher, 2004; Hurley et al., 2016; Lewis, 2004; Lewis, Sheehan & Davies, 2008; Liefooghe & Davey, 2003; Loerbroks et al., 2015; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2001; Namie & Namie, 2018a; Namie & Namie, 2018b; Nielsen, Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2010; Nielsen et al., 2012; Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011;Notelaers et al., 2003; Preacher & Kelley, 2011; Rayner, 1997; Salin, 2003b; Solberg & Olweus, 2003; Spurgeon, 2003; Walsh, 2018). This significantly affects exact identification and assessment of bullying and development of appropriate anti-bullying interventions. This study has used experiments to overcome methodological weaknesses in devising anti- bullying interventions. Longitudinal nature of this study has also addressed flaws of cross sectional data as desired (Abdulsalam, Daihani & Francis, 2017; Trépanier et al., 2016).

Current study has also contributed in checking effectiveness of emotional intelligence interventions with longitudinal research design along with its positive impact on employee performance (Baldwin, Kevin Ford & Blume, 2017; Goleman, 2001; Luthans, 2002; Miao et al., 2017, Samiuddin et al., 2017; Zeidner & Matthews, 2017). This study not reported any evidence of workplace bullying without credibility as desired by various scholars (Beatty, Huselid & Schneier 2003; Murphy & Zandvakili 2000; Pfeffer & Sutton 2006).

Regardless of the biggest weakness of non-availability of a uniform workplace bullying measurement, researcher has sought guidance from previous studies (Notelaers et al., 2006; Einarsen et al., 2009; Nielsen et al., 2010) which already have worked in this 21

dimension. The researcher has not used self-assessment measurement method which is based on a deﬁnition of bullying provided to them because the respondents provide their own perceptions about bullying, report lower rates of bullying incidence due to formal positions of power of the bullies, face problem of recalling or memory biases and distortions, conﬁdentiality issues. Rather, he has used operational, behavior or criterion- based (more objective in nature) method by using most common instrument of Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R). This has provided him advantage of avoiding respondents’ negative bias of bullies or victims. Hence, researcher expects great methodological advancement in the concerned area.

1.11. DELIMITATIONS OF STUDY

There are various limitations and constraints which have hindered researcher from expanding scope of current research study. Therefore, researcher delimited this study according to the constraints of access, time and financial resources. He took employee performance as the only resultant variable of workplace bullying. This decision was made on the basis of importance of employee performance to organizations. He has taken emotional intelligence as sole moderating variable in relationship of workplace bullying and employee performance. This decision is based on the notion that emotional intelligence is considered as the most desired skill in job incumbents at any level in the current era. Moreover, researcher provided only multiple-choice questions (MCQs) instead of open ended questions in all measurement scales in order to provide an ease to his respondents.

On one hand, researcher used The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of behavior modification to treat bullies where he had provided tertiary level (post bullying stage) anti-bullying interventions for six months. On the other hand, due to associated costs, researcher has accessed ability model of EI where four skills of emotional intelligence are provided in the registered version of emotional intelligence provided in EI Appraisal-Me Edition Booklet by Bradberry & Greaves, (2009).

Researcher chose only big private healthcare organization as he could not handle more organizations when experiments are concerned. Researcher chose non-randomized respondents in experiments due to non-availability and unwillingness of respondents for being participant. Especially in anti-bullying interventions due to prevailing negative perceptions about bullies. 22

1.12. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

Researcher concludes that bullying is a serious stressor that occurs at workplace in the organizations. It may bear any form of verbal, social and physical aggression. However, it creates negative results for the targets especially deterioratation in their employee performance. Hence, reduction in this incidence becomes necessary for the organizations to create healthy environment in workplace that can support employees to show higher levels of employee performance. TTM is an excellent model being used by the top behaviorists to modify negative behaviors. That is why researcher also believed that TTM would also be proved effective in reducing the incidence of workplace bullying. On the contrary, researcher believed that emotional intelligence, as an ablity of a person to positively understand own emotions and emotions of other people and consequently utilize this understanding in beneficial way, would enable victims to absorb negative effects of workplace bullying on their performance. As a result, their performance would not be affected by bullying behaviors to a great extent. Hence, individual employee performance of the victims would not be affected and consequently overall organizational performance would also be enhanced.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. INTRODUCTION

There is an ever-growing concern in the business community and the academia about the workplace environment which contributes positively in the performance of employees and organizations (Brown & Leigh, 1996). A healthy environment within the organization brings positive results for organizations including but not limited to decreased employee turnover; decreased absenteeism rate; decreased stress; better change management; increased creativity; increased productivity; high morale; better wellness; decreased conflicts; increased job satisfaction; positive social image of the organization; better employee performance; and enhanced organizational performance (Bakker, 2010; Brown & Leigh, 1996; Chan, 2010; Froman, 2010; Glomb et al., 2011; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985). Some of the significant characteristics of healthy work environment are; healthy social interaction; least occupational stress; motivating leadership style, job autonomy; rich organizational culture; and better human resource management practices. On the contrary, all types of negative behaviors deteriorate healthy workplace environment.

Robinson & Bennett (1995) provided a very important framework to analyze negative workplace behaviors that may affect the performance of employees and organizations by dividing them into two types; minor negative behaviors and most aggressive behaviors. The category of minor negative workplace behaviors includes; nepotism, blaming, harassing, gossiping, favoritism, talking excessively, leaving work earlier, wasting organizational resources, and working at abnormal pace. On the other hand, the category of most aggressive behaviors includes; bullying, damaging workplace property, stealing, verbal abusing, stealing from coworkers, threatening coworkers, harassment, propaganda, spreading misinformation, and accepting kickbacks. It is important to note that the above workplace behaviors would not only affect the performance and behavior of coworkers but they were also a serious threat to organizations. As bullying is a type of most aggressive negative behaviors at workplace, it is a serious internal threat to employees and the organizations that may damage their resources, assets, and capabilities leaving them vulnerable to external threats. The literature of workplace aggressive behaviors also analyzes them in two perspectives;

23 24

intensity and frequency of negative behaviors. If we use this approach of analyzing negative behaviors at workplace, workplace bullying is a frequent negative behavior and also repetitive in nature that that evoke negative or counterproductive workplace behaviors (Lee & Brotheridge, 2006). They argued that it was usually difficult to clearly define the indirect negative effects of bullying but they did exist in real that might affect the performance of employees and organizations.

According to Neuman & Baron (2005), aggression is one of the most widely observed workplace bullying behavior but it is significantly different from other forms of bullying like anger and revenge etc. One of the most common forms of aggression is incivility. It is actually a low level of aggression that results in other intense forms of aggression (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). This intensity of different workplace behaviors is usually quantified on a scale of 1-10. Incivility is usually rate as ‘1-3’ on this intensity scale that may lead to more intense aggressive behaviors (Namie, 2007). Namie states that incivility is the least intense form of bullying rated from 1-3 while mild to severe workplace behaviors range from 4 to 9. The highest rating for 10 is usually reserved for battery and homicide that completely disrupts the workplace. If an employee is harming other employees or organization with his/her behavior then it can be classified as workplace bullying (Fox & Spector, 2005); Macgregor, Wathen & MacQuarrie, 2016; Nielsen, Indregard & Øverland, 2016). Workplace bullying includes all types of disruptive behaviors that can be used to affect the work performance of other employees (Gardner & Johnson, 2001); Keller, Budin & Allie, 2016). It also includes deviance, revenge, aggression, anger, and non-cooperation with employees to affect their work related performance (Bakker, 2010; Brown & Leigh, 1996; Chan, 2010; Froman, 2010; Glomb et al., 2011; Hurley et al., 2016; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; McCormack et al., 2014; Oladapo & Banks, 2013; Sackett et al., 2006; Schutte & Loi, 2014).

From the above analysis of negative workplace behaviors, the researcher concludes that workplace bullying is a type of most aggressive workplace behavior which interrupts healthy workplace environment in the organizations. Due to it significant impact on employees’ well-being and their job related behaviors and organizational outcomes, there has been an increasing interest and attention in workplace bullying since 1990s. Hence, the study of workplace bullying is highly recommended due to its wide prevalence in the organizations and its detrimental effects on employee well-being (Høgh et al., 2011). According to Giga et al., (2008) the costs of workplace bullying are high in the 25

organizations. The previous studies suggest the ways to reduce the incidence of workplace bullying such as supervisory support (Zapf et al., 1996), correcting the perception about the cost of bullying among employees (Salin, 2003), role of senior management in making anti-bullying policy (Rayner & McIvor, 2008) and control on the laissez-faire management styles (Hoel et al., 2010). However, the management has failed to control the prevalence of workplace bullying and its negative effects on employees due to various legal, moral and procedural limitations. It is the responsibility of every member of an organization to contribute their efforts in eliminating bullying incidents (Riley et al., 2014). This may be due to the position of bullies, application of traditional HR tools for conflict resolution or mediation. So, a clear understanding of workplace bullying, types of bullying incidents and behaviors, and its impacts on employee and organizational performance is necessary. Moreover, management can intervene to reduce workplace bullying incidents and mitigate its impact on employee and organizational performance (Kemp, 2014; McCormack et al., 2014; Oladapo & Banks, 2013; Riley et al., 2014).

2.2. WORKPLACE BULLYING

Workplace bullying occurs when an employee experiences a persistent pattern of mistreatment from others in the workplace that causes harm (Rayner & Keashley, 2005). Workplace bullying can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, physical abuse and humiliation. This type of workplace aggression is particularly difficult because, unlike the typical forms of school bullying, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. Bullying in the workplace is, in the majority of cases, reported as having been perpetrated by someone in authority over the target. However, bullies can also be peers, and on occasion can be subordinates (Rayner & Cooper, 2006). Recent research (2010) has also investigated the impact of the larger organizational context on bullying as well as the group-level processes that impact on the incidence, and maintenance of bullying behaviour (Ramsay, Troth & Branch, 2011). Bullying can be covert or overt. It may be missed by superiors or known by many throughout the organization. Negative effects are not limited to the targeted individuals, and may lead to a decline in employee morale and a change in organizational culture.

While defining workplace bullying, there is no universal definition of workplace bullying in literature. Namie (2007) argues that workplace bullying is actually a process that starts with incivility, transforms in bullying, and finally ends up as violence. Martucci 26

& Sinatra (2009) highlighted one main disadvantage of inconsistent definitions of workplace bullying. They argued that no federal legislation existed to prevent workplace bullying due to lack of consistent definitions in the literature. One of the interesting points to highlight the inconsistency of definitions was presented by Bartlett & Bartlett (2011). They wrote that keywords used to define workplace bullying in literature review include: source of power, unwelcome, self-defense, negative acts, and intentions to harm others which highlight that workplace bullying has not been effectively defined in literature.

Olweus (1991) defines workplace bullying as repeated unwanted and potentially harmful behaviors directed at one or more workers, by one or more members of an organization, where the target has difficulty in defending himself/ herself against these acts. Workplace bullying is a gradually escalating process and not an either-or phenomenon (Einarsen et al., 2011; Einarsen & Skogstad, 1996). Since the 1990’s, bullying has been documented as a serious and widespread work environment problem (Hogh, Mikkelsen & Hansen, 2011), and its prevalence in the organizations (Zapf et al., 2011) and negative effects on employee performance (Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Kemp, 2014; McCormack et al., 2014; Oladapo & Banks, 2013; Salin et al., 2014; Woodrow & Guest, 2014). Bowling and Beehr (2006) included eccentricities of bully, victim and work environment as three major grounds of bullying happending at workplace. The incidence of workplace bullying takes account of abusive/insulting/offensive language or comments, unjustified criticism or complaints, deliberate and continuous exclusion of 27

employee from some significant work activities, withholding important information that are mandatory to perform effectively at workplace, setting unreasonable targets and deadlines, giving setting tasks that below/above the level of an employee, denying access to important information, bad supervision, poor consultation, providing inadequate resources to detriment performance, spreading rumours and misinformation, abrubtly shuffling work arrangements, creating inconveniences and providing unnecessary scrutiny for an employee. According to Lee and Lovell (2014), some logically correct strategies and mere single incident of snappish behaviour exhibited to obtain effectiveness in workplace could not be termed as workplace bullying. However, these single incidents ought not to be ignored because they might eventually arouse actual workplace bullying.

The above discussion highlights that workplace bullying has been viewed from different perspectives in the literature. According to Bartlett & Bartlett (2011), some studies view workplace bullying as unwelcomed negative acts that could be verbal, physical, and psychological actions. Such negative acts may also include criticizing and insulting coworkers to make them afraid, depressed, and vulnerable. Also, other studies view workplace bullying are repeated acts which are not easy to be defended by targets of bullying. Two important characteristics of all types of negative behaviors cited in literature; repetition and frequency are common in all the actions classified as workplace bullying. Bartlett & Bartlett (2011) define workplace bullying as a frequent negative action that involves an improper balance of power between the perpetrator and victim causing subjective negative effects on victim’s behavior making it counterproductive for the organization. They also quoted a study to argue that this element of subjectivity to classify an action of workplace bullying depends on how individuals view the behavior and effect of that behavior. They nominated bully as instigator while they nominated the victim as target.

There are four important facets of workplace bullying; frequency, intensity, duration, and power disparity (Agervold, 2007; Einarsen, 1999; Leymann, 1990). First, workplace bullying includes negative acts that occur at least once in a week (Mikkelsen, 2001; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002). Second, workplace bullying encompasses a wide range of negative which can bring change in the victims’ behavior (Leymann, 1990; Agervold, 2007; Einarsen et al., 2009). Third, negative acts continue to triumph for a period of minimum six months (Einarsen, 2000a; Einarsen, 2000b; Hoel et al., 2001). Fourth, there is real or perceived power difference between the bully and the victim that 28

makes victims compromised, highly vulnerable and incapable to defend those acts (Hodson et al., 2006). Thus, workplace bullying can be defined as intentional negative acts exhibited on weekly basis, have intense influence on victim’s behavior, continue for minimum time period of six months, and real or perceived power difference between the bully and the victim which ignites existence of negative acts. On the basis of the facets of workplace bullying described above, it is a tough piece of work to notice such workplace bullying this four-stage process without proper examination and evaluation skills.

Another very important definition provided by U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources (2011) states bullying as unwanted and aggressive behavior of the people that involves a real or perceived imbalance of power. Bullying is a repeated negative behavior repeated over time. It also includes the negative behavior that has the potential to be repeated over time. There are two core dimensions of the bullying behavior; imbalance of power, and repetition. First, the imbalance of power induces people to bully others due to their proportionate greater physical and/or positional strength. Such imbalances may change during various situations. Second, bullying behaviors happen more than once or have the potential to happen more than once. Hence, bullying includes all unwanted and aggressive which are repeated over time such as creating threats, spreading rumors, attacking someone physically or verbally, and excluding someone from a group on purpose. Both the bully and victims may have serious and lasting problems. According to the definition, workplace bullying includes but is not limited to abusing, insulting, commenting vulgarily, criticing, deliberately excluding from important activities, concealing important information, making unreasonable deadlines with abrupt changes in timelines and deadlines, unreasonably assigning job taks that are not up to the level of that employee (below/beyond the level), refusing to provide access to important work related information, supervising with abusive language, providing inadequate resources so that an employee would fail in accomplishing job taks, throwing misinformation and rumors into the workplace, sequencing work arrangements to disturb an employee, refusing leaves, creating inconveniences, and excessively scrutinizing jobs taks of an employee. However, we cannot include effective workplace management into the domain of workplace bullying nor a mere single negative incidence can be treated as workplace bulying (Lee & Lovell, 2014).

After comprehensive review of related literature discussed above, the researcher concludes that workplace bullying is the involvement in the negative behaviors regular, 29

consistent and repeated over a period of time which create harassment, offence, workplace retaliation, social isolation and retaliation which negatively affect organizational healthy workplace environment (McCormack et al., 2014). These behaviors may be exhibited by the employers, managers, boss, colleagues, or subordinates (Branch et al., 2013). Salin (2003) argued that repetitive unfavorable, unreasonable and inappropriate treatment of an employee in order to intimidate, outrage, degrade or humiliate him/her. She further argued that workplace bullying created risks againsts physical, emotional and social wellbeing of the target employees. Researcher agreed with Salin (2003) and Woodrow and Guest (2014) and treated all types of intended/unintended negative behaviors that are instigated from mere belittling comments to physical aggression and even victimization publically. Hence, researcher colcluded that all negative behaviors would be treated in the category of bullying when they were consisten, unreasonable and creating risk to psychosocial well being of an employee.

2.3. TYPES OF WORKPLACE BULLYING

In the literature, the classification of workplace bullying is provided by various researchers with reference to various points of reference. According to Meglich-Sespico, Faley, & Knapp (2007), there are three types of workplace bullying that is: work related, physical, and psychological. Another important classification of workplace bullying is provided by Bartlett & Bartlett (2011). They classify workplace bullying in three major dimensions; work related bullying, personal bullying, and/or physical/threatening bullying which seems identical to the classification of Meglich-Sespico et al. (2007). There are different types of work related bullying that is highlighted by literature which are: workload related bullying, work process related bullying, and evaluation and advancement related bullying. Samnani & Singh (2016) described work overload as one kind of work related bullying. In order to disrupt the workplace behavior of coworkers, a supervisor or fellow employee become an instigator by increasing the workload of employees to unrealistic levels. In such cases, work overload for targets is achieved by setting unrealistic targets or goals if the supervisor is the instigator. In case of a coworker, it may include delaying tasks to affect the work of a coworker. Also, in order to increase workload, an instigator may misrepresent information to confuse the target. Other tactics to increase workload could be: removing responsibility, delegation of menial tasks, and refusing leave. 30

It is important to note that positional power of a person can create opportunities for him/her to become an instigator. In most of the work-related bullying cases, supervisors or managers are found to be instigators making unethical use of their positional powers (Foster & Scott, 2015). Foster & Scott (2015) argue that work process are also commonly exploited to bully the targets. This kind of bullying can be multidirectional between managers, subordinates, and coworkers. One of the most common form of such bullying is overruling decisions of coworkers while stifling their opinions (Einarsen, 2000a; Einarsen, 2000b; Simpson & Cohen, 2004; Vartia, 2001). Also, instigators are also found to be withholding information to affect the work performance of targets (Baillien et al., 2009; Gardner & Johnson, 2001). Sometimes, instigators (usually supervisors) unjustly control organizational resources to affect the work performance and behavior of targets (Fox & Stallworth, 2006; Hutchinson, Wilkes, Vickers, & Jackson, 2008). Also, some coworkers make unethical use of their powers and status to generate professional attacks on targets (Foster & Scott, 2015).

The third way that is used by instigators for bullying is manipulating evaluation and advancement of coworkers (Clark, Barbosa-Leiker, Gill, & Nguyen, 2015). This is not multidirectional like work process because supervisor is usually the instigator and subordinate is the target in such kind of bullying (Beach, 2015). It involves improper or biased performance evaluation of subordinates, manipulating key performance indicators, criticizing unfairly, favoritism, and creating artificial barriers to halt career growth of subordinates (Ghosh, Reio Jr, & Bang, 2013). The intensity of this kind of bullying depends on the position and power of supervisor (Peng, Schaubroeck, & Li, 2014). In extreme cases, this kind of bullying leads to workplace violence (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011).

The second category of bullying is personal bullying (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). It involves psychological attacks that could be direct or indirect. In such kind of bullying, an instigator may cause psychological harm to victims with direct and indirect interaction (Baillien et al., 2009). The most commonly found kind of indirect bullying is ignoring coworkers (Clark, Barbosa-Leiker, Gill, & Nguyen, 2015). This is usually done by excluding and isolating coworkers that makes them feel that they are being ignored by instigator (Fox & Stallworth, 2006). In some cases, coworkers may not respond in communications to affect the workplace behavior of targets (Beach, 2015). For example, in some cases, instigators may not answer phone calls, messages, and/or emails of targets 31

for bullying. Also, other common forms of indirect bullying involve gossips, false accusations, and spreading lies about coworkers (Fox & Stallworth, 2006).

Contrary to indirect bullying, instigators may direct impact the workplace behavior of coworkers with direct interactions (Vartia, 2001). The examples of direct actions include: harassing and threatening coworkers by making unethical use of positional power. Direct bullying is usually caused by supervisors and it involves acts of verbal abuse, interrupting work, and discouraging remarks for targets (Peng et al., 2014). It also involves discouraging comments, insulting jokes, and negative body language towards victims or targets. Such forms of direct bullying can lead to severe workplace situations such as conflicts and violence. In case of threats, manipulation, and intimidations, targets may respond with violence leading to severe consequences (Samnani & Singh, 2015).

Another very important classification of workplace bullying is provided by U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources (2011) which categorizes bullying into three broader categories of bullying. Those categories include verbal bullying, social bullying and physical bullying. The category of verbal bullying is consisted of all negative behaviors exhibited through verbal mode (saying or writing) such as teasing, name- calling, passing inappropriate sexual comments, taunting and threatening to cause harm. In social bullying, or relational bullying, it involves all types of bullying behaviors which damage victims socially. These negative behaviors are aimed at damaging an employee’s reputation and/or relationships. Moreover, acts of intentlfully leaving a person so that he/she might be damaged socially, spreading rumours and telling others to “not to be friends” with the victim, and embarrassing someone publically. In physical bullying a person hits/pushed and/shoves the target by the means of breaking victim’s body and/or possessions such as hitting, kicking, pinching, spitting, tripping and pushing.

2.4. WHY PEOPLE BULLY?

It is not easy to answer why people bully in organizations. One of the most commonly held opinions is that it depends on the personality traits of instigator/the bullying person (Clark et al., 2015). This commonly held opinion does not cover all the reasons but only one aspect of workplace bullying. There is a social context associated with workplace bullying as it does not happen in vacuum. Workplace bullying always happen in the social context of an organization where employees interact with each other as teams or groups. During such relationships, interpersonal conflicts can become the 32

reason for workplace bullying. One of the most famous and common examples of such conflicts is professional jealousy. In professional jealousy, an employee tries to disrupt the performance of target to decrease their work productivity and performance (Clark et al., 2015).

In this section, some of the primary reasons for increasing incidents of workplace bullying will be discussed. There are three main predictors of workplace bullying; instigator, target, and situation. The instigator is often blamed to bully coworkers because of his/her personality traits. It is believed that the instigator is usually narcissist in nature that encourages him/her to bully his fellows (Hauge, et al., 2011; Penney & Spector, 2002). Other commonly discussed traits of instigator is that they have anger issues, desire for vengeance, and anxiety encouraging them to engage in bullying (Hershcovis, et al., 2007; Douglas & Martinko, 2001; Fox & Spector, 1999). Hauge, et al. (2011) made an interesting claim that most of the instigators have a history of being a target of workplace bullying. There is also some support in literature regarding this concept (Ferris et al., 2011). Sometimes, instigator has a bad experience of being a target of workplace bullying that affects his/her self-esteem (Ferris, Spence, Brown, & Heller, 2012). As a result, due to low self-esteem, they start bullying others to overcome their psychological pressures and state. Also, sometimes, core evaluations of a person make them perceive their self- esteem to be low. They respond by becoming instigators to suppress their inferiority complex (Ferris et al., 2011; Ferris et al., 2012).

Apart from personality traits, literature studies have shown that contextual factors also play an important role in making a person an instigator. Hershcovis, et al. (2007) argue that some studies have claim that personality traits have a minimal effect on making a person an instigator while the major part is played by contextual factors. Personality traits act merely as reactants or fuel to the fire that just make the person more reactive in situations (Hershcovis et al., 2007). It is interesting to note that majority of the systems developed in organizations are centered on personality traits. In the current era, these systems are being criticized for their effectiveness especially when studies have found that situational factors are more critical in bullying relative to personality traits (Einarsen & Nielsen, 2015). Secondly, there are different reasons for which such systems are questioned because people do not honestly answer questions about personality traits. These traits can only be observed through their behavior (Clark et al., 2015). Therefore, the focus of such correctional programs is wrong as they cannot be realistic in their 33

evaluations. As personality traits play a little part, some persons can be mistakenly selected as potential instigators of future that would waste efforts and organizational resources (Ferris et al., 2012). Apart from that, these organizations fail to identify their environment or culture that is an important reasons for workplace bullying. More interestingly, these organizations would have no control over personality traits but they do have control over their culture and environment (Hutchinson, Wilkes, Vickers, & Jackson, 2008). Therefore, by focusing on situation, contexts, and cultures (that can also be controlled), employees can be prevented from becoming instigators (Maiuro, 2015).

The second most important reason for workplace bullying is personality traits and context surrounding the target. In the book of Olweus (1978), he argues that some employees having specific personality traits are likely to become the victims of workplace bullying relative to other employees. Several research studies have also found those specific traits that could make an employee a potential target of workplace bullying. More interestingly, targets have found to have similar personality traits which the instigator have such as anger issues, anxiety, and negative affectivity, and tendency to disagree or criticize (Hershcovis, Reich, Parker, & Bozeman, 2012; Vie, Glasø, & Einarsen, 2010; Tepper, Duffy, Henle, & Lambert, 2006; Milam, Spitzmueller, & Penney, 2009). Due to such traits, they often come up in a contradiction or conflict with other employees who may respond with workplace bullying. These traits are also common in instigators. By focusing on the pattern of discussion, it would not be difficult to guess that why targets transform in instigators in future as they have common personality traits with instigators and they do the same to satisfy their personality needs like instigators had done before them.

Some other common traits of victims include conscientiousness and cognitive ability (Kim & Glomb, 2010; Lind, Glasø, Pallesen, & Einarsen, 2009). This means that targets are usually victims of desire of punishment of instigators due to their overly productive performance. There are also certain behaviors instead of traits that increase the likelihood of an employee to become a target. According to Tepper et al. (2006), supervisors always perceive that they are superior to their subordinates. This perception and difference raise relationship conflicts between the supervisor and subordinates. For example, supervisors exercise positional power to maintain their superiority or difference that may result in reactive behavior of subordinates. In this reactive behavior, supervisor may end up as instigator while subordinate as target. They also argue that most of the supervisors perceive their subordinates to be low performers. If these subordinates start 34

performing high, a conflict arises when supervisors try to bully them to affect their work performance. This is not the case in all situations but, sometimes, a low performing subordinate can also become the victim of bullying because a supervisor may criticize to motivate him/her and this criticism can be taken as negative by target. In this case, a supervisor becomes an instigator unwillingly. According to Hershcovis & Rafferty (2012), both the instigator and targets have aggressive behaviors in their work relationships. Therefore, characteristics and behaviors of both the parties become the reason for workplace bullying. It means that those situations that may generate aggressive behavior as per traits of both the parties must be controlled to avoid workplace bullying. For example, if over-production can be reason for bullying, supervisors must be trained and mentored to avoid abusive behaviors.

The largest reason for workplace bullying is situational factors and predictors. These situational factors encourage personality traits to add aggression to the behavior of instigator and factor. These situation constraints are the more important predictor of workplace bullying that affect work performance of employees (Bowling & Beehr, 2006). Most of the times, stressful situations create work bullying behavior in specific personalities. For example, one of the major reasons for workplace bullying is job insecurity. Research studies have found that sense of job insecurity encourage instigators to engage in workplace bullying the make the jobs of coworkers insecure too (De Cuyper, Baillien, & De Witte, 2009). Moreover, workload and little job autonomy are also connected with the aggressive behaviors among instigator and target (Baillien, De Cuyper, & De Witte, 2011). Bowling & Beehr (2006) write that different studies with meta-analytic findings found that role ambiguity, role confusion, high work constraints, and low autonomy are situational factors that cause workplace bullying. More interestingly, these found that these situational factors are higher among targets rather than non-targets. It is because targets are mostly facing psychological stress and they start taking constructive criticism non-targets as workplace bullying. This is another situation where non-targets unwillingly engage in workplace bullying that may affect the job performance of targets.

According to Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen (2007), the direction of these situational factors ambiguous that how these factors actually affect the minds of targets and instigators. One of the interesting factors that is found in studies contributing to workplace bullying is workplace boredom (Bruursema, Kessler, & Spector, 2011). In some cases, 35

extreme work stress creates boredom among employees. They start to think that management is intentionally keeping them busy. As a result, they start causing disruptions in work to bully their managers and supervisors. Therefore, in order to avoid this situational workplace bullying, managers are recommended to sustain a healthy balance and distribution of workload among employees to keep it interested. Bruursema et al. (2011) also recommended that job rotation can be an effective solution to overcome workplace boredom.

One of the situational elements to increase workplace bullying is leadership style prevailing in the organization. For example, a number of studies claimed that targets called their managers as ‘non-charismatic’ leaders who became instigators (Hepworth & Towler, 2004). Due to their ‘non-charismatic’ nature, these instigators become more abusive (Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007) and less fair (Hauge et al., 2011). More interestingly, leaders use non-contingent styles of punishment to improve employee productivity. This has been taken as bullying by several employees (Bowling & Beehr, 2006). Also, in some organizations, laissez faire style of leadership is deployed to improve work flexibility but employees start taking it as ‘leadership has left them alone to do their work so that they make mistakes and get punished in return’ (Hauge et al., 2007). This is a matter of perception in which a specific leadership situation becomes a workplace bullying situation containing unintentional instigators and targets.

Another important situational factor causing bullying is organizational injustice in workplace (Hershcovis, et al., 2007). Three kinds of organizational justice include: (i) interpersonal justice, (ii) procedural justice, and (iii) distributive justice. Interpersonal justice relates to quality of interpersonal treatment when managers engage in decision making process. Procedural justice relates to workplace procedures and distributive justice relates to the fairness of decisions, task allocations, and actual outcomes decided by managers. Any, a combination or all of these kinds may become a reason for workplace bullying. According to Hershcovis, et al. (2007), interpersonal justice has the most significant impact on workplace aggression relative to other two kinds of organizational justice because the primary concern of employees is respect & dignity and they rarely care about outcomes and decisions. Therefore, bullying behavior can be the result of interpersonal conflicts which may affect dignity and respect. Moreover, organizations with less resources, ineffective leaders, and high demands are more likely to have workplace bullying. 36

2.5. PREVALENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING

Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013; Høgh et al., 2011; Zapf et al., 2011). For some reasons, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80% of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013). Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the organizational structure and in pursuing goals. Research reveals that such negative behaviors prevail universally in working life (Nielsen, et al., in press) and is labelled with different names such as ‘harassment’ (Brodsky, 1976; Vartia, 1993; Björkqvist, Österman & Hjelt‐Bäck, 1994), ‘scape goating’ (Thylefors, 1987) ‘emotional abuse’ (Keashly, 1998; Keashly & Jagatic, 2003), ‘mobbing’ (Matthiesen, Raknes, & Røkkum, 1989), ‘health endangering leadership’ (Kile, 1990), ‘mobbing/ psychological terror’ (Leymann, 1990), ‘bullying’ (Adams, 2014), ‘ostracism’ (Williams & Sommer, 1997), ‘abusive supervision’ (Tepper, 2000), ‘victimisation’ (Aquino, 2000), ‘incivility’ (Blau & Andersson, 2005; Cortina, Magley, Williams, & Langhout, 2001), bullying (Einarsen et al., 1994; Einarsen, 2000a; Einarsen, 2000b; Einarsen et al., 2003; Hoel & Cooper, 2000; Zapf & Gross, 2001; Olweus, 1993, 2010) and workplace bullying (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006; Einarsen et al., 2010).

Workplace bullying prevails almost in all types of organizations. However, repoting of bullying has been much higher in medical profession than others. Literature of workplace bulliyng has argued that there arconservative traditional hierarchical structures in medical profession that have induced stakeholders (teachers/seniors) to involve in bullying behaviors and making juniors and students targets of their bulying. The perpetraors are attracted towards caring professions because there are more opportunities to ehibit bullying behaviors due to significant power disparity (Field, 2002). Such incidence was started to report by JAMA study in 1990 where pediatrician Henry K. Silver reported that 46.4 percent of medical students were abused by their seniors and/or teachers at some point and this intensity was increased in case of significant power disparity to a higher percentage of 8.6 (Knapp et al., 2014). The nursing organization workplace has been identified as one in which workplace bullying occurs quite frequently (Hutchinson et al., 2008; Porter-O’Grady & Malloch, 2008). It is thought that relational 37

aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossiping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied amongst girls but not so much amongst adult women (Dellasega, 2009; Richards & Edwards, 2008).

Hypothesis 1: Bullying incidence prevails in health care sector of Pakistan

2.6. IMPACT OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON ORGANIZATIONS

Workplace bullying is an important type of toxic behavior which affects healthy workplace environment negatively (Schutte & Loi, 2014). It is counterproductive for the organization in general and for the target in specific. In general, it may harm the human resource effectiveness of organizations by affecting productivity of employees (Kwan, Tuckey, & Dollard, 2016). Also, due to increased workplace issues, legal costs for the employers are increased (McGee & Byington, 2016). Ariza-Montes et al. (2014) argue that workplace bullying incidents may be initiated by management or supervisors or other employees irrespective of their hierarchical level. In the incidence of bullying, the managers and employees are left helpless by creating tougher employment conditions for them. Interestingly, the bullies did not perceive that they had been practicing their organizations’ “standard practices”. Workplace bullying affects the mental and psychological health of targets who may need counseling to recover (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). Therefore, through workplace bullying, healthcare costs for an organization are increased. It should be noted that emotionally intelligent employees cannot be bullied easily. In case of frequent incidents of bullying, organizations focus on improving the morale and emotional intelligence of employees that may lead to excessive training cost burdens on employers (Foster & Scott, 2015). Also, due to increased turnover caused by bullying, employers had to incur the significant costs of recruitment, selection, retaining, and retraining employees (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011).

Effects of workplace bullying encompass employees, organization and society. Studies (Hoel & Cooper, 2000, Sheehan, 1999; Speedy, 2006) reveal that workplace bullying brings direct financial costs by creating high rate of absenteeism, sick leave, decreased productivity, recruitment costs, payouts, counseling, rehiring and legal fees. Most of the times, 25% the victims leave the organization within three years (Rayner, 1997, 2000; Sasha-Corporation, January 2007). The victims start using various types of toxic drugs (Shannon et al., 2007), lack cooperation (Agervold, 2007), experience health issues even committing suicide (Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007), hostile physiological, 38

psychological, organizational, clinical symptoms (Baron & Neuman, 1996; Hoel & Cooper, 2000; Leymann, 1990; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002; Sheehan, 1999) and poor employee performance (McCormack et al., 2014; Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Woodrow & Guest, 2014; Riley et al., 2014).

There are different effects of workplace bullying on an organization. These are: culture, productivity, costs, image, and legislation. One of the most prominent impacts of workplace bullying is that it affects the productivity of organization (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). With bullying, absenteeism in the workplace is increased that affects productivity. Also, it negatively affects the morale of employees that have adverse effects on performance of targets (Hansen & Søndergaard, 2018). Several studies reported that targets are unable to meet their deadlines when bullying is executed. Also, there is a sharp increase of workplace errors due to workplace bullying (Baillien et al., 2009). This completely halts the innovation and creativity in the organization as targets are stuck in emotional and anger issues rather than focusing on their jobs (Simpson & Cohen, 2004).

Workplace bullying adds up significant costs for the organization. Employers have to incur significant costs to sustain the emotional and mental health of targets (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). These costs incur due to increased compensation claims by employees and increased demand for health plans for them (Johnson, 2009; Namie, 2007; Quine, 2001; Randle, Stevenson, & Grayling, 2007). Moreover, as morale of employee is affected, employers face significant employee turnover adding human capital costs for the organization (McGee & Byington, 2016). As a result, significant organizational resources are utilized to recruit, train, induce, and screen employees to fill up vacant positions (Einarsen & Nielsen, 2015). If workplace bullying is not tackled, the problem persists having a multiplier effect on organizational costs due to poor retention of employees (Maiuro, 2015).

Sometimes, culture of an organization plays an important role in arousing workplace bullying. There are two ways in which organizational culture can be the reason for workplace bullying. Firstly, an instigator may feel that organizational culture allows him/her to bully the target (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). In such situation, instigator make use of his/her positional power for bullying. It is interesting to note that organizational bullying in this case happens unintentionally. It is because leaders of an organization might unwillingly engaged in organizational bullying due to organizational culture and structure. Also, it becomes significantly difficult to overcome the incivility spirals that 39

are formulated by organizational culture. Such kind of bullying is common in firms with autocratic leadership style (Valentine, Fleischman, & Godkin, 2015). An organization having multiple layers of management and bureaucratic culture often experiences the first kind of bullying. This is one of the main reasons for which relationship of front end employees is weak with their managers and top leadership who are usually unwillingly or unintentionally engaged in bullying (Francioli et al., 2015). This results in low morale, ineffective teamwork, and weak organizational commitment in above mentioned organizations. Secondly, an instigator may manipulate or exploit weaknesses of an organizational culture to harm the targets. This case is common with organizations having weak cultures (Kwan et al., 2016).

Legally, workplace bullying may affect the work performance of an employee by harming his/her psychological health. His/her behavior is usually temporary depending upon the persistence of the problem (Gardner & Johnson, 2001). In some cases, organizations fire such employees that recover later in a short period of time. In such situations, those employees use legislative support and helpful to sue the employers regarding wrongful discharge (Einarsen & Nielsen, 2015). As a result, wrongful discharge lawsuits for employers are increased that have a negative effect on their brand positioning and organizational performance. A large number of similar cases have been recorded by studies where employers were sued against sexual harassment and discrimination charges by the targets or victims of bullying (Fox & Stallworth, 2006). It is because victims or targets fail to realize that they were actually victims of bullying and not of sexual harassments and discriminations. Also, no significant legal framework is available to screen or filter workplace bullying due to no concise definition of this phenomenon (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011).

Finally, brand identity and reputation of an organization comes at stake due to workplace bullying (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). Due to workplace bullying, employee performance is affected. As a result, low performing employees add little value to the organization making it impossible for it to reach organizational goals (Beach, 2015). As a result, competitive advantage of the firm is compromised leaving it vulnerable to competitive threats. Also, due to high employee turnover, trade secrets of an organization are unveiled to their competitors as employees are likely to work for competitors after leaving their ‘ex-employers’ (Foster & Scott, 2015). Moreover, high employee turnover and employee dissatisfaction are actually a bad image for the organization in the industry 40

that create negative associations with the brands (McGee & Byington, 2016). Customer loyalty and sophistication is increased when they know that the organization is struggling with its human capital (Peng et al., 2014). It ultimately gives an impression that the firm does not care for ‘humans’ and it would not care for its customers that are also humans (Simpson & Cohen, 2004). Therefore, customers start switching to competitors while competitive threats for the firm are worsened due to low creativity and productivity of employees (Samnani & Singh, 2015).

After the analysis of relevant literature, the resaercher summarizes the organizational impacts of workplace bullying in the table provided below:

Table 2.1: Organizational impacts of workplace bullying

Productivity Costs Culture Legal Reputation Declining Healthcare Lack of Discriminat Customer performance Costs Teamwork ion Charges Disloyalty Ineffective Need for Exploiting utilization of Wrongful Competitive advanced Organizational organizational Discharge Threats healthcare plans Climate resources Insufficient Sexual Negative Human creativity and Low Morale Harassment Brand Resource Costs innovation Charges Associations High Lack of Talent Loss Compensation Organizational Costs Commitment Critical

Mistakes

2.7. IMPACT OF WORKPLACE BULLYING ON VICTIMS

The effects of workplace bullying and responses by the victims may differ depending on the personal characteristics of the workers and the nature of a specific situation time (McCormack et al., 2014). However, usually the employees’ motivation and workplace performance and productivity are decreased time (McCormack et al., 2014). The victims experience de-motivation, hypertension, thoughts of suicide, distress, 41

disturbance in sleep, shaking confidence, lower self-esteem, hypertension, negative sensitivity about isolation, bad working relations, worsen relation with family & friends, increased burnout, higher intentions and actual turnovers in jobs, increased anxiety, increased absenteeism, increased violence and aggression, higher depression, physical illnesses, muscule strains, chronic headaches and digestion problems (Einarsen et al., 2011). Ariza-Montes et al. (2014) argue that workplace bullying incidents may be initiated by management or supervisors or other employees irrespective of their hierarchical level. In the incidence of bullying, the managers and employees are left helpless by creating tougher employment conditions for them. Interestingly, the bullies did not perceive that they had been practicing their organizations’ “standard practices”. Moreover, the victims may also guess that they were deserving bullying, they are embarrassed and reluctant to confront bullies due to some fears (Einarsen et al., 2011).

Usually, employees face four main kinds of effects of workplace bullying on employees that affect their job performance (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). They are: job dissatisfaction, safety concerns, fear, humiliation, reduced group cohesiveness, and job loss. All effects lead to low employee performance and incompetency to reach goals. Furthermore, Bartlett & Bartlett (2011) divided individual effects of bullying in three domains: work category, health category, and category of affective domain.

As far as the work is concerned, significantly large number of work related impacts have been recorded in literature. Due to workplace bullying, employee satisfaction is reduced causing disloyalty among employees (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Also, they like to remain absent from their jobs and they consider switching to competitors. Also, employees feel a burnout and they are unable to commit to their job responsibilities (Baillien et al., 2009). Also, studies recorded poor morale and declining productivity resulting in more work-related mistakes, improper work focus, and time wastage among employees (Clark et al., 2015). In this case, employees become more concerned in tackling the bullying rather than focusing on their jobs. As a result, the time that must be spent to reach job goals is spent in responding to bully (Fox & Stallworth, 2006). This also results in loss of organizational resources as employees might be using work resources to respond to bullying rather than using these resources to perform their job responsibilities (Neuman & Baron, 2005). This results is a significant decline in employee performance and productivity. As performance or productivity falls, employers start considering downsizing or firing employees (Peng et al., 2014). If employers do not 42

consider downsizing, employees are so dissatisfied that they start leaving their jobs to move to other companies or industries (Maiuro, 2015). Therefore, workplace bullying causes an irreparable work-related damage to individuals.

Gardner & Johnson (2001) also write that victims like to cut back hours on their job that results in income loss of individuals. Apart from income loss, their social relationships and work related relationships are impaired. It is because these employees are not performing their job responsibilities effectively while majority of the organizational projects are team-based where the whole team is held accountable for their performance (Samnani & Singh, 2015). In this case, non-performing employees affect the performance of the whole team that causes conflicts and clashes among coworkers (Namie, 2007). This impact becomes significant in longer run as interpersonal conflicts of individuals with coworkers and employers are increased (Samnani & Singh, 2015). Also, it becomes impossible to retain a bullied employee because of low job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Due to belong, an intolerance to criticism is developed among victims. When an employer tries to negotiate with victims, they take it as a criticism or bullying efforts resulting in interpersonal issues (Valentine et al., 2015).

The second most critical impact of workplace bullying is health impact that has a significant impact on work performance of individuals (Samnani & Singh, 2015). Workplace bullying is likely to impair the physical and mental health of targets. Primary health effects of bullying are emotional that ultimately results in physical health problems (Valentine et al., 2015). The first and foremost impact on victims is increased stress and depression. Some researchers like Gardner & Johnson (2001) and Einarsen & Nielsen (2015) argue that psychological stress caused by bullying is so intense that some employees start considering suicide to avoid this pressure. Also, there are more incidents of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) permanently impairs the work performance of employees (Yildirim, 2009). According to Rodríguez‐Muñoz et al. (2010), patients of PTSD are mostly victims of bullying in their workplaces. Due to PTSD, targets are likely to suffer from one or more traumatic events in future. Therefore, emotional/psychological health of victims is at greater risk due to bullying that permanently incapacitates their work capabilities.

Emotional and psychological health issues ultimately results in physical health problems in victims. These victims are likely to suffer from headaches, obesity, chronic diseases, and cardio-vascular diseases (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). Due to decrease in 43

physical health, they are unable to perform their job roles effectively. Their medical leaves from work are increased which cut their time on the job. Also, they start remaining sick on the job that keeps them distracted. Moreover, medical costs of the individual are increased that reduce their overall disposable income. Due to decrease in physical health, they are unable to perform their job roles effectively. Their medical leaves from work are increased which cut their time on the job (Einarsen & Nielsen, 2015). Also, they start remaining sick on the job that keeps them distracted. Also, medical costs of the individual are increased that reduce their overall disposable income. Reduction in overall disposal income affects their job satisfaction. When job satisfaction is lowered, employees start cutting their performance according to their satisfaction level (Meglich-Sespico et al., 2007). Due to psychological issues, bad habits are developed among victims such as drug abuse, alcohol, smoking, and sleep disruptions. As a result, they also start taking sleeping pill or drugs (Peng et al., 2014). Such habits affect their job performance and creativity making them a liability for employers and society (Rodríguez‐Muñoz et al., 2010).

Third and final impact of workplace bullying that affect job performance of employees is affective domain (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). Attitude, feelings, and emotions of employees are completely destructed due to workplace bullying. As a result, they become victims of anxiety, anger issues, fear, and sadness (Ayoko, Callan, & Härtel, 2003; Yildiz, 2007; Namie, 2003; Simpson & Cohen, 2004; Quine, 2001). This results in loss of concentration among victims and develops a sense of powerlessness among them. Due to lower self-confidence, their motivation level falls affecting their work and social interactions (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011). This makes them prone to depression, exhaustion, impatience, and feeling of isolation at the workplace. As a result, their job performance is ultimately affected and lowered. As their job performance is lower, they are likely to leave their work on their own and they are being fired by employers (Magee, 2015). This makes workplace bullying a direct threat to career of individuals. This further causes health problems from employees that also affect their productivity and creativity (Maiuro, 2015). It can be argued workplace bullying has a multiplier effect on job performance of employees.

It can be concluded by analyzing the above discussion that the major individual impact of workplace bullying is affective domain. Due to workplace bullying, emotional and attitudinal stress on the victims are increased. Due to emotional stress, their psychological health is affected resulting in emotional and psychological issues. These 44

psychological issues have direct impact on work related behavior of employees and they also impact indirectly by affecting the physical health of employees. Physical health of employees become the second reason for work related issues. In this process, work performance of an individual (victim of workplace bullying) is declined and impaired. Also, lack of confidence, fear, and other emotional issues again intensify this mental and physical situation of victim. Due to decrease in physical health, they are unable to perform their job roles effectively. Their medical leaves from work are increased which cut their time on the job. Also, they start remaining sick on the job that keeps them distracted. Moreover, medical costs of the individual are increased that reduce their overall disposable income. Reduction in overall disposal income affects their job satisfaction. When job satisfaction is lowered, employees start cutting their performance according to their satisfaction level. Due to psychological issues, bad habits are developed among victims such as drug abuse, alcohol, smoking, and sleep disruptions. As a result, they also start taking sleeping pill or drugs. Such habits affect their job performance and creativity making them a liability for employers and society.

The multiplier effect of workplace bullying can be visualized as under:

Workplace Bullying

Affective Domain

Emotional/Psychological Health

Physical Health Work Related Behavior

Work Performance / Productivity

Figure 2.1: Multiplier effect of workplace bullying on employee performance

2.8. WORKPLACE BULLYING AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Employee performance refers to the achievement of goals in an effective and efficient manner. High performance of the employee shows how well he performs his job duties and extra-role activities needed for the achievement of goals. Employee performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success and job performance is an individual level variable that means what a single person does (Campbell, McHenry & Wise, 1990; Campbell et al., 1993). Borman & Motowidlo (1993) divided the employee performance into two dimensions; in-role performance, and extra- role performance. The in-role performances consist of obligatory tasks required by a job whereas the extra-role performance includes organizational citizenship behaviors that 45

contribute to the goals of the organization by creating a positive impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002).

A comprehensive overview of the mechanism through which workplace bullying affects employee performance has been discussed above. In brief, most of the latest research studies in workplace bullying field believe that it has negative effects on employee performance (Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Branch et al., 2013; Kemp, 2014; McCormack et al., 2014; Oladapo & Banks, 2013; Riley et al., 2014; Salin, 2008; Salin et al., 2014; Woodrow & Guest, 2014). As the workplace bullying is a powerful workplace hazard that has substantial negative effects on employees’ performance, its incidence must be controlled and impact on employee performance must be mitigate as an occupational concern (Kemp, 2014).

Hypothesis 2: workplace bullying has negative effects on employee performance.

2.9. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND WORKPLACE BULLYING

Emotional intelligence is a ground-breaking, paradigm-shattering, and one of the most influential business ideas of first decade in 21st century published in Harvard Business Review (Goleman et al., 2013). Organizations consider emotional intelligence as a key skills to be held by the potential job incumbents. They also use EI as a key element in processes of hiring, promoting, and developing employees. The impact of emotional intelligence on business community, leadership and employee development is very astounding (Goleman, 2013). Emotional intelligence positively contributes in enhancing employee performance and productivity which has been an ultimate goal of all organizations (Longenecker et al., 1987).

In past, the employers had always been hiring employees on the basis of their intelligent quotient (IQ) along with academic credentials and work experience. But emotional intelligence (EQ) was not given appropriate weightage in the recruitment process until a widespresad international embracemnt of Emotional Intelligence. Consequently, the employers have started to consider emotional intelligence (EI) as a key success factor in the potential employees (Karimi, 2014). Emotional intelligence is considered as a prime predictor of mental health, job performance, and effective leadership skills (Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005). Various studies argue that higher level of emotional intelligence in an employee is positively and significantly correlated with 46

employee job performance (Bande et al., 2015; Goleman, 1998; Goleman et al., 2013; Prentice & King, 2011 and 2013; Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017; Wong & Law, 2002). Hence, the managers have to enhance the level of emotional intelligence of the employees (Goleman, 2001). Emotional intelligence is ability of a person to screen his/her own emotions and emotions of others, differentiate between/among various types of emotions, can label/tag vaiorus emotions appropriately, and consequently can this emotional understanding to guide thinking and behavior in a beneficial way (Goleman, 2008).

There are three (030 basic/major models of emotional intelligence that include: ability model, trait model, and mixed model. Ability model was developed by Peter Salovey & John Mayer that takes into the account an individual's ability to positivey route emotional understanding by using it in navigating social environment in a beneficial manner (Salove et al., 2004). The trait model was developed by Konstantin Vasily Petrides who arugued that emotional intelligence encompassed thorugh inborn behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities (Petrides et al., 2001). They combined both abilities and traits as the skills of emotional intelligence. The model defined EI as learnable skill(s) and characteristics which were proposed by Daniel Goleman in 1998. There is a general concensus upon the notion that higher level of emotional intelligence results in positive outcomes such as mental health and enhanced job performance. That is why various methods of developing EI came into existence including characterization of neural mechanisms (Barbey et al., 2014; US News & World Report, 2013).

EI Emotional intelligence is considered to be a competency (Bar-On, 2000; Goleman, 1995; Schulte et al., 2004), ability (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Mayer et al., 1999) and personality trait (Schutte & Malouff, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998) of an employee to perceive, understand, utilize, and manage emotions effectively (Maul, 2012; Mayer et al., 2004). On the basis of these classifications of emotional intelligence by various research scholars in this area, three (03) models were developed which gained popularity around the world. These model are as under:

i) The Ability Model: This model focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment (Mayer et al., 2004). ii) The Trait Model: This model comprehends behavioral dispositions and self- perceived abilities of a person. It measures emotional intelligence by using self-reported measures (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). 47

iii) The Mixed Model: This model is a combination of both ability and trait models of EI which defined EI as an array of skills and characteristics which predicted leadership performance (Goleman, 2011).

Hence, the researcher treat EI as the ability of an employee to understand his/her emotions, regulate their emotions, understand the emotions of others and manage the relationship with others. Consequently, the researcher is using the mixed model of emotional intelligence in this study.

2.10. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SKILLS

There is a debate on the terms used for emotional intelligence skills included in ability model used to represent emotional intelligence (EI). In spite of difference in naming, theme remains unchanged. There are four most widely accepted emotional intelligence skills which are named differently by various scholars. They include self- awareness, self-management, social awareness and social management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). A brief description of these four skills is provided as under:

2.10.1. Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is a person’s ability to accurately perceive his/her own emotions and stay aware of them as they happen. This ability is a mirror of a person’s tendencies while responding to specific situations and people. Through this skill, a person can get important insights into his/her own personality or behavioral trends. Hence, it is deemed to be the most important EI skill.

2.10.2. Self-Management:

This is a person’s ability to use awareness of his/her emotions to stay flexible and positively direct his/her behavior. This is a practical phase in which a person controls his/her emotional reactions to specific situations and people. Through this skill, a person not only can get important insights into his/her own personality or behavioral trends but also can manage his/her resultant behavior in the beneficial way.

2.10.3. Social Awareness

Social-awareness is a person’s ability to accurately understand and focus on other people’s emotions in a true sense. This ability enables a person to understand what other 48

people are thinking and feeling even if he/she does not feel in the same way. Hence, the ability to recognize emotions of others, is named as social awareness. Through this ability, a person can evaluate others’ emotions irrespective of his/her own emotion.

2.10.4. Relationship Management

This is a person’s ability to effectively use self-awareness and social-awareness skills while interacting with other people or situations. This ability focuses on effective communication and conflict management in difficult situations.

The first two skills are related to a person’s oneself while the third and fourth skills are related to the other persons with which a person has interaction. A later study on this array of skills (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013) revealed that all four skills deemed necessary while building healthy work environment and conflict management. Therefore, the researcher is using these four sets of skills of emotional intelligence in current study.

2.11. CAN EI BE LEARNT AND ENHANCED?

Fortunately, emotional intelligence can not only be learnt but also enhanced at any stage in life. But a strong motivation, structured learning situation and continuous practice is necessary to do so (Goleman, 1998, 2011; Goleman & Cherniss, 2001; Goleman et al., 2017). Besides Danial Goleman & his colleagues, there is a general agreement of almost all the leading resarechers and psychologists who published in high quality research journals of the world, upon the notion that emotional intelligence can be taught, learnt, and enhanced in all age groups and professions (Beniss, 2004; Boyatzis et al., 2002; Côté, 2014; Davidson, 2003; Enríquez et al., 2017; Gilbert et al., 2017; Luthans, 2002; Matthews et al., 2017; Miao et al., 2017; Schabram & Maitlis, 2017; Serrat, 2017).

There are two main complementary approaches used and recommended by various studies to cultivate and develop emotional intelligence: training followed by coaching (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Goleman et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2009). Various researchers and psychologists treat training as a group-based systematic learning method of transferring skills and coaching as an individually focused method of transferring skills (Fullan, 2011a; Fullan, 2011b; Giber et al., 2009; Hughes et al., 2009; Parsloe & Leedham, 2009). Hence, training followed by coaching can bring best results by improving weaknesses left by the training process. There are four (04) recent studies on the topic of transfer of training (Baldwin et al., 2017; Kahn & Girvan, 2017; Massenberg 49

et al., 2017; Sparr et al., 2017) published in Human Resource Development Quarterly in 2017 which focus on training and its outcomes especially employee performance. The all studies recommended the researchers to conduct training programs in all types of organizations to reap positive organizational outcomes (positive transfer) especially enhancing employee performance.

Almost all previous studies argue and believe that emotional intelligence interventions can be used to enhance the level of emotional intelligence among the employees. Therefore, the author of current study, also believes that the level of emotional intelligence of employees who are victims of workplace bullying can be enhanced by provision of proper emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. Consequently, researcher developed the following hypothesis after critical review of relevant literature:

Hypothesis 3: Emotional intelligence level of bullying victims can be enhanced by implementing Emotional Intelligence training and coaching interventions.

2.12. EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Employee performance refers to the achievement of goals in an effective and efficient manner. High performance of the employee shows how well he performs his job duties and extra-role activities needed for the achievement of goals. Employee performance is an individual level variable considered to be important predictor of overall organizational performance and success (Campbell et al.,, 1990). Employee performance can be divided into two distinct dimensions; in-role performance, and extra-role performance (Borman et al., 2001; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). The in-role performances consist of obligatory tasks required by a job whereas the extra-role performance includes organizational citizenship behaviors that contribute to the goals of the organization by creating a positive impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Therefore, the researchers took two dimensions of employee performance as in-role performance and extra-role performance.

2.13. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EI AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Various studies found a direct association of employee performance with general intelligence (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000) and emotional intelligence (Langhorn, 2004). Similarly Goleman (1995) mentioned emotional intelligence as the most significant factor 50

that affects employee performance rather than general intelligence which only contributed 20% in the success (Goleman, 1995, p. 36). Emotional intelligence is considered to be the success factor in almost any job (Cherniss, 2001). That means that higher emotional intelligence results in higher level of employee performance. A study on the key success factors was conducted by Dulewicz & Higgs (2000) revealed that the managerial intelligence contributed 16%, intelligence quotient (IQ) contributed 27% and emotional intelligence contributed 36% towards the higher performance of employees at workplace.

The direct relationship between emotional intelligence and employee performance also appears to be logical and evident due to an increase trend of employers who are hiring employees with higher level of emotional intelligence (Cadman & Brewer, 2001). Emotional intelligence is considered to be an important success factor in not only the individual performance but also in organizational and business success (Bagshaw, 2000). According to Dulewicz et al. (2003), emotional intelligence contributed positively towards the managerial performance of leader and hence, was a good predictor of checking employee performance (Langhorn, 2004). Similar findings are widely reported in important studies in the heading cited topic. Some other studies revealed that higher EI was a significant predictor of employees’ performance (Bande et al., 2015; Goleman, 1998; Goleman et al., 2013; Imran et al., 2013; Karimi, 2014; Maul, 2012; Prentice & King, 2011 and 2013; Rahim, 2010; Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017; Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004; Schutte & Malouff, 1999; Shahzad et al., 2011; Koman & Wolff, 2008; Sony & Mekoth, 2016; Wong & Law, 2002), higher organizational citizenship behaviors (Carmeli, 2003) and lower counterproductive work behaviors (Deshpande, Joseph & Shu, 2005).

A wide range of studies in various industries reveal that a higher level of emotional intelligence in an employee is a positive element to boost his/her job performance (Goleman, 1998; Goleman et al., 2013; Prentice & King, 2011 and 2013; Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017; Schutte & Malouff, 1999; Sony & Mekoth, 2016; Wong & Law, 2002). Therefore, emotional intelligence being positively correlated with the job performance of employees catches the attention of almost all types of organizations with respect to the construct, context and impact of emotional intelligence (as it is learnable) to improve employee performance.

Therefore, the researchers believe that emotional intelligence intervention can be developed and used to enhance employee performance as an outcome of enhanced 51

emotional intelligence in the employees. The following hypothesis is formed in this regard:

Hypothesis 4: Enhanced emotional intelligence positively contributes towards employee performance.

2.14. BULLYING INTERVENTION IN THE WORKPLACE

Accordin to Hutchinson and Hurley (2013), an organization is put at a great risk of employee turnover in the shape of victim employee who are also very important source of the organization. They further argued that bullying at workplace had resulted in negativity which had ultimately decreased cooperation, productivity and increased stress. In order to avoid these consequences, according to Hutchinson and Hurley (2013), an organization ought to counter various tpes of bullying behaviors. They proposed organizations to develop some appropriate anti-bullying interetnions at workplace that could successfully reduce the incidence of workplace bullying. As the bullies had high social intelligence but low emotional intelligence, some interventions regarding these two aspects needed to be considered (Hutchinson, 2013). In their study, they found that the bullies had lower emotional intelligence (EI) when they were tested again and again on emotional intelligence measurement scale. By concluding their study, they had proposed teaching and developing emotional intelligence in the perpetrators (bullies) as an appropriate anti-bullying intervention. They used emotional intelligence skills and leadership skills as the bases of anti-bullying intervention. They found that these two skills were important to reduce the incidence of the bullies after getting a higher level of emotional intelligence and leadership skills.

According to Deshpande and Joseph (2009), emotional intelligence and ethical behaviors are predictors of ethical behaviors exibited by the nurses. Their study had shown a positive and significant effect of emotional intelligence on nursing teams’ ethical behavior. That’s why it can be argued that emotional intelligence is an appropriate skill that results in ethical behaviors and saves employees form involvement in negative behaviors including workplace bullying incidence. Hence, emotional intelligence can successfully be used as anti-bullying intervention to reduce workplace bullying incidenceand promoting ethical behaviors at workplace. Hence, the recommendation of Hutchinson and Hurley (2013) was authenticated that emotional intelligence could create healthy environment at worklace by reducing bullying behaviors. 52

By this discussion, researcher came to the conclusion that workplace bullying was social interaction that involved abusing, aggression, harassment, and violence. The negative behaviors cannot be labeled as workplace bullying unless otherwise they are repetitive in their nature and the victims are in weaker position due to which they are unable to defend against such repetitive negative behaviors. Majority of the studies have shown that emotional intelligence can be used as an ingredient in anti-bullying interventions because various emotional intelligence slills are required to counter bullying incidence exhibited by the bullies (Mayer et al., 2008; Tolegenova et al., 2012). According to Mckenna and Webb (2013), emotional intelligence had played a vital role in preventing and reducing bullying when it was incorporated in anti-bullying interventions. Thinking on the contrary, it can be concluded that lower level of emotional intelligence could result in the incidence of workplace bullying. Moreover, other studies had also found various ingredients as anti-bullying interventions. Hence, researcher concluded that bullying can be reduced by using appropriate intervetnions. So, following was hypothesized:

Hypothesis 5: EI has moderating effect on relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance of the victims. Hypothesis 6: Increased level of emotional intelligence decreases the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance.

2.15. INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR WORKPLACE BULLYING

The literature reveals various types of anti-bullying interventions to reduce workplace bullying incidents and mitigating its negative impacts on employee performance (Oeij et al., 2006). The literature suggests to develop anti-bullying interventions at all levels i.e. policy level, organizational level, group level and individual level on one hand and at pre-bullying (primary stage level), bullying episodic (secondary stage level) and post bullying (tertiary stage level) on the other. Anti-bullying interventions might be at policy level (Vartia et al., 2008), organization/employer level (Rayner & Lewis, 2011; Salin, 2008; Vartia et al., 2008), workplace/group/task level and individual level (Giga et al., 2008; Keashly & Neuman, 2004) on one hand and pre- bullying (primary) interventions (Einarsen et al., 2011; Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Vartia & Tehrani, 2012; Swearer & Espelage, 2009), bullying episodic (secondary) interventions (Meloni & Austin, 2011; Pate & Beaumont, 2010) and post-bullying (tertiary) interventions (Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Salin et al., 2014; Schwickerath & Zapf, 2011) on the other hand to reduce bullying incidents and mitigate negative impacts on 53

performance. The literature also suggests developing counseling and therapeutic interventions for the victims in order to mitigate bullying impact on victims’ performance (Salin et al., 2014).

However, the need for effective intervention development at policy level, organization/employer level, workplace/group/task level and individual level on one hand and pre-bullying (primary) interventions, bullying episodic (secondary) interventions and post-bullying (tertiary) interventions on the other hand is needed to reduce bullying incidents and mitigate negative impacts on performance (Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011). During the development of interventions various organizational aspects must be kept in mind such as improving physical and psychosocial work environment, improving leadership effectiveness, setting procedures for conflict management and setting fair complaints procedures that work as stimulating factors while intervention implementation (Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011). On the contrary, various organizational that work as obstructing factors such as lack of continuous management commitment, lack of clarification of roles and expectations, poor planning and implementation of interventions, lack of identification of stressors, reluctance to confront the problems and cultural aspects must be kept in mind so that they cannot lessen the effectiveness of interventions (Nordic Bullying Network Group, 2011). Bullying is a serious problem that many adolescents have experienced, whether they were bullied, bullied someone else, or saw someone being bullied (U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources, 2011). U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources observes bullying as a serious problem that can be prevented or stopped by implementation of suitable interventions by the parties involved in the bullying process.

In primary intervention strategies, the major focus is to avoid the happening of bullying in the workplace. In primary intervention strategies, there are high-cost anti- bullying programs because it is difficult to design and implement primary intervention programs. Therefore, their effectiveness is questioned by research studies. Also, no empirical evidence is available to justify the effectiveness of primary intervention strategies. The most common examples of primary intervention strategies include: negative behavior training programs, stress management programs, policy communication. In order to test the validity of such kinds of programs, two large scale studies were conducted. A study by Hoel, Giga & Faragher (2006) analyzed negative behavior training programs, stress management programs, policy communication against 54

a control group. In a period of six (06) months, no improvement was noted in the subjects of experimental group. Contrary to this, a program named as “Civility, Respect, Engagement in the Workforce” (CREW) showed some positive results. This program was started by US Department of Veteran Affairs in 2005 and it contained several participatory exercises including role playing and discussions. The basic purpose of these exercises were to increase awareness regarding effects of interpersonal communication in the workplace. In this study, significant improvements in behavior and civility of participants were noted during the 12 month period while they showed more job satisfaction, trust, and loyalty with less job burnout (Leiter, Day, Gilin-Oore, & Laschinger, 2012; Osatuke et al., 2009).

It has also been found in above research studies that overcoming situational factors can act as a primary intervention strategy to overcome workplace bullying. For example, if management focuses on overcoming role ambiguity, work overload, perceived injustice, and poor leadership then it is likely to improve the incidents of workplace bullying. Also, by focusing on role clarity, effective leadership, balance workload, and democratic decision making, workplace bullying can be reduced to significant levels.

In secondary interventions, strategies are devised to inform, educate, and arm the employees regarding the skills for overcoming bullying incidents in the workplace. The effectiveness of secondary interventions is still questioned because there is no significant evidence to discuss the effectiveness of secondary interventions. One study by (Zapf & Gross, 2001) found that skillful employees are more successful in coping with bullying relative to unskilled and less aware employees. It is because educated and skillful employees are better at escalating bullying behaviors relative to their counterparts. According to Niven, Sprigg, & Armitage (2013), if employees are trained in managing their emotions against bullying attacks, they are successful to overcome the negative effects of workplace bullying on their physical/mental health as well as their work performance. Also, Niven et al. (2013) write that if employees are trained to reappraise the aggression then it buffers the negative effects of bullying. It is because such employees do not take aggressive behaviors as personal that results in suppressing the emotional response of their counterparts causing a reduction in ruminative thinking. As a result, with such secondary programs, minimizes the bullying incidents in the workplace.

Finally, tertiary programs focuses on minimizing the after-effects of workplace bullying. It becomes crucial for leadership to respond to ‘occurred’ workplace bullying 55

and delaying so would maximize the negative consequences of the situation or incident (De Cuyper et al., 2009). When organization poorly responds to workplace bullying, victimization of bullying is enhanced causing severe consequences such as conflicts, job dissatisfactions, and interpersonal misunderstandings (Baillien et al., 2009). The most effective response to post-bullying situations is mediation in which a third party engages between instigator and target to come up with a resolution (Bowling & Beehr, 2006). This third party is usually an external person or a member of human resource department that facilitates the communication between both parties to minimize the impact of bullying (Ayoko et al., 2003). In the study of Saam (2010), it is found that meditation could the best technique to overcome the negative effects of bullying where bullying had just caused interpersonal conflicts and not violence. In case of violence, mediation is proven to be ineffective because it may help to escalate the workplace aggression but violence could never be escalated. Also, in some cases, power imbalance may fail the mediation process where there is a significant power distance between instigator and target, In this case, instigator is not willing to compromise with the mediation process due to his/her power. In case of such extreme cases, corrective actions are taken by focusing job relocation, demotion, and firing instigators. The dilemma to such actions is that they are so qualitative to justify legally. A more effective view of above discussion can be conceptually presented as:

•Emotional Awareness •Stress Management Primary •Negative Behavior Training Strategies •Policy Communications

•Transferring Skills to Employees to overcome interspersonal skills Secondary •Personality Development to not to take actions personally Strategies

•Mediation Tertiary •Adminstrative Actions Strategies

Figure 2.2: Intervention strategies to overcome workplace bullying

Hypothesis 7: Bullying behaviors of the bullies can be reduced by implementing TTM interventions.

2.16. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

On the basis of critical review of the relevant literature, the researcher has developed the following conceptual framework to be worked in the current study:

Figure 2.3: Theoretical framework

The framework shows that bullying has negative effects on employee performance. However, enhanced emotional intelligence can mitigate negative effects on performance of employees who are the target of workplace bullying.

2.17. THEORETICAL SUPPORT FOR THIS STUDY

Various theories has supported researcher to deeply understand the phenomena of bullying, emotional intelligence and the mechanisms involved in their training and coaching. Along with empirical studies, current study was supported by self-efficacy theory of Bandura (1977). The theory supports the notion that emotional intelligence is a learnable skill that can also be enhanced. According to Lipschitz et al., (2018), theory of self-efficacy provides the notion that a person having belief in his/her own abilities can effectively achieve his/her behavioral change goals. They further argue that behaviorists may effectively use the self-efficacy/belief of the persons to bring significant behavioral changes. Current study utilized employees’ belief in their abilities to enhance their emotional intelligence skills. The mechanism developed by the theory supported this study during implementation of emotional intelligence training and coaching 57

interventions to enhance emotional intelligence level of the target/victim employees. The findings also revealed that enhanced level of emotional intelligence has successfully mitigated the negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance. Hence, victims believe that their emotional intelligence skills can be enhanced (self-efficacy theory) and their emotionally intelligent response to bullying incidence is the most appropriate response (theory of planned behavior, theory of reasoned action, expectancy theory). They can mitigate (resilience theory) negative impact of workplace bullying on their employee performance. Resilience helps them to cope with social disadvantage and highly adverse conditions of workplace bullying.

Theories also support the notion of bullies’ involvement in bullying behaviors. The belief of bullies that they have not committing any wrong doing can be explained through those theories. The mechanisms are explained here in bullying context. The people involved in workplace bullying (the bullies) assign the cause of their bullying behavior to some internal characteristics such as pleasure, power, dominance etc. and some external reasons such as toxic workplace environment (attribution theory of Kelley, 1967), perceive that they gain benefits from social relationships (social capital theory as explained by Ferragina, 2010), desire to dominate (social dominance theory by Sidanius & Pratto, 2001), and reveal the inadequacies of weaker victims (theory of humiliation as explained by Torres & Bergner, 2010).

As far as the reduction in bullying behavior of the bullies is concerned, some theories have provided important insights into the matter under discussion. After going through the theories, researcher believed that bullying incidence could be reduced. The underlying theories show that reduction in the workplace bullying behavior of the bullies is possible by implementing TTM interventions for the bullies. These findings show that the bullies tend to learn new healthy behavior by training and coaching if they recognize that their behavior is negative (theory of planned behavior provided by Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975 and refined as theory of reasoned action provided by Ajzen, 1991), they believe that they can change their behavior (health belief model explained by Janz & Becker, 1984 and TTM by Prochaska, 2013) and gain positive rewards (expectancy theory by Oliver, 1974).

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chapter 1 precisely presented background of current study, workplace bullying phenomenon, causes and effects of workplace bullying, emotional intelligence, enhancement of emotional intelligence and its impact on employee performance. Researcher set the objectives of the study after analyzing research gaps available in the area concerned and by putting some core questions to be addressed by this study. Chapter 2 presented comprehensive literature review regarding workplace bullying phenomenon, its causes and consequences, emotional intelligence, its enhancement and impact on employee performance along with well-established relationships among these variables in previous studies.

The core objectives of current study included: identifying bullies and victims in workplace bullying incidence, reducing the incidence of workplace bullying by implementing The Transtheoretical Model for developing and implementing anti- bullying interventions for behavior modification of identified bullies, and mitigating negative impact of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance of identified victims by providing them emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions.

The objectives of this study guided researcher in deciding appropriate research design, sampling size and sampling technique. After careful analysis, researcher decided to use one group pretest-posttest experimental research design as the most appropriate research design to carry out current study in order to achieve aims and objectives. This design enabled researcher to estimate a true causal relationship among the variables of this study. This research design has also enabled researcher to evaluate effectiveness of anti-bullying interventions developed and implemented to identified-bullies and emotional intelligence training interventions developed for identified-victims. This design was also appropriate in comparing scores obtained in pre-interventions (anti- bullying and emotional intelligence training) implementation stage and post-interventions (anti-bullying and emotional intelligence training) implementation stages.

3.1. POPULATION

Population of this study comprised of employees working at different levels in a leading private sector hospital of Pakistan. Researcher selected this sector to get target

58 59

population on the basis of evidence found in previous literature which showed a higher reporting rate of workplace bullying incidence in health services industry than other sectors. Secondly, another reason for choosing this sector was the bitter fact that performance problems of employees working in health care sector could cause severe outcomes for all parties including bullies, victims and the patients. These negative effects of performance problem ranged from mere distress to the death of affiliated parties.

3.2. SAMPLING FRAME AND SAMPLE SIZE

From the total target population, researcher had to decide an appropriate sample size for this population and appropriate sampling technique to be used for drawing samples from this population. As determination of sample size was the core issue due to research design of this study, researcher had to utilize various techniques in order to determine appropriate sample size. Researcher consulted rule of thumb which declared that a sample size between 30 and 500 was appropriate for most of the studies in social sciences (Cohen, 1969; & Roscoe, 1975). On the other hand, statistical formulae or the table, “Sample Size Table for Given Population” for sample size determination was also consulted. The table which was calculated on the basis of statistical formulae guided that from a population of 3500 employee, sample size of 346 employees was required (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970) in pre-test stage.

Sample size was determined after consulting various relevant but important studies which had dealt with research philosophy of phenomenology. According to Thomas, (2001), in phenomenology, subjective experience is studied where understanding of a concept (truth) differs among individuals according to their own experiences and perceptions. This perceived truth comes to an end when a person is exposed to a quite opposite experience. Current study was falling within the domain of phenomenology because the phenomenon explored in this study was the experiences encountered by the bullies and victims during the incidence of workplace bullying. Moreover, the interventions of TTM and emotional intelligence also utilized subjective experiences of the subjects to effectively implement training and coaching interventions.

Consequently, researcher utilized findings of study by Boddy (2016) who argued to include 12 participants as an appropriate number as sample size. Another important study of Mason (2010), narrated that sample size determination for doctoral (PhD) level was dependent on the research philosophy and saturation of population. His findings were 60

consistent with the findings of Creswell (1998) and Morse (1994) who were two prominent scholars of the filed of phenomenology. According to Creswell (1998, p.64), a range of 5 to 25 participants was appropriate sample size for an experimental design while Morse (1994, p.225) argued that a sample size of at least 6 participants was adequate for experimental studies. On further exploration of dissertation of students who had completed their doctoral (PhD) level from various universities of the world using experimental research design, researcher found that an average of 12 number of subjects were used as sample size.

Hence, after keeping these facts in mind, researcher selected 366 employees as sample size in pre-test phase of the study on the basis of statistical formulae i.e. “Sample Size Table for Given Population” provided by Krejcie & Morgan (1970). Selecting extra number helped to counter potential lower response rate. However, complete data of 266 respondents was received. On the other hand for posttest phase of this study, researcher took twenty two (22) identified bullies as sample size in experimental group to implement tertiary level (post-bullying stage) anti-bullying interventions. Whereas, researcher took thirty six (36) identified victims as the subjects of experimental group in this studies who were provided emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions.

3.3. INTERVENTIONS IN THE EXPERIMENTS

Researcher used behavior modification interventions to modify bullying behaviors of perpetrators (bullies) by utilizing TTM provided by Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross (1992b). Before using TTM in interventions, researcher himself went through training of using The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of behavior modification from Pro- Change Behaviors System Incorporation, USA. Researcher used stages of change to integrate the most powerful principles and processes of change derived from leading theories of counseling and behavior change. TTM model provided the researcher an advantage of effectively it in developing interventions and implementing them on identified bullies. TTM uses an integrative, biopsychosocial model to conceptualize the process of “intentional” behavior change which included the most important constructs from other theories into a comprehensive model of behavior modification. Another featured which impressed researcher was that TTM could be effectively applied to a variety of behaviors, populations, and settings. These settings included treatment settings, interventions development & implementation settings, and prevention & policy-making settings. Hence, researcher used TTM as guiding principles in developing and 61

implementing anti-bullying interventions to reduce bullying incidence exhibited by identified bullies. Participants were provided interventions for six (06) months.

On the other hand, for enhancing emotional intelligence of identified victims, this study used emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions where single- variable one-group pretest-posttest experiment was designed for obtaining emotional intelligence (EI) pre-intervention implementation and post-implementation scores. Researcher manipulated emotional intelligence of identified victims by implementing emotional intelligence interventions provided by Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) in the EI Appraisal-Me Edition Booklet. The participants were provided interventions for six (06) months.

3.4. RESEARCH DESIGN

Current study has utilized the following research design:

Table 3.1: One group pretest-posttest design Variables i. Pre-test ii. Interventions iii. Post-test Bullying Y1 X1 Y2 Emotional Intelligence Z1 X2 Z2

The details pertaining to the table above are described as under: i. Administration of a pretest (Y1 and Z1) aimed at measuring subjects’: a. Bullying behavior before implementing The Transtheoretical Model of behavior modification intervention (Y1). b. Emotional intelligence level before emotional intelligence training intervention (Z1). ii. Providing training and coaching (X1 and X2) intervention to the subjects: a. The Transtheoretical Model behavior modification interventions to identified bullies (X1). b. Emotional intelligence interventions to identified victims (X2). iii. Administration of posttest (Y2 and Z2) aimed at measuring subjects’: a. Bullying behavior after implementing The Transtheoretical Model of behavior modification interventions (Y2). b. Emotional intelligence level after implementing emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions (Z2). 62

3.5. COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS

Researcher complied with the ethical standards/procedures provided by American Psychological Assoiation while implementing tertiary level anti-bullying interventions and emotional intelligence interventions. The following details pertain to the compliance with ethical standards in current study:

3.5.1. Disclosure of Conflict of Interest

Researcher declared that he had no real or perceived and direct or indirect conflicts of interest. Researcher strongly negated all types of conflict of interests for this research study including the following: i. Research grant, honoraria, financial support from any funding agencies ii. Employment or consultation iii. Support from a project sponsor iv. Position on advisory board or board of directors or other type of management relationships v. Multiple affiliations vi. Financial relationships, for example equity ownership or investment interest vii. Intellectual property rights

3.5.2. Ethical Approval

Researcher observed institutional ethical standards and “APA's Ethics Code” because anti-bullying interventions and emotional intelligence training interventions were provided to human participants in this study. These ethical codes were taken from "Ethics in Research with Human Participants" (Sales & Folkman, 2000). The following five (05) major principles were also observed:

i. Discussion of intellectual property of authors with respect to materials and methods ii. Avoidance of relationships that might harm participants’ physical health, mental health and work in any aspect iii. Compliance with the rules of getting an informed consent from the participants iv. Respecting confidentiality and privacy v. Understanding ethical dilemmas 63

3.5.3. Informed Consent

As there were two interventions applied, two separate informed consents were taken from each group. In informed consent, written “agreement to participate” was taken. The participants provided their consents to participate in human intervetnions by signing the consent from. The consent was taken from identified bullies who participated in anti- bullying interventions. Second informed signed consent form was taken from victims who participated in EI training interventions. Details about the procedure, time duration, and benefits were mentioned in both informed consent forms. However, there were no possible harms to the participants of both the interventions. That is why majority of the people contacted to be the participants of this study, provided their consents to be the part of this study.

3.6. PROCEDURE

This study was conducted in two phases i.e. pretest phase and posttest phase. Researcher collected data from 266 respondents in pretest stage of this study from a leading organization of private healthcare sector of Pakistan. The following section describes various steps taken as a part of procedure in this study:

3.6.1. Stage 1: Pretest

Researcher collected data from two hundred and sixty six (266) respondents. Data relating to the prevalence of workplace bullying incidence, identification of bullies, and identification of victims involved in workplace bullying incidence was collected through NAQ-R (Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised) given by Einarsen, Hoel & Notelaers, (2009). In order to use this instrument in current study, researcher got permission from Ståle Valvatne Einarsen, Professor, Department of Psychosocial Science Faculty of Psychology, University of Bergen, Norway and Head of Bergen Bullying Research Group, Norway. This instrument carries 25 items to rate self-reported workplace bullying behaviors of the respondents. The respondents indicated frequency of their experience and involvement in bullying behaviors at current workplace during previous six (06) months on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. The respondents were asked to tick/encircle the number that best corresponds with their experience over the last six months such as (1. Never, 2. Now and Then, 3. Monthly, 4. Weekly, 5. Daily). Therefore, a cut of point of 2 (now and then) was selected to diagnose workplace bullying incidence, identify 64

bullies, and identify victims in the incidence of workplace bullying. In this way, bullies and victims were identified at first (pretest) stage of current study. On the basis of the scores obtained from data collected from two hundred sixty six (266) respondents, researcher diagnosed the incidence of workplace bullying, identified one hundred and twenty six (126) respondents as victims and twenty five (25) respondents as bullies in the incidence of workplace bullying.

3.6.2. Stage 2: Treatment of Bully Group

In second stage of this study, researcher classified bullies and victims into two separate groups. First group included twenty five (25) identified/rated bullies. This group of bullies was requested to undergo the process of The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) anti-bullying training interventions in order to reduce their bullying behaviors. Twenty two (22) respondents agreed to be the part of this experimental study. An informed consent was taken from the participant on a consent form. Before developing and implementing The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) anti-bullying training interventions, the researcher obtained certification of BASIC TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL (TTM) TRAINING provided by James O. Prachaska, PhD (developer of TTM) from Pro-Change Behavior Systems Incorporation, USA.

After getting basic training of TTM, researcher developed and then, implemented TTM anti-bullying training interventions for bullies for a period of six (06) months. These interventions were developed and implemented after careful consideration of basic principles of situation awareness, need assessment, materials’ design, presentations, exercises, program implementation and evaluation of program’s potential success. These interventions were provided on one (01) session of one (01) hour on weekly basis to bullies on individual basis and, sometimes where deemed necessary, on group basis. The interventions development process went through various steps which are briefly described as under: i. In the first step, analysis of bullying behavior was done in order to assess whether it could be reduced by providing mere instructions by listing major characteristics of the bullies that might enable bullies to gain new knowledge, acquire new skills and learn how to use creative methods to reduce their bullying behavior. ii. In the second step, researcher designed the transtheoretical model training interventions by identifying core learning outcomes. After that, resrearcher 65

researcher prepared a schedule of training and coaching sessions for bullies. iii. In the third step, researcher developed training materials along with exercises for bullies by using core concepts, principles and process of change described in TTM. iv. In fourth step, researcher implemented tertiary level anti-bullying (TTM) training interventions with the consent of bullies. A total of twenty two (22) respondents who agreed to be the part of this experimental study, went through interventions. The consent was taken from them on a consent form. Of these, there were nineteen (19) respondents who fell in first stage of change i.e. Precontemplation stage whereas three (03) respondents fell in contemplation stage of change. Nineteen (19) participants were trained for making positive Decisional Balance by utilizing processes of Consciousness Raising and Social Liberation. v. After successful completion of first stage of change for nineteen subjects, they were added with remaining three (03) subjects. Consequently, twenty two (22) participants were added in a homogenous group where they were, then, provided briefing about Decisional Balance and five major processes; (i) Environmental Re-evaluation (consider others), (ii) Dramatic Relief (increasing emotional awareness), (iii) Consciousness Raising (becoming more informed), (iv) Self-Re-evaluation, and (v) Self-Liberation (making a commitment) were utilized. vi. Researcher adjusted methods and techniques as per situations in order to achieve desired outcomes. vii. After six (06) months of TTM intervention implementation, the results were obtained by using NAQ-R (Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised) of Einarsen, Hoel & Notelaers, (2009).

Researcher utilized “Six Category Intervention Analysis” provided by humanist Psychologist John Heron (1975). These six types of interventions include: (i) Prescriptive Intervention in which advice and instructions are provided usually in a practitioner-client relationship, (ii) Informative Interventions in which new knowledge is imparted through provision of instructions and interpretations which create meaning to the clients, (iii) Confronting Interventions in which restrictive behavior of the clients is challenged by provision of effective feedback by raising the level of consciousness of the clients, (iv) Cathartic Interventions in which effectiveness of weeping, laughing, and anger are 66

conveyed to clients as various sets of relieving strategies, (v) Catalytic Interventions in which the client is encouraged to explore or sightsee his/her own covert feelings, and the last (vi) Supportive Interventions in which clients intrinsic values are appreciated and valued. After many years, in 2001, John Heron categorized all six types of interventions into two major classes: (i) “Authoritative” Interventions including three earlier types (Prescriptive, Informative, Confronting), and (ii) “Facilitative” Interventions including three earlier types (Cathartic, Catalytic, Supportive).

Researcher used features of those types of interventions in developing and implementing TTM interventions by sticking himself to the principles and processes of change provided by The Transtheoretical Model. After developing intervention, before implementing the interventions, researcher identified the stages at which bullies were falling by carefully analyzing relevant data collected through structured questionnaire. All twenty two (22) bullies who agreed to be the part of this experimental study, were evaluated with respect to their stage of change according to TTM. The following table shows the participants and their respective stages of change:

Table 3.2: Bully group and stages of change

Group Stage No. Name of Stage of Change No. of Participant A 1. Pre-contemplation 19 B 2. Contemplation 3 C 3. Preparation - D 4. Action - E 5. Maintenance - F 6. Termination - Total Participants 22

Researcher applied TTM behavior modification experiential processes [i. Consciousness Raising, ii. Dramatic Relief (Pay Attention to Feelings), iii. Environmental re-evaluation (Notice Your Effect on Others), iv. Self-re-evaluation (Create a New Self- Image), v. Social liberation (Notice Public Support) Processes], behavioral processes [i. Self-liberation, ii. Helping relationship, iii. Counter conditioning, iv. Reinforcement management, v. Stimulus control], and strategies were followed according to the stages of change in which bullies were falling. In experiential processes, the bullies were asked to note their experiences regarding their experiential tendencies towards involvement vs 67

quitting bullying behaviors. In experiential processes consciousness about disadvantages of exhibiting bullying behaviors and advantages of quitting bullying behaviors were raised. The bullies were asked to pay attention to feelings that motivate them to quit bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to note effects of their bullying behaviors on others and quit bullying if they evaluated a negative self-image. And, finally, they were asked to get social support that they found by reducing their bullying behaviors. While in behavioral processes, the bullies were asked to go through planned actions regarding their tendencies towards inducement of quitting bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to remain committed towards their goal to reduce bullying behaviors. They were asked to get and use social support for reducing their bullying behaviors. They were also induced to note the positive rewards found in case they had reduce their bullying behaviors. There were only two stages in which all bullies were falling i.e. (i) Group “A” of nineteen (19) identified bullies falling in Pre-contemplation Stage of Change, and (ii) Group “B” of three (03) identified bullies falling in Contemplation Stage of Change. Self-efficacy measurements for the respondents revealed that the participants were willing and committed to change their bullying behaviors.

3.6.2.1. Group “A” Pre-Contemplation Stage of Change

Group “A” comprised of nineteen (19) bullies who fell in Pre-contemplation Stage of Change. They were not ready to change nor have intentions to change their bullying behaviors. They also had not planned to take any initiative to change their bullying behaviors in next six (06) months. They perceived that pros (advantages) of ceasing their bullying behaviors were much lower than pros (advantages) of involvement in the bullying behavior. Hence, they were defensive, demoralized and showed a strong resistant to anti-bullying TTM interventions implementation. Therefore, their resistance was firstly and foremostly challenged in order to break that incorrect perception that that advantages of ceasing bullying behaviors were much lower than advantages gained by involvement in the bullying behaviors. In the start, bullies exhibited least engagement, exerted least change attempts and believed that they could not change their bullying behaviors. At this stage, researcher along with the colleague friends of bullies showed great empathy. Researcher also avoided lectures or confrontations with them. However, the subjects were engaged in the process of change. The principle of Decisional Balance was utilized along with the processes of Consciousness Raising and Social Liberation at this stage to make them believed that there were more pros for them in ceasing bullying behaviors than in 68

not-ceasing bullying behaviors. This was done through creating favourable decisional balance for identified bullies.

Decisional Balance

In initial session, for creating favourable decisional balance for bullies in group “A”, they were asked to generate a list of pros (advantages). In next session, they were asked to add some more pros (advantages) in existing list in case they cease bullying behaviors. In very next session, they were asked to triple the number of pros (advantages). Finally, researcher got a final list of possible pros and cons of ceasing bullying behaviors. Those pros and cons are listed in table provided below:

Table 3.3: Pros and cons of ceasing bullying behavior

Cons (Disadvantages) i. Anxiety ii. Stress iii. Loss of Power iv. Survival Problems v. High Competition vi. Frustration vii. Disappointment viii. Loss of Enjoyment ix. Loss of Inner Satisfaction

Pros (Advantages) i. Helping relations ii. Non-anxious iii. Popularity iv. Sharing grieves v. Synergy vi. Sportsmanship vii. Better performance viii. Courtesy ix. High socioeconomic status x. High self-control xi. Social skills xii. Altruism xiii. Confidence xiv. Inner satisfaction xv. Greater acceptability xvi. Civic virtue xvii. General compliance

After preparing a detailed list of pros and cons of quitting or maintaining bullying behaviors, subject bullies were asked to list top three (03) pros (advantages) for themselves according to pros’ importance (i. Not important, ii. Little important, iii. Moderately important, iv. Very important, v. extremely important). On the contrary, they were also asked to list top three (03) best cons (disadvantages) according their importance 69

(i. Not important, ii. Little important, iii. Moderately important, iv. Very important, v. extremely important). After making this comparison and consequent discussions, subjects showed their willingness to move further in TTM training interventions with a sigh of relief from perceived stress. Researcher helped them to make a favourable decisional balance for ceasing bullying behaviors after which they moved from pre-contemplation stage to contemplation stage. After successful completion of this stage, they were added to group “B” along with three (03) other participants. Consequently, twenty two (22) participants were added in group “B”.

3.6.2.2. Group “B” Contemplation Stage of Change

Identified bullies were briefed about Decisional Balance and five major processes; (i) Environmental Re-evaluation (consider others), (ii) Dramatic Relief (increasing emotional awareness), (iii) Consciousness Raising (becoming more informed), (iv) Self- Re-evaluation and (v) Self-Liberation (making a commitment) were utilized. In contemplation stage, bullies were provided counselling services in which experiential processes of change were utilized. The participants were exposed to consciousness raising (becoming informed), dramatic relief (increasing emotional awareness), environmental re-evaluation (considering others), self-re-evaluation (considering self-image), and social liberation (noticing the public efforts) processes for moving from contemplation stage to preparation stage of change. In this way, participant bullies achieved a mile stone in TTM’s process of change.

In next (preparation) stage, identified bullies were provided counselling services of both the experiential processes and behavioral processes of change with a special focus on commitments made by them to cease bullying behaviors. Experiential processes and behavioral processes of change along with the process of self-liberation (making a commitment to change bullying behaviors) lead them to successfully complete this stage. Hence, they moved from this stage to next stage of action. In experiential processes, the bullies were asked to note their experiences regarding their experiential tendencies towards involvement vs quitting bullying behaviors. In experiential processes consciousness about disadvantages of exhibiting bullying behaviors and advantages of quitting bullying behaviors were raised. The bullies were asked to pay attention to feelings that motivate them to quit bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to note effects of their bullying behaviors on others and quit bullying if they evaluated a negative self-image. And, finally, they were asked to get social support that they found by reducing 70

their bullying behaviors. While in behavioral processes, the bullies were asked to go through planned actions regarding their tendencies towards inducement of quitting bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to remain committed towards their goal to reduce bullying behaviors. They were asked to get and use social support for reducing their bullying behaviors. They were also induced to note the positive rewards found in case they had reduce their bullying behaviors.

In action and maintenance stage, participant bullies were provided counselling services of behavioral processes of change. In this stage, they were exposed to various processes such as helping relationships (getting support), counter conditioning (using substitute behaviors of workplace bullying), reinforcement management (explaining financial and non-financial rewards), and stimulus control (managing the environment) for successfully completing this stage and consequently moving to next (maintenance) stage of change. After successfully clearing this stage, participant bullies moved to next stages of Maintenance where they showed good commitment for ceasing bullying behaviors. Whereas Termination stage which require at least five (05) years of practicing a specific cessation behavior, was not observed due to limitations of access, time and financial resources. After six (06) months of TTM interventions implementation, the results were obtained by using NAQ-R provided by Einarsen et al., (2009).

3.6.3. Stage 3: Treatment of Victim Group

In third stage, researcher measured level of Emotional Intelligence (EI) of victims falling in victims group. This group consisted of one hundred and twenty six (126) identified victims. Researcher used emotional intelligence measurement scale of Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) consisting of 28 items. This scale uses four types of emotional intelligence skills: (i) self-awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social awareness and (iv) social management. The victims with low emotional intelligence levels were chosen as the subjects. An informed consent was taken form 36 respondents who took part underwent EI training and coaching interventions.

Researcher manipulated emotional intelligence by implementing emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions in the light of guidance provided by Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) in the EI Appraisal-Me Edition Booklet. The participants were provided emotional intelligence intervention for twenty four (24) weeks (six months). Out of this time, nineteen (19) weeks were taken in interaction with participants 71

whereas other time was spent in overall management of the interventions. The details pertaining to various sequential sessions are stated below:

i. In first step, identified victims were evaluated on emotional intelligence measurement scale. At the end of this step, a list of identified victims with low level of emotional intelligence, was made in order to provide them emotional intelligence and coaching interventions. This step took four (04) weeks. ii. In second step, an interactive group session was started in which introduction to emotional intelligence, importance of emotional intelligence with a special focus on life success and performance at workplace, types of emotional intelligence skills and the phenomenon of learning and enhancing emotional intelligence were discussed. Various websites and books were recommended to be explored by the subject victims. This process took two (02) weeks to

complete. 1

iii. In third step, self-awareness skill was briefed and discussed in detail with the subjects. This stage continued for two (02) weeks in which two action plans were executed. The subjects were informed that self-awareness was their ability to accurately recognize emotions as they happen. They were asked to understand and record their general tendencies while responding to different people and situations. “Practice Watching Your Emotions like a Hawk” was made a fundamental principle in the first action plan followed by second action plan to “Track your tendencies in different emotionally arousing situations”. iv. In fourth step, self-management skill was discussed in detail with the subject trainee employees. This stage continued for five (05) weeks. The participants (subject employees) were told that self-Management was their ability to keep a pulse on their emotions so that they might stay flexible and react positively to different situations and/or people. They were asked to understand the situations and manage their emotions according to their best interest. There were three action plans executed in this step. “Take an honest look at when you are being overwhelmed by your feelings” was made a fundamental principle in the first action plan, “Take the reins and quit letting your emotions lead you around” was required in the second and “Get ready for change because it is waiting around the corner” was required in third action plan. 72

v. In fifth step, social awareness skill was briefed about and discussed with the subjects with in depth insights. This stage continued for two (02) weeks in which two action plans were executed. The subjects were told that social awareness was their ability to recognize and understand moods of other individuals and/or mood of entire group(s) of people. They were required to understand and record moods of other individuals and/or entire group(s) of people in some specific situations. This awareness was deemed necessary for the subjects in order to control their reactions to others and consequently manage their positive relationships with others. Key sub skills of social awareness including observation, asking, and listening others were also informed. There were two action plans executed in this step. “When you are with other people, play anthropologist” was made a fundamental principle in first action plan and in consequent action plan, they were required to “Check in with someone to see if you are accurately noticing what he/she is feeling”. vi. In next step, relationship management skill was imparted to the subjects. This stage continued for two (02) weeks. The participants were told that relationship management was their ability to use self-awareness and social awareness skills for managing positive interactions and relationships with others so that they could reap positive outcomes. Subjects were asked to practice empathy and sympathy while making interactions with others. Because, after understanding own emotions and emotions of others, it was an easier task for them to exhibit empathy and sympathy. There were two action plans executed in this step. “Discover the role emotions play in every situation” was made a fundamental principle in the first action plan, and “get real feedback on relationships from someone you trust” was required in second action plan. vii. Finally, face-to-face coaching was provided to participants in order to have a broader understanding of emotional intelligence, four EI skills and action plans designed to enhance these four EI skills. The questions, queries and feelings were shared individually with an appreciation to the participants. This step took two (02) weeks.

At the end of training and coaching interventions, emotional intelligence level of participants (at posttest stage) was measured. The following section of current chapter describes measurement tools, data analysis tools and concerned constructs. 73

3.7. MEASUREMENTS

Researcher used measurement scales for variables of concern in current study after getting permission from the owners of copy rights. After getting permission to use the scales in current research study, researcher got these scales translated into Urdu language. A bi-lingual (English and Urdu) version for each measurement scale was used in this study. The following details relate to the instruments used in current study:

i. Ten Item Personality Measure (TIPI) by Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., and Swann, W. B. (2013). ii. NAQ-R – Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised by Einarsen, Hoel and Notelaers, (2009). iii. Emotional Intelligence Scale by Bradberry and Greaves, (2009). iv. In-Role Performance scale by Williams and Anderson (1991). v. Extra-Role Performance Scale by Farh, Earley, and Lin (1997).

3.8. DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE AND TECHNIQUES

Researcher used MS Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 21.0 Version) in current study for analyzing collected data. Researcher used tests for descriptive statistics, normality analysis, parametric tests & non-parametric tests for measuring differences, and Hay’s process macros for moderator analysis in current study.

3.9. CONSTRUCTS OF THE STUDY

The following are constructs (operational definitions) of variables that were used in the study:

3.9.1. Bullying

For the sake of using ‘bullying’ as a variable in current study, researcher defines bullying by using the definition provided by U.S. Department of Health & Human Resources (2011). Bullying is defined as an unwanted and aggressive behavior of people which involves a real or perceived imbalance of power. Bullying is a repeated negative behavior repeated over time. It also includes the negative behavior that has the potential to be repeated over time. There are two core dimensions of the bullying behavior; imbalance of power, and repetition. First, the imbalance of power induces people to bully others due to physical strength, access to embarrassing information, or popularity in order 74

to harm or control others. Power imbalances can change over time and in different situations, even if they involve the same people. Second, bullying behaviors happen more than once or have the potential to happen more than once. Hence, bullying includes all unwanted and aggressive which are repeated over time such as creating threats, spreading rumors, attacking someone physically or verbally, and excluding someone from a group on purpose. Both the bully and victims may have serious and lasting problems.

There are three major types of bullying. They include the following categories:

(i) Verbal bullying (ii) Social bullying, (iii) Physical bullying.

The verbal bullying is saying or writing cheap/mean things. It includes teasing, name-calling, inappropriate sexual comments, taunting, and threatening to cause harm. Social bullying, sometimes referred to as relational bullying, involves hurting someone’s reputation or relationships. Social bullying includes: leaving someone out on purpose, telling other children not to be friends with someone, spreading rumors about someone, and embarrassing someone in public. Physical bullying involves hurting a person’s body or possessions. Physical bullying includes: hitting/kicking/pinching, spitting, tripping/pushing, taking or breaking someone’s things, and making mean or rude hand gestures.

3.9.2. Employee Performance

For the sake of using ‘employee performance’ as a variable in current study, researcher defines employee performance as an achievement of goals in an effective and efficient manner. High performance of the employee shows how well he performs his job duties and extra-role activities needed for the achievement of goals. Employee performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success and job performance is an individual level variable that means what a single person does (Campbell, 1990; Campbell et al., 1993).

The researcher defines employee performance as defined by Borman & Motowidlo (1993) who divided the employee performance into two dimensions; in-role performance, and extra-role performance. The in-role performances consist of obligatory tasks required by a job whereas the extra-role performance includes organizational citizenship behaviors 75

that contribute to the goals of the organization by creating a positive impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002).

3.9.3. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM)

The Transtheoretical model is a model of changing behaviors by assessing a person’s readiness to adopt a new healthier behavior. The model proposes various strategies to change behaviors of the subjects by providing specific guidelines. These guideline are based on the findings of previous analysis done by using different theories of psychotherapy into this model. The model was originally developed by James O. Prochaska of the University of Rhode Island & colleagues in 1977. However, they refined this model continuously. They also included four core constructs in updated model which include: (i) stages of change, (ii) processes of change, (iii) decisional balance and (iv) self-efficacy (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992a).

3.9.4. Emotional Intelligence

For the sake of using ‘emotional intelligence’ as a variable in current study, researcher has used the definition and the model, “the mixed model”, of emotional intelligence (EI) provided by Danial Goleman (2011). He defines emotional intelligence as the ability through which a person can screen his/her own emotions, other persons’ emotions, differentiate between various emotions and label them and consequently he/she can use these emotional information to guide his/her thinking and behavior. An emotionally intelligent person is able to differentiate between different emotions and he/she devises an accurate and effective plan of action to respond in different situations and scenarios (Goleman, 1998). He further argues that he/she could be an effective handler of others’ emotions by manipulating situations, body language, and conversations to manage and regulate others’ emotions in a direction favorable to the situation or goals of the parties. Hence, researcher believes EI to be a skill which can be developed and enhanced in the employees. The researcher believes that the enhanced level of EI results in positive outcomes especially employee performance.

3.9.5. Emotional Intelligence Skills

The researcher has used four basic EI skills which are named differently by the scholars. They include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and social management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). A brief description of these four EI skills is 76

provided as under: i. Self-Awareness: It is a person’s ability to accurately perceive own emotions and stay aware of them as they happen. This skill is a mirror of a person’s tendencies while responding to specific situations and people. ii. Self-Management: This is a person’s ability to use awareness of his/her emotions to stay flexible and positively direct his/her behavior. This is a practical phase in which a person controls his/her emotional reactions to specific situations and people. iii. Social Awareness: Social-awareness is a person’s ability to accurately understand and focus on other people’s emotions in a true sense. This ability enables a person to understand what other people are thinking and feeling even if he/she does not feel in the same way. Through this ability, a person can evaluate others’ emotions irrespective of his/her own emotion. iv. Relationship Management: This is a person’s ability to effectively use self- awareness and social-awareness skills while interacting with other people or situations. This ability focuses on effective communication and conflict management in difficult situations.

3.10. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

Keeping in view the objectives of reducing the incidence of workplace bullying and mitigating its negative impact on employee performance of the victims, current study used pretest-posttest experimental design to measure bullying incidence, emotional intelligence and employee performance. In pretest stage, data from two hundred and one (201) employees was taken. After initial analysis, 25 bullies and 126 victims were identified. Twenty two bullies agreed to participate in tertiary level (post-bullying stage) TTM anti-bullying interventions. On the other hand 36 victims participated in emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. At posttest stage, workplace bullying behaviors, emotional intelligence and employee performance were measured through cited measurement scales. Detailed results of these measurements along with their discussions are presented in next chapter.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Current study was conducted to achieve objectives including: identifying bullies and victims in workplace bullying incidence; assessing employee performance & level of emotional intelligence of victims; developing & implementing The Transtheoretical Model to identified bullies for reducing their bullying incidence; and implementing emotional intelligence training interventions to identified victims for mitigating adverse effect of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance of the victims. Researcher used one group pretest-posttest design to carry out current study in order to achieve above stated set objectives.

After the identification of bullies and victims, researcher classified respondents into two groups: (i) bullies’ group, and (ii) victims’ group. First group was given anti-bullying TTM tertiary level training interventions for reducing workplace bullying behaviors/incidence of identified bullies. For second group, researcher assessed employee performance scores and the level of emotional intelligence of these identified victims. Identified victims with low EI level were selected and provided EI training interventions on the assertion that employees with higher level of EI had enhanced employee performance. These victims also scored low on employee performance which confirmed already presumed notion. The study also assessed moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the inverse relationship between workplace bullying incidence and employee performance. It was hypothesized that higher level of emotional intelligence of victims mitigated negative effect of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims. Current study was carried through the following three (03) sequential stages:

4.1. STAGES OF THE STUDY

The following stages were included in the study: i. Stage 1: Pretest ii. Stage 2: Treatment of Bullies’ Group iii. Stage 3: Treatment of Victims’ Group

4.2. SEQUENCE OF THE STUDY

The following steps were taken to complete the study:

77 78

i. Step 1: Bullies and victims in workplace bullying incidence were identified. ii. Step 2: Tertiary stage The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) anti-bullying interventions were implemented to reduce bullies’ bullying incidence. iii. Step 3: Pretest employee performance of identified victims was measured. iv. Step 4: Pretest emotional intelligence of identified victims was measured. v. Step 5: Emotional intelligence training interventions were implemented for identified victims to enhance their existing EI level. vi. Step 6: Post-test data was collected from identified bullies and victims vii. Step 7: Effectiveness of Tertiary stage The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) anti-bullying interventions and emotional intelligence training interventions was evaluated.

This chapter of the dissertation has been arranged according to sequential stages. Results of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are provided as per the objectives of the study in the section given below.

4.3. STAGE 1: PRETEST

In pretest stage of current study, workplace bullying incidence was measured and parties involved in workplace bullying incidence were identified as “bullies” and “victims”. Pretest data was collected by using NAQ-R of Einarsen et al. (2009) after getting permission. Respondents indicated frequency of their experience and/or involvement in bullying behaviors during last six (06) months (1. Never, 2. Now and Then, 3. Monthly, 4. Weekly, 5. Daily). The rating 1 refers to no bullying, 2 refers to bullying incidence of now and then, 3 refers to monthly bullying behaviors, 4 refers to weekly bullying and 5 refers to daily bullying. A cut of point of 2 (now and then) was utilized to diagnose workplace bullying incidence, identify bullies and identify victims. NAQ-R measures twenty two negative acts that are treated as workplace bullying behaviours. Those types are classified in three distinct categories of personal bullying, work-related bullying and physical bullying. However, all twenty two potentially bullying behaviors may not be experienced by a person at the same time.

4.3.1. Bullies’ Group

The following details pertain to the information regarding the person who were involved in workplace bullying (bullies): 79

Table 4.1: Bullies’ group

Sr. No. Respondent No. Party Score on Negative Acts Questionnaire 1. 10. Bully 2.08 2. 14. Bully 2.4 3. 21. Bully 2.12 4. 24. Bully 1.92 5. 32. Bully 2.12 6. 46. Bully 2.08 7. 50. Bully 2.4 8. 57. Bully 2.12 9. 60. Bully 1.92 10. 68. Bully 2.12 11. 82. Bully 2.08 12. 86. Bully 2.4 13. 93. Bully 2.12 14. 96. Bully 1.92 15. 104. Bully 2.12 16. 118. Bully 2.08 17. 122. Bully 2.4 18. 129. Bully 2.12 19. 132. Bully 1.92 20. 140. Bully 2.12 21. 154. Bully 2.08 22. 158. Bully 2.4 23. 165. Bully 2.12 24. 202. Bully 1.96 25. 252. Bully 1.96 Total Number of Bullies 25 Grand Total 266

Table 4.1 reveals important insights about the bullies who were involved in workplace bullying incidence. There were twenty five person who were rated as bullies according to their rating on Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R) scale. The employees who got a score of 1.92 were involved in bullying other employees. On the other hand, the persons who got higher scores on this scale were found to be consistently and severely bullying other employees at workplace.

4.3.2. Demographics of Bullies’ Group

The following details pertain to the demographic information regarding the person who were involved in workplace bullying (bullies): 80

Table 4.2: Demographics of bullies’ group

Work Gender No. %age Marital Status No. %age Age Group No. %age Education No. %age No. %age Experience Male 12 48 Unmarried 6 24 26-35 12 48 Bachelors 8 32 6-10 14 56 Female 13 52 Married 8 32 36-45 3 12 Masters 17 68 11 or Above 4 16 Don't Want to 11 44 46 or Above 10 40 Don't Want to 7 28

Answer Answer Total 25 100 25 100 25 100 25 100 25 100

Table 4.2 revealed that out of twenty five (25) bullies, there were twelve (12) male bullies (48%) bullies and 13 females (52%) were bullies. As far as marital status of the bullies was concerned, out of twenty five bullies, six (06) bullies (24%) were unmarried, eight (08) bullies (32%) were married whereas remaining eleven (11) bullies (44%) did not answer about their marital status. As far as age groups of the bullies were concerned, majority of the bullies (48%) were falling in the age group of 26-35 years’ age group whereas ten (40%) bullies were falling in the age group of 46-Above years’ age group and only three (12%) bullies related to the age group of 36-45 years’ age group. As far as education of the bullies was concerned, seventeen (68%) bullies had Master’s Degree and eight (32%) bullies had Bachelor’s Degree. With respect to job/work experience of the bullies, fourteen (56%) bullies had work experience of 6-10 years, four (16%) bullies had work experience of 11-or-Above years while seven (28%) bullies did not answer/tell about their marital status.

By analyzing the results obtained by cross tabulating demographic variables of the respondents, it was asserted that targeting others and making them victims of bullying was not associated with any specific demographic variables. The results showed that both the bullies’ group consisted of both the genders (male and female). Some bullies were married, some unmarried and some were reluctant to answer. Bullies belonged to all age groups including young and old age persons. Bullies’ group consisted of employees with diversified work experiences. Bullies had work/job experience ranging from 1 year to more than 11 years. Form these results, researcher concluded that demographic variables of the bullies were not significantly affecting their bullying behaviors.

The results obtained regarding personality traits of victims induced researcher to probe into the personality traits of bullies too. This exploration was aimed at finding this important aspect when the incidence of bullying was referred. The following section provides information regarding personality traits of bullies.

4.3.3. Personality Traits of Bullies’ Group

After getting demographic information of bullies’ group, researcher explored personality traits of the bullied to describe their personality traits. Perosnlaity traits were explored on highly respected Five Factor model (FFM) of personality. The following details pertain to the demographic information regarding the person who were involved in workplace bullying (bullies): 82

Table 4.3: Personality traits of bullies’ group

Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional Stability Openness to Experiences Total

Number 6 1 6 6 6 25 Percentage (%) 24 4 24 24 24 100

Table 4.3 revealed information about personality traits of bullies through reliable self-reported scale (Cronbach Alpha=0.902 for current study). TIPI distinguishes each individual on 5 distinct traits according to the scores obtained. However, it helps in identifying and rating each individual on just one personality trait form all of five traits. Results showed that 24% respondetns belonged to personality trait of extraversion, 24% belonged to conscientiousness, 24% belonged to emotional stability, 24% belonged to openness to experience while only 4% identified bullies belonged to agreeableness. Hence, researcher concluded that every type of personality trait was involved in workplace bullying except agreeableness.

4.3.4. Victims’ Group

Following details pertain to demographic information of identified victims:

Table 4.4: Victims’ group

Sr. No. Respondent No. Party NAQ Scores 1. 4. Victim 1.9 2. 5. Victim 1.9 3. 9. Victim 1.9 4. 11. Victim 1.9 5. 12. Victim 1.9 6. 19. Victim 1.9 7. 20. Victim 1.9 8. 22. Victim 2.36 9. 23. Victim 1.92 10. 28. Victim 1.9 11. 30. Victim 1.9 12. 33. Victim 1.9 13. 34. Victim 1.9 14. 35. Victim 2.6 15. 40. Victim 1.9 16. 41. Victim 1.9 17. 45. Victim 1.9 18. 47. Victim 1.9 19. 48. Victim 1.9

20. 55. Victim 1.9 21. 56. Victim 1.9 22. 58. Victim 2.36 23. 59. Victim 1.92 24. 64. Victim 1.9 25. 66. Victim 1.9 26. 69. Victim 1.9 27. 70. Victim 1.9 28. 71. Victim 2.6 29. 76. Victim 1.9 30. 77. Victim 1.9 31. 81. Victim 1.9 32. 83. Victim 1.9 33. 84. Victim 1.9 34. 91. Victim 1.9 35. 92. Victim 1.9 36. 94. Victim 2.36 37. 95. Victim 1.92 38. 98. Victim 3.36 39. 100. Victim 1.9 40. 102. Victim 1.9 41. 105. Victim 1.9 42. 106. Victim 1.9 43. 107. Victim 2.6 44. 112. Victim 1.9 45. 113. Victim 1.9 46. 117. Victim 1.9 47. 119. Victim 1.9 48. 120. Victim 1.9 49. 127. Victim 1.9 50. 128. Victim 1.9 51. 130. Victim 2.36 52. 131. Victim 1.92 53. 134. Victim 3.36 54. 136. Victim 1.9 55. 138. Victim 1.9 56. 141. Victim 1.9 57. 142. Victim 1.9 58. 143. Victim 2.6 59. 148. Victim 1.9 60. 149. Victim 1.9 61. 153. Victim 1.9 85

62. 155. Victim 1.9 63. 156. Victim 1.9 64. 163. Victim 1.9 65. 164. Victim 1.9 66. 166. Victim 2.36 67. 167. Victim 2.24 68. 168. Victim 2.24 69. 169. Victim 2.08 70. 174. Victim 1.9 71. 177. Victim 1.9 72. 178. Victim 2.76 73. 180. Victim 2.48 74. 181. Victim 2.32 75. 182. Victim 2.92 76. 184. Victim 1.9 77. 186. Victim 2.56 78. 187. Victim 1.9 79. 189. Victim 1.92 80. 192. Victim 2.4 81. 193. Victim 2.56 82. 194. Victim 2.16 83. 195. Victim 2.08 84. 196. Victim 2.64 85. 204. Victim 2.44 86. 205. Victim 1.9 87. 206. Victim 2.16 88. 207. Victim 2.8 89. 208. Victim 2.16 90. 210. Victim 2.36 91. 211. Victim 2.52 92. 212. Victim 2.6 93. 213. Victim 2.64 94. 214. Victim 2.16 95. 215. Victim 2.4 96. 216. Victim 2.52 97. 217. Victim 2.24 98. 218. Victim 2.24 99. 219. Victim 2.08 100. 224. Victim 1.9 101. 227. Victim 1.9 102. 228. Victim 2.76 103. 230. Victim 2.48 104. 231. Victim 2.32 86

105. 232. Victim 2.92 106. 234. Victim 1.9 107. 236. Victim 2.56 108. 237. Victim 1.9 109. 239. Victim 1.92 110. 242. Victim 2.4 111. 243. Victim 2.56 112. 244. Victim 2.16 113. 245. Victim 2.08 114. 246. Victim 2.64 115. 254. Victim 2.44 116. 255. Victim 1.9 117. 256. Victim 2.16 118. 257. Victim 2.8 119. 258. Victim 2.16 120. 260. Victim 2.36 121. 261. Victim 2.52 122. 262. Victim 2.6 123. 263. Victim 2.64 124. 264. Victim 2.16 125. 265. Victim 2.4 126. 266. Victim 2.52 Total Number of Victims 126 Grand Total 266

Results provided in table 4.4 show that from a total number of 266 respondents, 126 respondents were identified and rated as victims in the incidence of workplace bullying. This rating was done according to Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R) scale. Similar to the identification criteria of bullies, researcher set a cut-off value of 1.90 on Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R) scale which means that employees who had experienced negative acts for a minimum time period of six months were rated as victims. The victims who got higher scores on this scale were found to be consistently and severely the victim of bullying behaviors.

After finding the scores of employees and identifying them as victims, researcher documented the demographic information of identified victim employees below section.

4.3.5. Demographics of Victims’ Group

The following details pertain to the demographic information regarding the person who were the victims of workplace bullying incidence: 87

Table 4.5: Demographics of victims’ group

Gender No. %age Marital Status No. %age Age Group No. %age Education No. %age Work Experience No. %age Male 96 76 Unmarried 31 24.60 18-25 12 9.52 Matric 1 0.79 Less Than 1 Year 18 14.29 Female 30 24 Married 91 72.22 26-35 38 30.16 Intermediate 11 8.73 1-5 40 31.75 Separated 1 0.79 36-45 26 20.63 Bachelors 39 30.95 6-10 46 36.51 Don't Want to 3 2.38 46 or Above 2 1.59 Masters 68 53.97 11 or Above 22 17.46 Answer Did not 48 38.10 MS/M.Phil/ 7 5.56 Answer PhD Total 126 100 126 100 126 100 126 100 126 100

Table 4.5 revealed that out of one hundred and twenty six (126) victims, there were ninety six (76%) male victims and 30 (24%) female victims. Thirty one (24.6%) victims were unmarried, ninety one victims (72.2%) were married, one (0.79%) victim was separated and three (2.38%) victims did not answer about their marital status. Majority of the victims (38.1%) did not answer about their ages, twelve victims (9.52%) were falling in the age group of 18-25 years’ age group, thirty eight (30.16%) victims were falling in 26-35 years’ age group, twenty six (20.63%) victims were falling in 36-45 years’ age group and two (1.59%) victims were falling in 46-or-Above years’ age group. As far as education of the victims is concerned, one victim (0.79%) had matric education, eleven (8.73%) had intermediate level education, thirty nine (30.95%) had graduation, sixty eight (53.97%) had master’s degree and seven (5.56%) had MS/M.Phil/PhD educational qualification. According to experience, eighteen (14.29%) victims had less than one year experience, forty (31.75%) victims had experience of 1-5 years, forty six (36.51%) had work experience of 6-10 years and twenty two (17.46%) victims had work experience of 11-or-Above years.

Careful analysis of results obtained by cross tabulating demographic variables of the victims revealed that victims belonged to all types of demographies. Both the males and females were victims of workplace bullying incidence. Some victims were married, some unmarried and some were reluctant to answer about their marital status. Besides this, victims belonged to all age groups including young and old age employees. They also had diversified work experiences ranging from 1 year to more than 11 years. Form these results, researcher concluded that emloyees experience bullying behaviors irrespective of their gender, marital status, age, education and length of their work experience. Any employee can be a victim of workplace bullying without special reference to his/her demographic characteristics.

After documenting the demographic information of victim employees, researcher was interested in documenting personality traits of identified victim. The information regarding personality traits of identified victims is provided in the section given below.

4.3.6. Personality Traits of Victims’ Group

The following details pertain to the demographic information regarding the person who were the victims of workplace bullying incidence:

Table 4.6: Personality traits of victims’ group

Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional Stability Openness to Experiences Total

Number 21 42 25 20 18 126 Percentage (%) 16.67 33.33 19.84 15.87 14.29 100

Table 4.6 showed information about the personality traits of victims of workplace bullying incidence. A majority of the victims, 42 victims (33.33%) belonged to the personality trait of agreeableness. Twenty five (19.84%) belonged to the personality trait of conscientiousness, twenty one (16.67%) of the victims belonged to the personality trait of extraversion, twenty victims (15.87%) belonged to the personality trait of emotional stability, and eighteen victims (14.29%) belonged to the personality trait of openness to experience. Hence, researcher concluded that the persons with personality trait of agreeableness became the victims of workplace bullying incidence more frequently.

Objective 1: Bullying incidence was found, Bullies and Victims were identified. Hence, hypothesis 1 was accepted.

4.4. STAGE 2: TREATMENT OF BULLY GROUP

After formation of groups, bullies’ group was requested to undergo the process of anti-bullying The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) training interventions to be implemented at tertiary level in order to reduce bullying behaviors of the bullies. Twenty two (22) identified bullies agreed to be the part of this anti-bullying intervention. An informed singed consent was taken from them on a standard consent form. The following table shows the number of bullies along with their respective stages of change:

Table 4.7: Pre-training identification of stage of change

Group Number of Participant Stage of Change Stage Name A 19 1 Pre-contemplation B 3 2 Contemplation C - 3 Preparation D - 4 Action E - 5 Maintenance F - 6 Termination Total 22

On the basis of above classification, researcher divided agreed subjects into two groups, named as “A” and “B”, according to the stage of change in which they were falling. Various TTM behavior modification experiential processes, behavioral processes and strategies were applied according to the stages of change of subject bullies. Self- efficacy measurements for the respondents revealed that the participants were willing and

committed to change their bullying behavior. For group “A” comprising of nineteen (19) subject bullies who were falling in pre-contemplation stage of change in TTM, principle of decisional balance along with processes of consciousness raising and social liberation were used.

After successful completion of first stage of change for Group “A”, these subject bullies were added to group “B” along with three (03) other subject bullies. Consequently, twenty two (22) bully participants were added in group “B” which referred to contemplation stage of change in TTM. They were, then, provided briefing about Decisional Balance and five major processes; (i) Environmental Re-evaluation (consider others), (ii) Dramatic Relief (increasing emotional awareness), (iii) Consciousness Raising (becoming more informed), (iv) Self-Re-evaluation, and (v) Self-Liberation (making a commitment) were utilized. Under TTM, bullies underwent through three major phases of experiential processes [i. Consciousness Raising, ii. Dramatic Relief (Pay Attention to Feelings), iii. Environmental re-evaluation (Notice Your Effect on Others), iv. Self-re-evaluation (Create a New Self-Image), v. Social liberation (Notice Public Support) Processes], behavioral processes [i. Self-liberation, ii. Helping relationship, iii. Counter conditioning, iv. Reinforcement management, v. Stimulus control], and change strategies. In experiential processes, the bullies were asked to note their experiences regarding their experiential tendencies towards involvement vs quitting bullying behaviors. In experiential processes consciousness about disadvantages of exhibiting bullying behaviors and advantages of quitting bullying behaviors were raised. The bullies were asked to pay attention to feelings that motivate them to quit bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to note effects of their bullying behaviors on others and quit bullying if they evaluated a negative self-image. And, finally, they were asked to get social support that they found by reducing their bullying behaviors. While in behavioral processes, the bullies were asked to go through planned actions regarding their tendencies towards inducement of quitting bullying behaviors. The bullies were asked to remain committed towards their goal to reduce bullying behaviors. They were asked to get and use social support for reducing their bullying behaviors. They were also induced to note the positive rewards found in case they had reduce their bullying behaviors. There were only two stages in which all bullies were falling i.e. (i) Group “A” of nineteen (19) identified bullies falling in Pre-contemplation Stage of Change, and (ii) Group “B” of three (03) identified bullies falling in Contemplation Stage of Change. Self-efficacy measurements for the respondents revealed that the participants were willing and committed to change their 92

bullying behaviors.

After six (06) months of tertiary level anti-bullying TTM intervention implementation, the data was obtained by using NAQ-R at posttest phase. But before applying inferential statistics to check interventions’ effectiveness, researcher checked following basic assumptions as whether to use parametric or non-parametric tests: i. Normally distributed data ii. Homogeneity of variance iii. Interval data iv. Independence

4.4.1. Normality Analysis

There are various statistical tools available to check normality in the data set. For normally distributed data sets, parametric tests are applied whereas in case of non- normally distributed data sets non-parametric tests are deemed appropriate. The assumption of “normally distributed data” can be checked through analyzing Skewness and Kurtosis of the data set. A normally distributed data set shows symmetry i.e. a bell shaped data set with equivalent left and right side prevalence from its center. It means that Skewness is a good measure of checking symmetry or lack of symmetry present in the data set. On the contrary, Kurtosis measures the flatness or “Peakness” of data set showing heavy-tailed or light-tailed data set. A flat or low tailed kurtosis data set shows minimum outliers and normal distribution of data set. Hence, these test serve as a tool to check normality of a data set. In diagrammatic representation of normality, histogram is considered to be an effective graphical technique for showing both the skewness and kurtosis of data set.

For this purpose, researcher applied descriptive statistics to see skewness & kurtosis and Kolmogorov-Smirnova & Shapiro-Wilk tests of normality to check whether or not the data sets were normally distributed. The results of the analysis are described as under:

Table 4.8: Case processing summary

Valid Missing Total N Percent N Percent N Percent Pretest_Bullying 22 100.0% 0 0.0% 22 100.0% Posttest_Bullying 22 100.0% 0 0.0% 22 100.0% 93

Case processing summary shows that there were twenty two subjects in both the pre-intervention implementation and post-intervention implementation stages. Whereas, there was no subject (bully) in preparation stage, action stage, maintenance stage, and termination stage.

After getting information regarding the subjects and their respective stages, researcher applied skewness and kurtosis test. Data was collected for both the phases: (i) pre-intervention implementation, and (ii) post-intervention implementation phase. The results of skewness and kurtosis analysis are provided in the table given below:

Table 4.9: Skewness and kurtosis

Descriptives Statistic Std. Error Mean 2.0855 .02751 Lower Bound 2.0282 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Upper Bound 2.1427 5% Trimmed Mean 2.0772 Median 2.1000 Variance .017 Pretest_ Std. Deviation .12905 Bullying Minimum 1.92 Maximum 2.40 Range .48 Interquartile Range .16 Skewness .988 .491 Kurtosis 1.795 .953 Mean 1.4459 .04390 Lower Bound 1.3546 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Upper Bound 1.5372 5% Trimmed Mean 1.4247 Posttest_ Median 1.4200 Bullying Variance .042 Std. Deviation .20593 Minimum 1.16 Maximum 2.12 94

Range .96 Interquartile Range .13 Skewness 2.296 .491 Kurtosis 6.039 .953

The value of T-statistic of Skewness 2.0129 (0.988/0.491=2.0129) shows that the data set was not normally distributed before intervention implementation whereas the value of T-statistic of kurtosis 1.8835 (1.795/0.953=1.8835) shows that the data set was normal w.r.t skewness at pre-intervention implementation stage. However, by combining these results it was concluded that the data set was not normally distributed. It means that the data set was not bell shaped distribution but it was flat-tailed. Both these measures, pre-intervention implementation stage, are shown in the histogram provided below:

Figure 4.1: Histogram for bullies’ group-pre-intervention

The table further revealed T-statistic of Skewness 4.676 (2.296/0.491=4.676) which showed that the data set for was not normally distributed after TTM intervention implementation. Hence, a positive skenewss in the data set was found. On the other hand, in terms of Kurtosis, the value of T-statistic of kurtosis 6.337 (6.039/0.953=6.337) showed that the data set was not normally distributed in terms of “Peakness” when it was collected at post-intervention implementation stage. The Kurtosis analysis showed a value more than the standard value of 1.96 which means that the data set was not bell 95

shaped distribution but well in its Peakness. Both these measures are shown in the histogram provided below:

Figure 4.2: Histogram for bullies’ group-post-intervention

After checking the normality through skewness and kurtosis, researcher validated these normality results through Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk tests. These tests compare the scores in the sample to a normally distributed set of scores with the same mean and standard deviation. The results of Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk tests are shown as under:

Table 4.10: Tests of normality Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig. Statistic df Sig. Pretest_Bullying .304 22 .000 .804 22 .001 Posttest_Bullying .298 22 .000 .716 22 .000 a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

The results of Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk test were significant with p-values of 0.000 and p-value of 0.0001 respectively. These values were lesser than 96

the standard value of 0.05. These results showed that the distribution of the sample in pretest bullying measurement data set was significantly different from a normal distribution (not normally distributed data set). On the other hand, the results of Kolmogorov– Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk test were significant with pa-value of 0.000 and p-value of 0001 respectively which were less than 0.05. These results showed that the distribution of the sample posttest bullying measurement data set was also significantly different from a normal distribution (not normally distributed data set). By comparing these results, it was concluded that the data set was not normally distributed.

Consequently, researcher decided to use non-parametric test i.e. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test an equivalent of the paired sample t-test (or a Mann–Whitney test for repeated measures data) for the data set which was not normally distributed.

4.5. WILCOXON SIGNED RANKS TEST

The following table shows the results of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test:

Table 4.11: Descriptive statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Pretest_Bullying 22 2.0855 .12905 1.92 2.40 Posttest_Bullying 22 1.4459 .20593 1.16 2.12

The results of descriptive statistics showed that there was a 0.6396 decrease (2.0855 - 1.4459 = 0.6396) in the mean value of bullying behaviors of the bullies at workplace after implementation of anti-bullying TTM intervention for the participants. This score was 2.0855 when anti-bullying, tertiary level, TTM interventions were not implemented to the subjects. This means that the bullying incidence exhibited by the bullies was reduced. Hence, on the basis of the results obtained by descriptive statistics, researcher concluded that when tertiary level anti-bullying TTM interventions were implemented to the bullies, their bullying behavior was changed and consequently they ceased their bullying behavior.

In order to find results of test statistics of Wilcoxon signed ranks test, researcher explored (positive/negative) signed ranks. The results of test statistics are shown in the following table including the information regarding the difference in scores due to implementation of tertiary level anti-bullying TTM interventions: 97

Table 4.12: Signed ranks

N Mean Sum of Rank Ranks Negative Ranks 21a 11.95 251.00 Posttest_Bullying - Positive Ranks 1b 2.00 2.00 Pretest_Bullying Ties 0c Total 22 a. Posttest_Bullying < Pretest_Bullying b. Posttest_Bullying > Pretest_Bullying c. Posttest_Bullying = Pretest_Bullying

The results documented ranked scores after TTM interventions implementation. Results showed that there were 21 participants who were ranked negatively and only 1 participant was ranked positively. These results revealed that 21 bullies had reduced workplace bullying incidence. On the contrary, increased bullying behavior of only 1 participant was reported after implementation of tertiary level anti-bullying the Transtheoretical model interventions.

Table 4.13: Test statistics

Posttest_Bullying - Pretest_Bullying Z -4.048b Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test b. Based on positive ranks.

Test statistic is based on the negative ranks. Results showed that the z-score was negative (−4.048) with the significance value (p = .000) lesser than 0.05. Since, significance (p-value) value was based on the negative ranks, researcher concluded that when the bullies were provided anti-bullying TTM intervention, there was a significant decrease in their bullying behavior (z = − 4.048, p < .05). Following details pertain to effect size of these interventions:

z−score Effect size = √number of observations − 4.048 rTTM = √22 = - 0.8630365 98

These results revealed a negative change in bullying behavior of the subject bullies who went under anti-bullying TTM interventions. The value of “Cohen’s D” (0.86) was well above the bench mark value of 0.5 that showed a large effect size of these interventions. Hence, researcher concluded that anti-bullying TTM interventions applied at tertiary level had successfully reduced workplace bullying incidence with large effect size. These results are also presented by the trend lines given below:

Figure 4.3: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-pre-intervention

Figure 4.3 showed that identified bullies were exhibiting significant level of workplace bullying behaviors in pretest stage. They scored more than two on negative acts questionnaire that meant they were involved in bullying others.

Figure 4.4: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-post-intervention

Figure 4.4 showed that identified bullies had ceased bullying behaviors after implementation of anti-bullying interventions. They scored more than two on negative acts questionnaire that meant they were involved in bullying others.

Pre and Post Intervention Workplace Bullying 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122

Pre-Bullying Post-Bullying Linear (Pre-Bullying) Linear (Post-Bullying)

Figure 4.5: Trend line for workplace bullying incidence-comparison

Comparative trend lines of figure 4.5, it was shown that identified bullies had significantly reduced bullying behaviors after implementation of anti-bullying interventions. Their scores were decreased in posttest measurements.

Objective 2: Implementation of TTM intervention had reduced bullying incidence by the bullies with a large effect.

4.6. STAGE 3: TREATMENT OF VICTIM GROUP

In stage 3, researcher identified victims in the incidence of workplace bullying. After identification, employee performance and emotional intelligence (EI) scores of these victims were measured. Following table shows results of employee performance scores (in-role and extra role) and EI scores of 101 identified victims:

Table 4.14: Employee performance and emotional intelligence of identified victims

Sr. Respondent In-Role Extra-Role Overall EI No. No. Performance Performance Performance 1. 9 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 2. 11. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 100

3. 12. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 4. 19. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 5. 20. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 6. 22. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 7. 23. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 8. 24. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 9. 26. 4 4.14 4.07 75 10. 28. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 11. 30. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 12. 33. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 13. 34. 4 4.07 4.04 62 14. 35. 3.86 5 4.43 50 15. 45. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 16. 47. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 17. 48. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 18. 55. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 19. 56. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 20. 58. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 21. 59. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 22. 60. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 23. 62. 4 4.14 4.07 75 24. 64. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 25. 66. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 26. 69. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 27. 70. 4 4.07 4.04 62 28. 71. 3.86 5 4.43 50 29. 81. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 30. 83. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 31. 84. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 32. 91. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 33. 92. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 34. 94. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 35. 95. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 36. 96. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 101

37. 98. 4 4.14 4.07 75 38. 100. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 39. 102. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 40. 105. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 41. 106. 4 4.07 4.04 62 42. 107. 3.86 5 4.43 50 43. 117. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 44. 119. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 45. 120. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 46. 127. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 47. 128. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 48. 130. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 49. 131. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 50. 132. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 51. 134. 4 4.14 4.07 75 52. 136. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 53. 138. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 54. 141. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 55. 142. 4 4.07 4.04 62 56. 143. 3.86 5 4.43 50 57. 153. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 58. 155. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 59. 156. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 60. 163. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 61. 164. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 62. 166. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 63. 167. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 64. 168. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 65. 170. 4 4.14 4.07 75 66. 172. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 67. 174. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 68. 177. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 69. 178. 4 4.07 4.04 62 70. 179. 3.86 5 4.43 50 102

71. 189. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 72. 191. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 73. 192. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 74. 199. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 75. 200. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 76. 202. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 77. 203. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 78. 204. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 79. 206. 4 4.14 4.07 75 80. 208. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 81. 210. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 82. 213. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 83. 214. 4 4.07 4.04 62 84. 215. 3.86 5 4.43 50 85. 225. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 86. 227. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 87. 228. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77 88. 235. 3.43 3.07 3.25 63 89. 236. 2.71 1.93 2.32 63 90. 238. 3.29 2.64 2.96 76 91. 239. 3.71 3.5 3.61 76 92. 240. 3.57 2.21 2.89 58 93. 242. 4 4.14 4.07 75 94. 244. 3.86 4.07 3.96 88 95. 246. 3.71 3.93 3.82 82 96. 249. 3.86 4.71 4.29 35 97. 250. 4 4.07 4.04 62 98. 251. 3.86 5 4.43 50 99. 261. 3.57 4.36 3.96 70 100. 263. 3.57 2.21 2.89 70 101. 264. 3.43 3.07 3.25 77

In the next phase of this study, researcher used single-variable experimental design with only one (01) independent variable i.e. emotional intelligence and one (01) dependent variable i.e. employee performance. One-group pretest-posttest experimental 103

research design was used by the current study. In pretest stage before applying intervention, data was collected to identify the victims who had lower level of emotional intelligence in order to provide them EI training and coaching interventions and collect posttest stage data after providing emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. The victims having low level of emotional intelligence were chosen as the subjects. An informed consent form was signed by 36 identified victims who agreed to be the part (subjects) of emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions.

Researcher manipulated independent variable i.e. emotional intelligence by developing emotional intelligence intervention in the light of guidance provided by Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) in the EI Appraisal Me Edition Booklet. The participants were provided emotional intelligence intervention to enhance their EI level. The interventions included weekly two (02) interactive group sessions of two (02) hours each per week in which introduction to emotional intelligence, importance of emotional intelligence with a special focus on life success and performance at workplace, types of emotional intelligence skills and the phenomenon of learning and enhancing emotional intelligence were discussed. After introduction to emotional intelligence, the participants were provided training for self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management skills.

Researcher played the role of coach for the employees having low level of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions were applied as provided by Bradberry & Greaves, (2009) in the EI Appraisal-Me Edition Booklet. The participants were provided emotional intelligence intervention in interactive group sessions. At the start, participants were briefed about emotional intelligence, importance of emotional intelligence with a special focus on life success and performance at workplace, types of emotional intelligence skills and the phenomenon of learning and enhancing emotional intelligence. There were two action plans executed to enhance self- awareness skill of the participants. The participants were asked to understand and record their general tendencies while responding to different people and situations. “Practice Watching Your Emotions like a Hawk” was made a fundamental principle in the first action plan followed by second action plan to “Track your tendencies in different emotionally arousing situations”. As a complementar part, the participants were required to develop self-management skill by keeping a pulse on their emotions so that they might stay flexible and react positively to different situations and/or people. They were asked 104

to understand the situations and manage their emotions according to their best interest. There were three action plans executed in this step. “Take an honest look at when you are being overwhelmed by your feelings” was made a fundamental principle in the first action plan, “Take the reins and quit letting your emotions lead you around” was required in the second and “Get ready for change because it is waiting around the corner” was required in third action plan.

In next stage, the participants were trained about social awareness skill and relationship management skill. The participants were briefed about social awareness skill and two action plans were executed to enhance this skill. They were required to recognize and understand moods of other individuals and/or mood of entire group(s) of people in some specific situations. Moreover, they were asked to practice observing, asking, and listening others. Two action plans were executed for them. In first action plan, participants were asked to play the role of anthropologist. In second action plan, they were asked to accurately notice what others feel. The participants, then, were asked to use self- awareness and social awareness skills for managing positive interactions and relationships with others. Empathy and sympathy were preached to the participants for optimization of their relationship management skill. In two actions plans, the participants were asked to discover the role emotions play in every situation and get real feedback on relationships from someone they trusted respectively.

Before moving to inferential statistics to be used for checking emotional intelligence interventions’ effectiveness, researcher checked basic assumptions as whether to use parametric or non-parametric tests. The following assumptions of parametric tests were checked:

i. Normally distributed data ii. Homogeneity of variance iii. Interval data iv. Independence

In case anyone assumption of parametric test is violated, non-normal data tests for inferential statistical tests needed to be used. Researcher applied descriptive statistics to see skewness and kurtosis to verify the normality of the distribution. Histograms were used to graphically present the data along with normal curve. Moreover, Kolmogorov- Smirnova and Shapiro-Wilk tests were also used to verify the results of normality. 105

4.6.1. Normality

Results of the normality analysis are described as under: Table 4.15: Skewness and kurtosis

Descriptives Statistic Std. Error Mean 2.5483 .07582 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound 2.3944 for Mean Upper Bound 2.7023 5% Trimmed Mean 2.5277 Median 2.5700 Variance .207 PRE_EI Std. Deviation .45493 Minimum 1.78 Maximum 3.95 Range 2.17 Interquartile Range .55 Skewness .635 .393 Kurtosis 1.344 .768

Mean 2.8986 .08221 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound 2.7317 for Mean Upper Bound 3.0655 5% Trimmed Mean 2.8772 Median 2.8900 Variance .243 POST_EI Std. Deviation .49329 Minimum 2.00 Maximum 4.44 Range 2.44 Interquartile Range .58 Skewness .665 .393 Kurtosis 1.519 .768

The value of T-statistic of Skewness 2.0129 (0.635/0.393 = 1.615776081) showed that the data set was normally distributed before intervention implementation 106

with respect to skewness. The value of T-statistic of kurtosis 1.75 (1.344/0.768 = 1.75) showed that the data set was normally distributed in the data set of pre-intervention implementation stage with respect to Kurtosis of the distribution. Hence, being both the values were lesser than the standard value of 1.96, it was concluded that the data set was normally distributed in pre-intervention stage. It means that the data set was bell shaped distribution with flat-tailed.

The table given above further revealed that T-statistic of Skewness was 1.69 (0.665/0.393 = 1.69). This value showed that the data set for post-EI intervention implementation was normally distributed and value of T-statistic of kurtosis 1.97 (1.519/0.768 = 1.97) showed that the data set was also normally distributed in terms of “Peakness” in post-intervention implementation stage because it was approximately equaled to the standard value of 1.96. Hence, it was concluded that the data set was in bell-shaped normal distribution with flat tail. Both the measures of skewness and kurtosis (pre-intervention & post-intervention) are shown in the histograms provided below:

Figure 4.6: Histogram for victims’ group-pre-intervention 107

Figure 4.7: Histogram for victims’ group-post-intervention

Researcher also validated above stated normality results by applying Kolmogorov– Smirnov test and Shapiro–Wilk tests. These tests compared the scores in the sample to a normally distributed set of scores with the same mean and standard deviation which help to diagnose normality in a data set. The following table provided the results of these tests:

Table 4.16: Normality tests

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig. PRE_EI .125 36 .172 .942 36 .057 POST_EI .130 36 .129 .941 36 .053 a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

The results of Shapiro–Wilk test were not significant with p-values of 0.057 and p- value of 0.053 which were > 0.05 for pre-intervention implementation of EI training and post-intervention implementation of EI training respectively. The results of Kolmogorov– Smirnov test were also not significant with p-values of 0.172 and p-value of 0.129 which 108

were > 0.05 for pre-intervention implementation of EI training and post-intervention implementation of EI training respectively. This showed that distribution of sample in post-intervention implementation of EI training & coaching data set was significantly not different from a normal distribution. By comparing these results, the researcher concluded that the data set was normally distributed.

4.6.2. Homogeneity of Variance

Before reaching towards the final decision of using parametric or non-parametric tests, researcher also checked another most important assumption of homogeneity of variance in the data set in order to reach on a confidant final decision. Homogeneity of variance assumes that the variances of in the data set must be the same. In current case, it means that variances of two groups (pre-emotional intelligence interventions implementation group/stage and post-emotional intelligence interventions implementation group/stage) must be same which means that each of these two groups (samples) have been drawn from the populations with the same variance. This assumption was checked by using Levene’s test which only tested whether the variances in different groups were equal.

4.6.2.1. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

Researcher run Levene's test for Equality of Variances to validate the ANOVA's assumption of homogeneity of variances which states that the groups can have different means but their variance should be same. The following table documented the results:

Table 4.17: Homogeneity of variances

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. .175 1 70 .677 The results of Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of Variances revealed that the variances in both the groups (the group/stage where emotional intelligence interventions were not implemented and the group/stage where emotional intelligence interventions were implemented) variance were not statistically different from each other. Hence, the researcher concluded that the data sets in both the stages had same variances and the assumption of homogeneity of variance was fulfilled which was also confirmed by 2- tailed significance p-value which was 0.677 being greater than 0.05. Hence, the researcher concluded that two data were taken from the groups which had homogenous variances. 109

Table 4.18: Homogeneity of variances

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 2.209 1 2.209 9.809 .003 Within Groups 15.760 70 .225 Total 17.969 71

The results of ANOVA table showed that the test for homogeneity of variance was not significant [Levene F(1, 71) = 9.809, p < .05] and sum of squares for between groups was lesser than within groups. Hence the researcher had failed to reject the null hypothesis and concluded that two groups were having equal variances.

4.6.3. Interval Data

The data in current study was measured at least at interval level. This assumption requires us to create equal intervals/distances between adjacent answer categories. This assumption enables us to accurately compute means, standard deviations and Pearson correlations on ordinal variables. This assumption was fulfilled by using Likert scale with equal intervals among answers.

4.6.4. Independence

This assumption has various meaning depending upon the analysis and tests being applied to a data set. In current study, this assumption assumed that the data obtained from various participants was independent. This meant that the behavior of one participant did not influence behavior of another participant. The scores in the experimental conditions (pretest stage-before implementing emotional intelligence interventions and posttest stage where emotional intelligence interventions had been implemented) were non-independent for a given participant. In current study, the behaviors among various participants were independent. This means that no participant had significantly influenced other participants that had mislead the researcher to inaccurately draw the result that the outcome was solely dependent on intervention provided to the participants. Compliance of this assumption means that the scores of one participant were not influenced by any other participant in the experiment of current study. Hence, by analyzing the scenario, researcher assured that current study had fulfilled this important assumtption. 110

4.7. PAIRED SAMPLES T-TEST

By proving all assumptions required by the parametric statistical procedures, the researcher concluded to use parametric test in the current study at this stage. Paired sample t-test determines mean differences between two sets of observations measured at two different time periods (pretest and posttest stages). Hence, it was used to trace any significant change in the level of emotional intelligence.

Table 4.19: Paired samples test

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRE_EI 2.6697 36 .49353 .08226 Pair 1 POST_EI 2.8986 36 .49329 .08221

Paired sample t-test was conducted to evaluate significant difference between emotional intelligence levels of the participants at two different times. First time point was pretest stage where where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions were not implemented. The second time period was posttest stage where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions had been implemented. The results of paired sample t-test provided in table 4.19 showed that there was a significant increase in emotional intelligence scores of the subjets from pretest stage (M = 2.67, SD = 0.49) where where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions were not implemented to posttest stage (M = 2.90, SD = 0.49) where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions had been implemented. The values of standard deviations for pretest stage and posttest stage were 0.49353 and 0.49329 respectively. These standard deviations were not large enough to distort the results by creating deviations in the results upto this extent. In pretest stage, the participants had an average (converted) score of 2.67 for emotional intelligence when they were not provided training and coaching interventions. However, their (converted) average level score for emotional intelligence was increased to 2.90 when it was measured at posttest stage after provision of training and coaching interventions to the participants. This was a material increment in their emotional intelligence level. Hence, researcher concluded that emotional intelligence was enhanced through structured training and coaching intervetnions. Table 4.20 describes test statistics for pretest stage where where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions were not implemented. Test statistics results of paired samples test for posttest stage where emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions had been implemented are also presented in the table provided below: 111

Table 4.20: Paired samples test

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference tailed) Deviation Mean Lower Upper PRE_EI -.22889 .70443 .11740 -.46723 .00945 -1.950 35 .059 Pair 1 POST_EI

112

Results of Paired Samples Test revealed that there was a significant increase in the level of emotional intelligence of the participants after provision of EI training which is shown by p-value 0.059 [Sig. (2-tailed)] at 90% confidence interval. 푡2 Effect size = 푡2+(푁−1)

(−1.950)2 = (−1.950)2+(36−1) 3.8025 = 38.8025 = 0.098

The effect size of emotional intelligence (EI) training on the level of enhancing emotional intelligence (EI) levels of the participants was medium with the value of 0.098 (Cohen, 1988).

Above mentioned results are also depicted by the following trend lines for pre-EI interventions implementation stage, for pre-EI interventions implementation stage, and a comparison of pre & post EI interventions implementation stages:

Figure 4.8: Trend line for pre-EI interventions implementation stage

Figure 4.8 showed that identified victims had emotional intelligence level of lower than the average in pretest stage. Their converted EI scores were lesser than the bench mark score on emotional intelligence measurement scale.

113

Figure 4.9: Trend line for post-EI interventions implementation stage

Figure 4.9 showed identified victims had score more than the average in posttest stage. However, minimum score was not falling well below than the maximum score obtained by the identified victims. However, an increasing trend was reported by the trend line.

Figure 4.10: Trend line for emotional intelligence-comparison

Figure 4.5 documents comparative trend lines, it was revealed that identified victims had significantly enhanced their emotional intelligence level after getting emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. Their enhanced EI scores in posttest measurements supported the objective of enhancing EI. 114

Objective 3: Provision of emotional intelligence (EI) training has enhanced emotional intelligence of the subjects with a medium effect size.

4.8. CONTROL VARIABLES

Researcher based his reliance on previous literature about the constructs of workplace bullying and employee performance with respect to his decision about control variables (Barcaccia et al., 2017; Olweus, 1993; Wolke, 2017; Wu et al., 2014; Zapf, 1999) which were associated with both the bullying and employee performance. By including control variables, experimental design becomes more useful and reliable in predicting true causal relationship among variables of interest.

The researcher included demographic variables of gender, age, marital status, education and experience in control variables’ list. The control variables were included in the study due to the findings of previous studies that the involvement of male and female in bullying behaviors was different (Griffiths et al., 2006; Namie & Namie, 2018a; Namie & Namie, 2018b; Offord, Boyle & Racine, 1991; Simpson & Cohen, 2004; Wang, Iannotti & Nansel, 2009; Youngstrom, Findling & Calabrese, 2003) and employee performance of male and female also differed (Hanish et al., 2011; Knez & Enmarker, 1998; Magee, 2015), bullying behaviors were decreased with an increase in age (Alterman et al., 2013; Camodeca et al., 2002; Mitsopoulou & Giovazolias, 2015; Rivers & Smith, 1994) and employee performance of young and old ages also differed (Avolio, Waldman & McDaniel, 1990; Clevel & Shore, 1992; Lawrence, 1988; Magee, 2015; Waldman & Avolio, 1986), there was a higher level of bullying incidence for divorced or separated workers when compared to other marital statuses (Alterman et al., 2013) and a difference in the employee performance as well (Greenhaus, Bedeian & Mossholder, 1987; Madjar, Oldham & Pratt, 2002), higher prevalence rates were reported for lower educational level and a lower bullying behavior rate was associated with higher educational level (Alterman et al., 2013) and a difference in the employee performance according to educational level of the employees (Berg, 1970) and well established relationship between job experience and employee performance (McDaniel, Schmidt & Hunter, 1988). Above cited findings had provided base for controlling these variables in the current study to get better results with accurate analysis.

Researcher applied ANOVA to decide about inclusion or exclusion of control variables. The results of ANOVA analysis are provided as under: 115

4.8.1. Gender as Control Variable

In the current study, the researcher suspected that gender was confounding the main relationship under study. Hence, the researcher applied one way ANOVA to check whether or not, in the current study, gender was significantly related with employee performance of the respondents of this study. The results are shown as under:

Table 4.21: Gender as control variable

ANOVA

Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups .089 1 .089 .301 .585 PRE_P Within Groups 29.227 99 .295 Total 29.316 100 Between Groups .058 1 .058 .156 .694 POST_P Within Groups 37.096 99 .375 Total 37.154 100

The results of ANOVA table showed that there was not significant relationship between gender and employee performance with significant p-value more than 0.05 in both the pre-emotional intelligence interventions implementation stage and post- pre- emotional intelligence interventions implementation stage. This means that the demographic variable gender was not significantly associated with employee performance of the identified victims and emotional intelligence level of the identified victims. Hence, researcher, on the basis of results, did not use gender as control variable in this study.

4.8.2. Age as Control Variable

In the current study, the researcher suspected that age was confounding the main relationship under study. Hence, researcher applied ANOVA to decide whether or not to include age as control variable in current study. Hence, researcher applied ANOVA to decide whether or not to include age as control variable in current study. Hence, the researcher applied one way ANOVA to check whether or not, in the current study, age was significantly related with employee performance of the respondents of this study. The results of age as control variable were significantly related with employee performance 116

of the respondents of this study. The results obtained from the statistical analysis of ANOVA are provided as under:

Table 4.22: Gender as control variable

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean F Sig. Square Between Groups 1.270 3 .423 1.464 .229 PRE_P Within Groups 28.046 97 .289 Total 29.316 100 Between Groups 1.600 3 .533 1.455 .232 POST_P Within Groups 35.555 97 .367 Total 37.154 100

The results of ANOVA table showed that there was not significant relationship between age and employee performance with significant p-value more than 0.05 in both the pre-intervention implementation and post-intervention implementation levels. Hence, researcher, on the basis of results, did not use age as control variable in this study.

4.8.3. Marital Status as Control Variable

In the current study, the researcher suspected that marital status was confounding the main relationship under study. Marital status was significantly correlated with the incidence of workplace bullying and employee performance. This might mislead the results of the model being studied by distorting the results and their interpretation due to collinearity. This suspecting led the researcher to check it as confounding variable in the study. In order to get accurate results and avoid distortions of results, the researcher controlled marital status of the subjects throughout this current study. This control means that marital statuses of the subjects remained unchanged during the entire training. The following table contain information regarding this: Table 4.23: Marital Status as control variable

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1.881 2 .941 3.360 .039 PRE_P Within Groups 27.434 98 .280 117

Total 29.316 100 Between Groups 1.662 2 .831 2.294 .106 POST_P Within Groups 35.492 98 .362 Total 37.154 100

ANOVA table showed that in pre-intervention implementation, there was a significant relationship between marital status and employee performance with significant p-value which was lesser than standard value 0.05. However, results showed that in post-intervention implementation, there was no significant relationship between marital status and EI as p-value was > 0.05. On the basis of pretest results, researcher treated marital status as control variable in current study. By doing so, researcher ensured that the results were not distorted due to non-inclusion of an appropriate control variable.

4.8.4. Education as Control Variable

Researcher suspected that education was confounding the main relationship of workplace bullying and employee performance. Hence, researcher applied one way ANOVA to check whether or not, in the current study, education was significantly related with employee performance of the respondents of this study. The results are shown in the table given below:

Table 4.24: Education as control variable

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. .624 4 .156 .5 .720 Between Groups 22 PRE_P Within Groups 28.692 96 .299 Total 29.316 100 .804 4 .201 .5 .713 Between Groups 31 POST_P Within Groups 36.350 96 .379 Total 37.154 100

The results of ANOVA table showed that education was not significant (p-value more than 0.05) in both the pretest and posttest stages. Hence, researcher, on the basis of results, did not use education as control variable in this study. 118

4.8.5. Job Experience as Control Variable

Researcher suspected job experience to be confounding variable. Hence, he applied one way ANOVA to check whether or not, job experience was significantly distorting the results of this study. The results are shown as under:

Table 4.25: Job Experience as control variable

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1.387 5 .277 .944 .457 PRE_P Within Groups 27.929 95 .294 Total 29.316 100 Between Groups 1.861 5 .372 1.002 .421 POST_P Within Groups 35.293 95 .372 Total 37.154 100

The results of ANOVA table showed that job experience was not significant (p- value more than 0.05) in both the pretest and posttest stages. Hence, researcher, on the basis of results, did not use job experience as control variable in this study.

4.9. MODERATING EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE-PRETEST STAGE

Current study hypothesized that emotionally intelligent employees were not significantly affected by workplace bullying incidence. Through emotional intelligence, they controlled their own emotions and utilized their understanding about emotions of bullies. This had helped them to absorb bullying. The following table shows the results of moderating effect of emotional intelligence on employee performance-pretest stage:

Table 4.26: Impact of bullying on employee performance with moderating role of EI at pre-intervention implementation

Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .4875 .2376 .2328 7.4805 4.0000 31.0000 .0000

Results obtained from model summary table showed that the model was significant at F (7.4805) = 17.6646, p-value < 0.01 and R-Squared value 0.2328 which explained 23.28% variation of employee performance. 119

Table 4.27: Statistics for moderator variable-pre-interventions

Model : 1 Y : PRE_PERFORMANCE X : PRE_BULLYING W : PRE_EI Covariates: MARITAL_ STATUS

Coeff. se T P LLCI ULCI Constant -4.0423 1.4623 -2.7644 .0068 -6.9450 -1.1397 PRE_BULL 2.0477 .4428 4.6242 .0000 1.1687 2.9267 PRE_EI 1.9893 .4450 4.4701 .0000 1.1059 2.8726 Int_1 -.5888 .1401 -4.2029 .0001 -.8668 -.3107 MARITAL_ .2220 .0830 2.6739 .0088 .0572 .3867

R2-Chng F df1 df2 P X*W .1403 17.6646 1.0000 31.0000 0001

Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator(s): PRE_EI Effect Se T p LLCI ULCI 2.1540 .7795 .1755 4.4427 .0000 .4312 1.1278 2.5700 .5346 .1409 3.7954 .0003 .2550 .8142 3.0400 .2579 .1251 2.0618 .0419 .0096 .5062

Results of moderation analysis revealed a significant moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship of bullying and employee performance. Hence, researcher rejected null hypothesis that there was no moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship of bullying and employee performance. The moderating effect of emotional intelligence had brought 14.03% change in the value of dependent variable (employee performance) with R2-Change value 0.1403. Moreover, this relationship was also significant at 0.05. Results also revealed that that when the level of EI was increased the impact of bullying on employee performance was decreased with the significant value lesser than < 0.05.

Objective 4: EI had significant moderating effect on relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance at pretest stage. 120

4.10. MODERATING EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE-POSTTEST STAGE

The following table shows the results of moderating effect of emotional intelligence on employee performance-pretest stage:

Table 4.28: Impact of bullying on employee performance with moderating role of EI at post-intervention implementation

Model Summary R R-sq MSE F df1 df2 p .4587 .2104 .3056 6.3949 4.0000 31.0000 .0001

Results obtained from model summary table showed that the model was significant as shown by the values of test statistics. The results revealed the values of statistics obtained from model summary as follow:

i. F (7.4805) = 12.2374, ii. p-value < 0.01 iii. R-Squared value 0.2104 which explained 21.04% variation in employee performance.

Table 4.29: Statistics for moderator variable-post interventions

Model : 2 Y : P0ST_PERFORMANCE X : POST_BULLYING W : POST_EI Covariates: MARITAL_ STATUS Coeff se T P LLCI ULCI Constant -3.8462 1.6564 -2.3221 .0223 -7.1341 -.5583 POST_BULL 1.8015 .4603 3.9136 .0002 .8878 2.7152 POST_EI 1.8477 .4549 4.0622 .0001 .9448 2.7506 Int_1 -.4616 .1320 -3.4982 .0007 -.7236 -.1997 MARITAL_ .2106 .0965 2.1826 .0315 .0191 .4022 121

R2- F df1 df2 P Chng X*W .1007 12.2374 1.0000 31.0000 0007 Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator(s): POST_EI Effect se T p LLCI ULCI 2.3500 .7166 .1783 4.0198 .0001 .3628 1.0705 2.8900 .4673 .1326 3.5255 .0006 .2042 .7305 3.4200 .2227 .1162 1.9163 .0583 -.0080 .4533

The results of moderation revealed a significant moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship of bullying and employee performance. Hence, the researcher rejected the null hypothesis that there was no moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship of bullying and employee performance. The moderating effect of EI had significantly brought 10.07% change in employee performance with R2- Change value 0.1007. The results also revealed that that when the level of EI was increased the impact of bullying on employee performance was decreased with the significant value lesser than < 0.1.

Objective 5: EI had significant moderating effect on relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance at posttest stage.

4.11. COMPARATIVE MODERATING EFFECT AT PRE-TEST AND POSTTEST

In order to compare the relative conditional effects of emotional intelligence at per- intervention implementation and post-intervention implementation stages, the researcher has compared the results and tabulated as under:

Table 4.30: Conditional effects of the focal predictor at values of the moderator

Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention EI Effect p Effect p Low .7795 .0000 .7166 .0001 Medium .5346 .0003 .4673 .0006 High .2579 .0419 .2227 .0583

Results revealed that there was greater effect of workplace bullying on employees’ 122

employee performance of the respondents when their level of emotional intelligence was low, there was a smaller effect of workplace bullying on employee performance of the respondents when their level of emotional intelligence was medium and there was a minimum/smallest effect of workplace bullying on employee performance of the respondents when their level of emotional intelligence was high at both the per- intervention implementation and post-intervention implementation stages. The results were significant for all three levels i.e. at low EI, at medium EI, and at high EI levels with significant values lesser than 0.05 (5%) and 0.1 (10%). On the basis of these results, the researcher concluded that the level of emotional intelligence was significantly moderating the relationship between workplace bullying incidence and employee performance at in both pretest and posttest stages i.e. pre-EI interventions implementation and post-EI intervention implementation stages.

However, the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance in post- intervention implementation stage was relatively lower as a resultant higher level of emotional intelligence of the participants. Increased level of emotional intelligence after intervention implementation had decreased the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance from the score (0.7795) of pre-intervention implementation stage to the score (0.7166) of post-intervention implementation stage at low level.

Emotional intelligence intervention implementation decreased the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance from the score (0.5346) of per-intervention implementation stage to the score (0.4673) of post-intervention implementation stage at medium level. Emotional intelligence intervention implementation decreased the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance from the score (0.2579) of per- intervention implementation stage to the score (0.2227) of post-intervention implementation stage at high level.

Objective 5: Increased level of emotional intelligence after EI-intervention implementation decreased the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance in post-intervention implementation stage.

4.12. ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION OF HYPOTHESES

The findings of current study supported the following hypotheses developed after critical literature review and during identification of available research gap: 123

Table 4.31: Status of hypotheses

Sr. No. Hypothesis Decision 1 Bullying incidence prevails in health care sector of Partially- Pakistan. Accepted

2 Bullying behaviors of the bullies can be reduced by Accepted implementing TTM interventions. 3 Emotional intelligence level of the victims can be Accepted enhanced through Emotional Intelligence training interventions implementation. 4 There is a moderating effect of emotional intelligence Accepted on the relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance of the victims 5 Increased level of emotional intelligence decreases the Accepted effect of workplace bullying on employee performance.

4.13. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The under-written sections of the dissertation include reporting all findings, discussion, conclusions and recommendations on the basis of the results obtained in current study. Current study has found the evidence of prevalence of workplace bullying incidence in the health care sector of Pakistan and identified the persons involved in bullying incidence (the bullies) and the victims of bullying in workplace bullying incidence. The demographics of the bullies showed that females exhibited bullying behaviors more than the males, majority of the bullies were married, and had masters level of education. The bullies were from all types of personality traits (extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience) except the personality trait of agreeableness. The demographics of the victims showed that majority of males were the victims of workplace bullying incidence. Majority of the victims were married and had masters level of education. A majority of the victims belonged to the personality trait of agreeableness.

The findings of inferential statistics in the current study were divided in three stages: (i) Stage 1: Pre-Test, (ii) Stage 2: Treatment of Bully Group, and (iii) Stage 3: Treatment of Victim Group respectively with seven interconnected steps taken to complete the study. Those steps were: (i) Step 1: Identify of the bullies and victims, (ii) 124

Step 2: Development and implementation of anti-bullying interventions by using The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) to change bullies’ behavior, (iii) Step 3: Assessment of employee performance of the victims, (iv) Step 4: Assessment of impact of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance of the victims, (v) Step 5: Assessment of emotional intelligence level of victims, (vi) Step 6: Development and implementation of emotional intelligence training interventions to mitigate the impact of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance, (vii) Step 7: Data collection at post-test, and (viii) Step 8: Assessment of effectiveness of TTM and emotional intelligence training intervention respectively.

Researcher, on the basis of results, found that workplace bullying negatively affected employee performance of the victims. This study further found that provision of individual anti-bullying interventions in tertiary (post-bullying) stage had reduced bullying incidence exhibited by the bullies. This intervention was developed by using The Transtheoretical Model (TTM). It was found that the incidence of workplace bullying was significantly reduced after provision of The Transtheoretical Model training intervention to the bullies. The effect size of TTM intervention was large. The current study found that the level of emotional intelligence in the victims was lower in pre-test stage. On the basis of the results, the researcher found that the level of emotional intelligence of the victims was enhanced through provision of emotional intelligence training intervention. The study also found significant moderating role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance. The researcher found that enhanced level of emotional intelligence of the victims effectively mitigated the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance.

4.14. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The current study has partially accepted the hypothesis that prevalence of workplace bullying incidence in the health care sector of Pakistan prevailed. The reason behind partial acceptance was that it does not necessarily mean that prevalence of bullying found in one of the biggest organization can be generalized to the whole health care sector of Pakistan without further validation of this claim. This finding is similar to the findings of previous studies of Mitchell et al. (2018) and Olafsen et al. (2017) which found the prevalence of workplace bullying in all types of organizations and most common in healthcare organizations (Field, 2002; Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013; Hutchinson et al., 2008; Knapp et al., 2014; Porter-O’Grady & Malloch, 2008). 125

Current study found that workplace bullying negatively affected employee performance of identified victims. This finding is similar to the findings of previous published studies (Ariza-Montes et al., 2014; Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011; Cowan, 2018; Glambek et al., 2018; Hansen & Søndergaard, 2018; McCormack et al., 2014; Riley et al., 2014; Salin, 2003b; Woodrow & Guest, 2014) that found a significant negative effect of workplace bullying on employee performance of the victims of workplace bullying.

Current study found that provision of individual anti-bullying interventions developed by using the Transtheoretical model (TTM) in tertiary (post-bullying) stage had reduced bullying incidence. This finding has met the directions required by some various famous published studies (Brown, 2005; Evers et al., 2007; Jacobs et al., 2004; Prochaska et al., 2007). This finding is similar to the findings of the study conducted by Prochaska, (2013) who successfully reduced bullying behaviors by using Transtheoretical model as anti-bullying intervention.

Current study found that the level of emotional intelligence in the victims was lower. This finding is similar to the findings of studies (Baroncelli & Ciucci, 2014; Black, Weinles & Washington, 2010; Dantchev, Zammit & Wolke, 2018; Foody & Samara, 2018; Heydenberk & Heydenberk, 2017; Lomas et al., 2012). The current study also found that emotional intelligence of the victims was enhanced through provision of emotional intelligence training intervention. This finding is similar to the notations of various famous studies in the concerned field (Beniss, 2004; Boyatzis et al., 2002; Côté, 2014; Davidson, 2003; Enríquez et al., 2017; Gilbert et al., 2017; Goleman & Cherniss, 2001; Goleman et al., 2017; Goleman, 1998, 2011; Luthans, 2002; Matthews et al., 2017; Miao et al., 2017; Schabram & Maitlis, 2017; Serrat, 2017) which argued and suggested emotional intelligence as a learnable skill.

Current study found significant moderating effect of emotional intelligence on relationship between workplace bullying and employee performance. This finding is similar to the findings of the study of Cartwright & Pappas (2008) that found higher levels of employee performance of employees who had higher emotional intelligence levels. This finding is also similar to the findings of the study of Hutchinson & Hurley, (2013) who found significant moderating role of emotional intelligence between the relationship of workplace bullying and its impact on leadership capability and the study of (Carter & Loh, 2017) which found significant moderating role of emotional intelligence between the relationship of workplace bullying and its impact on mental health (Carter & Loh, 126

2017). The current study also found that Enhanced level of emotional intelligence of the victims effectively mitigated the effect of workplace bullying on employee performance. This finding is similar to the findings of studies of Sheehan, (1999) and Lomas et al. (2012).

Researcher checked gender, age, marital status, education and experience as possible confounding variables in the current study on the basis of previous research in the field. However, only marital status was found to be confounding variable in the current study. This finding is similar to the findings of previous study of Alterman et al., (2013) which found marital status as confounding variable resulting a higher level of bullying incidence for divorced or separated workers when compared to other marital statuses. This finding is also similar to the studies of Greenhaus et al. (1987) and Madjar et al. (2002) which found which found marital status as confounding variable resulting in significant difference of employee performance. The findings of current study also meet the previous findings in terms of population, characteristics, bullying prevention experimental assessment instruments, experimental design, and well known procedures. However, the findings clarify the concept of applying the Transtheoretical model (TTM) interventions to reduce the effects of workplace bullying incidence and also mitigate its negative effects on employee performance by implementing emotional intelligence of the victims through emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions implementations.

4.14.1. Implications of Findings

The findings of current study has addressed important measurement issues regarding workplace bullying incidence. These findings have also addressed the important concern of developing and implementing individual level post-bullying interventions to reduce workplace bullying incidence. The findings have also improved the understanding of bullying phenomenon prevailing in workplace and the role of emotional intelligence as a coping strategy to absorb negative effects of workplace bullying on employee performance. Current study was conducted in Pakistani context which is quite different from already studied contexts of workplace bullying around the world. Hence, a careful consideration of various national cultural and organizational aspects would add value to the findings of current study. Besides all, important implications of findings of current study are discussed below in terms of theory, research and practice in the area of intervetnions used to reduce workplace bullying incidence and 127

mitigation of its negative impact on employee performance.

4.14.1.1. Theory

All the findings of this study proved to be consistent with the theoretical framework developed during the critical literature review stage. The findings showed a significant prevalence of workplace bullying incidence in the healthcare sector. The people involved in workplace bullying (the bullies) assign the cause of their bullying behavior to some internal characteristics such as pleasure, power, dominance etc. and some external reasons such as toxic workplace environment (attribution theory), perceive that they gain benefits from social relationships (social capital theory), desire to dominate (dominance theory), and reveal the inadequacies of weaker victims (Theory of Humiliation). These findings are consistent with current theories in the field of studying workplace bullying phenomenon.

The findings showed a significant reduction in the workplace bullying behavior of the bullies by implementing TTM interventions for the bullies. These findings show that the bullies tend to learn new healthy behavior by training and coaching if they recognize that their behavior is negative (theory of planned behavior and theory of reasoned action), they believe that they can change their behavior (health belief model and TTM) and gain positive rewards (expectancy theory).

The findings showed a significant increase in the level of emotional intelligence by implementing emotional intelligence interventions for the victims. The findings also revealed that enhanced level of emotional intelligence had successfully mitigated negative impact of workplace bullying on employee performance. The victims believed that their emotional intelligence skills could be enhanced (self-efficacy theory), their emotionally intelligent response to bullying incidence was the most appropriate response (theory of planned behavior, theory of reasoned action, expectancy theory) which successfully mitigated negative impact of workplace bullying on their employee performance (resilience theory). They believed that resilience had helped them to cope with social disadvantage and highly adverse conditions of workplace bullying incidence. All the findings of this study proved to be consistent with the theoretical framework developed during the critical literature review stage.

Current study authenticated that TTM model can be used to reduce the incidence of 128

workplace bullying. This implies that this model model can be converted into a theory of negative behavior modification. The findings aligned literature of workplace bullying mechanisms with attribution theory by assigning internal and external causes to bullying behaviors of the bullies. This study found internal characteristics of bullies including pleasure, power, revenge and dominance. From the external reasons, it was found that the most powerful element was toxic workplace environment where relationships among employees were deteriorated. During anti-bullying TTM interventions, consistent findings were also reported with respect to bullies who perceived that they gained benefits from social relationships (social capital theory) while trying to quit/reduce bullying behaviors. Earlier to this, they had desire to dominate (dominance theory) the victims by revealing inadequacies of weaker victims (Theory of Humiliation). Moreover, the bullies tended to learn new healthy behavior by training and coaching when they recognized that their behavior was negative (theory of planned behavior and theory of reasoned action). By training and coaching, the bullies came to believe that they could change their behavior (health belief model and TTM) and gain positive rewards (expectancy theory).

Current study, in second intervention that was designed to enhance emotional intelligence of identified victims, aligned literature of emotional intelligence training & coaching interventions with self-efficacy theory and resilience theory. By provision of training and coaching, identified victims came to believe that their emotional intelligence skills could be enhanced. When they believed that their emotionally intelligent response to bullying incidence was the most appropriate response, they successfully mitigated negative effect of workplace bullying on their employee performance by creating resilience within them. This findings has advanced resilience theory where individuals believe that resilience helps them to cope with social disadvantage and highly adverse conditions of workplace bullying incidence.

4.14.1.2. Research

This study has advanced various aspects of methodological importance regarding workplace bullying phenomenon. The study has used a pretest-posttest longitudinal experimental design with triangulation technique in order to not only report bullying incidence evidence accurately but also prove the credibility of evidence regarding the incidence of workplace bullying. The study has addressed the issue of using Transtheoretical Model (TTM) as a measure/tool of intervention that was successfully used for treating bullies. On the contrary, level of emotional intelligence was enhanced 129

by using emotional intelligence training, coaching and counselling services to the victims. This study not only has advanced the way of developing anti-bullying interventions at individual level at tertiary (post-bullying) stage for bullies but also developed interventions for victims to successfully absorb the negative impact on employee performance. The current study has also helped in understanding measurement issues and identification of confounding variables. This study has advanced the understanding of methodology and research designs to be used in interventions studies.

4.14.1.3. Practice

Findings of current study are also beneficial for organizations of all types. This study enhances our understanding about interventions used to overcome workplace bullying incidence by applying individual level interventions in the tertiary (post- bullying) stage. The reduction in workplace bullying incidents will create a motivating work environment which will prove a stimulating factor in achieving organizational goals and objectives by enhancement of employee performance. More than that, emotional intelligence interventions would enable human resource managers to mitigate negative impacts of workplace bullying incidence on employee performance of the victims in spite of prevalence of workplace bullying incidence. The study has presented emotional intelligence intervention as a method of enhancing employee performance by absorbing negative impacts of workplace bullying on their performance. The participants of both the interventions are also major beneficiaries of this study which would help them to be successful in their personal and professional life.

4.15. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

This study has taken only individual level anti-bullying interventions into the tertiary (post-bullying) stage. While other levels of interventions such as policy level, organizational level, and group level were ignored due to various academic limitations. This might have hindered the magnitude of anti-bullying intervention’s effect to the larger levels. Because implementing interventions on higher levels definitely results in wide scope by covering majority of the employees in an organization when organizational level interventions are used (Rayner & Lewis, 2011; Salin, 2008; Vartia et al., 2008), or a country when legal or policy level is used (Vartia et al., 2008).

Secondly, with respect to interventions implementations on the stages of bullying 130

incidence, the current study has limitation of using only post-bullying (tertiary) interventions as suggested by Hogh A, Viitasara (2005), Schwickerath & Zapf (2011), and Salin et al. (2014). Whereas, anti-bullying interventions might also be implemented at pre-bullying (primary) stage (Einarsen et al., 2011; Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Vartia & Tehrani, 2012; Swearer & Espelage, 2009), bullying episodic (secondary) stage (Meloni & Austin, 2011; Pate & Beaumont, 2010) and post-bullying (tertiary) stage (Hogh & Viitasara, 2005; Salin et al., 2014; Schwickerath & Zapf, 2011). Hence, a comparative study of interventions implementations to reduce the bullying incidence at pre-bullying (primary) stage, bullying episodic (secondary) stage and post-bullying (tertiary) stage or a combination of two or three stages would open interesting avenues for future research.

Thirdly, current study has included the use of sole moderating variable of emotional intelligence. The study of psychological capital as a second moderator with the design of current study might help in making a clearer understanding of bullying phenomenon and its impact on employee performance with more breadth and depth. Fourthly, countering predictions, researcher did not find confounding effect of gender and job experience in the current study rather it found marital status as confounding variable which is different than the previous literature. Confounding effect of marital status needs to be explored and validated by the future studies.

Fifthly, current study has used The Transtheoretical Model to treat bullies. Future studies can verify and validate the effectiveness of this model in other sectors, cultures and contexts. A sixth possible avenue for possible future research include the specification of emotional intelligence model to be used as moderating variable enhanced through training interventions. The current study has used the mixed model of emotional intelligence which combines both the ability and trait models. This model considers emotional intelligence as an array of skills and characteristics which predicts leadership performance (Goleman, 2011). This provides opportunities for future studies which can compare or combine this model with remaining two models of emotional intelligence including the ability model which focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment (Mayer et al., 2004) and the trait model which "encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured through self-report” (Petrides & Furnham, 2001).

Lastly, current study has used experimental research design with pretest and posttest settings that may have experimental validity issues of generalizability to the 131

population at large. The study might has testing issue of internal validity because the tests given to the participants at pretest stage might have created chances that the participants would have performed better at second stage of posttest and possible issue of Hawthorne effects of external validity. These two issues can be verified by the future studies by just carrying forward the current study. However, least mortality rate is present and statistical regression also shows an appropriate level of internal validity by getting non-extreme scores.

4.16. RECOMMENDATIONS

This study provides important insights into the phenomenon of workplace bullying and ways to tackle it through utilizing interventions. The current study recommends organizations to develop separate set of interventions for the bullies and the victims. Interventions developed for bullies would reduce the incidence while the interventions developed for victims would mitigate the negative effects of workplace bullying on employee performance. The organizations should use the Transtheoretical model (TTM) for reducing workplace bullying incidence and should also enhance the level of emotional intelligence in the victims so that the victims can absorb the negative effects of workplace bullying on their employee performance. However, all these interventions should be developed by utilizing interventions’ principles and need to be implemented through proper training followed by coaching (positive transfer). This study recommends post bullying (tertiary) interventions through which the managers and employers can reduce workplace bullying incidents from happening again and again in a repeated way. The study also recommends organizations to enhance emotional intelligence of the victims by using training and coaching as a method of enhancing mere employee performance, absorbing sponge against the negative impacts of workplace bullying. Hence, reduced incidence, enhanced emotional intelligence and enhanced employee performance would ultimately enhance organizational performance.

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SUMMARY

The current study was aimed at analyzing the phenomenon of bullying, identifying the bullies and victims involved in bullying incidence, reducing the incidence of workplace bullying by training the bullies Transtheoretical model (TTM) of behavior modification and training the victims emotional intelligence (EI) skills so that they could mitigate the negative effects of bullying on their employee performance. Workplace bullying is a toxic behavior which hinders a motivating work environment, decreases employee performance of the victims and consequently decreases overall organizational performance. Hence, reduction of workplace bullying incidence was primary aim of this study along with the secondary aim of mitigating its impact on employee performance. The current research study was divided into three stages; (i) Stage 1: Pretest, (ii) Stage 2: Treatment of Bully Group, and (iii) Stage 3: Treatment of Victim Group. The foundations of the study included two major paves: (i) Empirical Notions, and (ii) Theoretical Foundations.

Empirical literature dealing with the reduction of workplace bullying incidence narrates that bullying has been a problem thriving in all kinds of sectors and types of organizations with worst impact on employee performance. Previous studies also discuss important laws that protect employees from workplace bullying in its all possible forms such as harassment, mobbing, hazards and stressors. Although, these laws are prevalent throughout the world, but are not enforced in letter and spirit which have resulted existence of this problem. Hence, the researchers are encouraged to work in the area of workplace bullying reduction on one hand and mitigate its negative impact on employee performance on the other hand.

The scholars have put their efforts and suggested important ways to reduce the incidence of workplace bullying. They recommended that bullying could be reduced by providing supervisory support, conveying associated costs of bullying, making anti- bullying policy, and controlling on laissez-faire management styles. However, majority of the scholars trying to reduce the incidence of workplace bullying suggested that developing and implementing various contemporary anti-bullying interventions could be an effective way to deal with the problem. Scholars, when the level of interventions was concerned, described that interventions might be at policy level, organization level, group level and individual level. On the contrary, they described, when the stage of bullying incidence was concerned, they argued that these intervention might be in pre-bullying

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(primary) stage, bullying episodic (secondary) stage and post-bullying (tertiary) stage. Hence, researcher developed & implemented individual level anti-bullying counseling and therapeutic interventions in tertiary (post-bullying) stage.

Well-known scholars of business world conclude that emotional intelligence is a key success factor in personal and professional life. Various scholars conclude that emotional intelligence is significantly and positively correlated with employee performance. Hence, researcher utilized the idea and brought it into practice by providing emotional intelligence (EI) training interventions at group level in the tertiary (post- bullying) stage to the victims of workplace bullying in order to mitigate bullying’s negative impact on employee performance.

Theoretical foundations of the current study include theory of attribution theory, social skills deficits, social capital theory, dominance theory, and theory of humiliation, theory of planned behavior, theory of reasoned action, expectancy theory, psychological behaviorism, metacognition, situated cognition, theory of mind, social cognitive theory, humanistic approach, health belief model, motivational interviewing, and person- centered therapy.

Attribution theory, social skills deficits, social capital theory, dominance theory, and theory of humiliation provide the basis for workplace bullying incidence. While other theories provide the basis for learning new healthy behavior (reduction in workplace bullying incidence and emotional intelligence) by providing training, coaching and counselling services. These theories explain that a person exhibiting some negative behaviors (here, bullying behaviors) aimed at gaining dominance in workplace and reacts in the way he/she is dealt with. Fortunately, these theories further conclude that such person can learn new healthy behavior if he/she is provided training, coaching and counselling services.

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175

ANNEXURES

Annexure 1:

BULLYING INCIDENT, BULLIES AND VICTIMS

Respondent No. Bully Score Victim Score Decision Decision 1. 1.04 1.4 2. 1.44 1.84 3. 1.08 1.4 4. 1.5 1.9 Victim 5. 1.5 1.9 Victim 6. 1.28 1.44 7. 1.12 1.32 8. 1.48 1.28 9. 1.5 1.9 Victim 10. 2.08 1.9 Bully 11. 1.5 1.9 Victim 12. 1.2 1.9 Victim 13. 1.24 1.36 14. 2.4 1.92 Bully 15. 1.6 1.48 16. 1.24 1.36 17. 1.52 1.48 18. 1.56 1.64 19. 1.72 1.9 Victim 20. 1.48 1.9 Victim 21. 2.12 1.62 Bully 22. 1.84 2.36 Victim 23. 1.8 1.92 Victim 24. 1.92 1.28 Bully 25. 1.16 1.36 26. 1.5 3.36 27. 1.08 1.52 28. 1.5 1.9 Victim 29. 1.04 1.36 30. 1.5 1.9 Victim 31. 1.08 1.16 32. 2.12 1.76 Bully 33. 1.5 1.9 Victim 34. 1.88 1.9 Victim 35. 1.5 2.6 Victim 36. 1.12 1.56 37. 1.04 1.4 38. 1.44 1.84 39. 1.08 1.4 40. 1.5 1.9 Victim 176

41. 1.5 1.9 Victim 42. 1.28 1.44 43. 1.12 1.32 44. 1.48 1.28 45. 1.5 1.9 Victim 46. 2.08 1.9 Bully 47. 1.5 1.9 Victim 48. 1.2 1.9 Victim 49. 1.24 1.36 50. 2.4 1.48 Bully 51. 1.6 1.48 52. 1.24 1.36 53. 1.52 1.48 54. 1.56 1.64 55. 1.72 1.9 Victim 56. 1.48 1.9 Victim 57. 2.12 2.12 Victim Bully 58. 1.84 2.36 Victim 59. 1.8 1.92 Victim 60. 1.92 1.08 Bully 61. 1.16 1.36 62. 1.5 3.36 63. 1.08 1.52 64. 1.5 1.9 Victim 65. 1.04 1.36 66. 1.5 1.9 Victim 67. 1.08 1.16 68. 2.12 1.6 Bully 69. 1.5 1.9 Victim 70. 1.88 1.9 Victim 71. 1.5 2.6 Victim 72. 1.12 1.56 73. 1.04 1.4 74. 1.44 1.84 75. 1.08 1.4 76. 1.5 1.9 Victim 77. 1.5 1.9 Victim 78. 1.28 1.44 79. 1.12 1.32 80. 1.48 1.28 81. 1.5 1.9 Victim 82. 2.08 1.8 Bully 83. 1.5 1.9 Victim 84. 1.2 1.9 Victim 85. 1.24 1.36 86. 2.4 1.12 Bully 177

87. 1.6 1.48 88. 1.24 1.36 89. 1.52 1.48 90. 1.56 1.64 91. 1.72 1.9 Victim 92. 1.48 1.9 Victim 93. 2.12 1.12 Bully 94. 1.84 2.36 Victim 95. 1.8 1.92 Victim 96. 1.92 1.48 Bully 97. 1.16 1.36 98. 1.5 3.36 Victim 99. 1.08 1.52 100. 1.5 1.9 Victim 101. 1.04 1.36 102. 1.5 1.9 Victim 103. 1.08 1.16 104. 2.12 1.6 Bully 105. 1.5 1.9 Victim 106. 1.88 1.9 Victim 107. 1.5 2.6 Victim 108. 1.12 1.56 109. 1.04 1.4 110. 1.44 1.84 111. 1.08 1.4 112. 1.5 1.9 Victim 113. 1.5 1.9 Victim 114. 1.28 1.44 115. 1.12 1.32 116. 1.48 1.28 117. 1.5 1.9 Victim 118. 2.08 1.9 Bully 119. 1.5 1.9 Victim 120. 1.2 1.9 Victim 121. 1.24 1.36 122. 2.4 1.42 Bully 123. 1.6 1.48 124. 1.24 1.36 125. 1.52 1.48 126. 1.56 1.64 127. 1.72 1.9 Victim 128. 1.48 1.9 Victim 129. 2.12 1.32 Bully 130. 1.84 2.36 Victim 131. 1.8 1.92 Victim 132. 1.92 1.48 Bully 178

133. 1.16 1.36 134. 1.5 3.36 Victim 135. 1.08 1.52 136. 1.5 1.9 Victim 137. 1.04 1.36 138. 1.5 1.9 Victim 139. 1.08 1.16 140. 2.12 1.6 Bully 141. 1.5 1.9 Victim 142. 1.88 1.9 Victim 143. 1.5 2.6 Victim 144. 1.12 1.56 145. 1.04 1.4 146. 1.44 1.84 147. 1.08 1.4 148. 1.5 1.9 Victim 149. 1.5 1.9 Victim 150. 1.28 1.44 151. 1.12 1.32 152. 1.48 1.28 153. 1.5 1.9 Victim 154. 2.08 1.9 Bully 155. 1.5 1.9 Victim 156. 1.2 1.9 Victim 157. 1.24 1.36 158. 2.4 1.12 Bully 159. 1.6 1.48 160. 1.24 1.36 161. 1.52 1.48 162. 1.56 1.64 163. 1.72 1.9 Victim 164. 1.48 1.9 Victim 165. 2.12 1.12 Bully 166. 1.84 2.36 Victim 167. 1.2 2.24 Victim 168. 1.28 2.24 Victim 169. 1.16 2.08 Victim 170. 1.48 1.64 171. 1.6 1.48 172. 1.56 1.64 173. 1.48 1.6 174. 1.5 1.9 Victim 175. 1.44 1.64 176. 1.4 1.8 177. 1.32 1.9 Victim 178. 1.24 2.76 Victim 179

179. 1.8 1.68 180. 1.16 2.48 Victim 181. 1.2 2.32 Victim 182. 1.5 2.92 Victim 183. 1.52 1.72 184. 1.5 1.9 Victim 185. 1.64 1.76 186. 1.76 2.56 Victim 187. 1.6 1.9 Victim 188. 1.36 1.72 189. 1.24 1.92 Victim 190. 1.64 1.72 191. 1.56 1.72 192. 1.28 2.4 Victim 193. 1.68 2.56 Victim 194. 1.4 2.16 Victim 195. 1.64 2.08 Victim 196. 1.68 2.64 Victim 197. 1.6 1.6 198. 1.56 1.88 199. 1.64 1.64 200. 1.68 1.64 201. 1.84 1.72 202. 1.96 1.66 Bully 203. 1.44 1.72 204. 1.12 2.44 Victim 205. 1.5 1.9 Victim 206. 1.24 2.16 Victim 207. 1.64 2.8 Victim 208. 1.4 2.16 Victim 209. 1.84 1.88 210. 1.6 2.36 Victim 211. 1.6 2.52 Victim 212. 1.76 2.6 Victim 213. 1.28 2.64 Victim 214. 1.04 2.16 Victim 215. 1.48 2.4 Victim 216. 1.52 2.52 Victim 217. 1.2 2.24 Victim 218. 1.28 2.24 Victim 219. 1.16 2.08 Victim 220. 1.48 1.64 221. 1.6 1.48 222. 1.56 1.64 223. 1.48 1.6 224. 1.5 1.9 Victim 180

225. 1.44 1.64 226. 1.4 1.8 227. 1.32 1.9 Victim 228. 1.24 2.76 Victim 229. 1.8 1.68 230. 1.16 2.48 Victim 231. 1.2 2.32 Victim 232. 1.5 2.92 Victim 233. 1.52 1.72 234. 1.5 1.9 Victim 235. 1.64 1.76 236. 1.76 2.56 Victim 237. 1.6 1.9 Victim 238. 1.36 1.72 239. 1.24 1.92 Victim 240. 1.64 1.72 241. 1.56 1.72 242. 1.28 2.4 Victim 243. 1.68 2.56 Victim 244. 1.4 2.16 Victim 245. 1.64 2.08 Victim 246. 1.68 2.64 Victim 247. 1.6 1.6 248. 1.56 1.88 249. 1.64 1.64 250. 1.68 1.64 251. 1.84 1.72 252. 1.96 1.56 Bully 253. 1.44 1.72 254. 1.12 2.44 Victim 255. 1.5 1.9 Victim 256. 1.24 2.16 Victim 257. 1.64 2.8 Victim 258. 1.4 2.16 Victim 259. 1.84 1.88 260. 1.6 2.36 Victim 261. 1.6 2.52 Victim 262. 1.76 2.6 Victim 263. 1.28 2.64 Victim 264. 1.04 2.16 Victim 265. 1.48 2.4 Victim 266. 1.52 2.52 Victim

181

Annexure 2:

THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL (TTM) ANTI-BULLYING TERTIARY INTERVENTIONS

The Transtheoretical model is a model of changing behaviors by assessing a person’s readiness to adopt a new healthier behavior. The model proposes the strategies to change the behavior by providing guidance on the basis of analysis and use of different theories of psychotherapy. The model was developed by James O. Prochaska of the University of Rhode Island and colleagues in 1977. Later they refined the model and included four core constructs in the model as; stages of change, processes of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy. TTM model is featured as under: i. Based on data ii. Identify principles and processes of change that are most important in each stage for each behavior, and the level required to facilitate transition to next stage iii. Assess whether the individual is using important principles and processes enough, and gives negative or positive feedback STAGES OF CHANGE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS There are six stages of change detailed as under: i. PRE-CONTEMPLATION a. Not Ready: The subjects are not ready and have no intention to start taking action in next six (06) months. b. Pros

iii. PREPARATION a. Prepared: The participants are prepared to take action right now. b. Pros>Cons: The subjects perceive that advantages are far greater than disadvantages obtained by changing current behavior. c. Level of Constraints: The constraints are very few in this stage. The subjects have a Clear Plan, they have taken Small Steps, are Descriptive/Committed and More Confidant to change. (These are Ideal Program Participants). iv. ACTION a. Making The Behavior Change: The subjects have been meeting criteria of change for less than six (06) months. They continuously practice the changed behavior. This practice is lesser than six (06) months. b. Pros>Cons: The subjects perceive that advantages are far greater than disadvantages obtained by changing current behavior. c. Level and Intensity of Constraints: The constraints are very few in this stage. However, the intensity of risks are high in this stage which may harm the entire program. In this stage, the subjects have Greatest Risk of Relapse, Inappropriate Goals, Inadequate Preparation, and can Give-Up Too Easily. v. MAINTENANCE a. Sustaining the Behaviour Change: The subjects have been meeting criteria of change for more than six (06) months. They continuously practice the changed behavior. This practice is more than six (06) months. b. Pros>Cons: The subjects perceive that advantages are far greater than disadvantages obtained by changing current behavior. c. Level and Intensity of Constraints: no significant constraints are present in this stage nor the intensity of risks are high. The subjects are with Higher Self-Efficacy, Dynamic/Not Static, Consolidate Gains, and Improve Coping. vi. TERMINATION a. Maintained Behaviour Change For Five (05) YEARS Or More: The subjects have been meeting criteria of change for more than five (05) years. They have practiced the changed behavior a lot with great consistency. Therefore, the termination of such practice cannot lead to relapse to older negative behavior. 183

b. Pros>Cons: The subjects have seen, felt and witnessed the advantages for changing their behavior. The also advise others to change the behavior in order to get rid of “disadvantages of not changing the old behavior”. c. Level and Intensity of Constraints: There are no constraints at all as the subjects have known and practiced the newer healthy behavior. The subjects are with Zero Temptation, Total Confidence Or Self-Efficacy, and New Behaviour Become A Habit. ANTI-BULLYING INTERVENTIONS THROUGH TTM RELAPSE

i. Relapse is the rule, rather than an exception ii. A small percentage of relapsers slip back to Precontemplation stage iii. Relapse is a learning opportunity iv. Reinforcement (positive + negative) v. Punishment (positive + negative)

DECISIONAL BALANCE

The balance of pros and cons of making a change. Potential positive and negative consequences.

ADVANTAGES OF QUITTING BULLYING BEHAVIOR VS DISADVANTAGES OF QUITTING BULLYING BEHAVIOR

Advantages of Quitting Bullying Behavior

i. Helping Relations ii. Popularity iii. Synergy iv. Better Performance v. Sharing Grieves vi. Sportsmanship vii. Courtesy viii. Civic Virtue ix. Altruism x. General Compliance xi. Greater Acceptability 184

xii. High Self-control xiii. Social skills xiv. High socioeconomic status xv. Non-anxious xvi. Confidence xvii. Inner satisfaction Disadvantages of Quitting Bullying Behavior

i. Anxiety ii. Stress iii. Loss of Power iv. Survival Problems v. High Competition vi. Frustration vii. Disappointment viii. Loss of Inner Satisfaction ix. Loss of Enjoyment After getting the list (provided above), provide the following information:

Advantages You Would Gained By Quitting Bullying Behavior

i. List five major advantages of changing bullying behaviour. 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______ii. Rate each advantage in their order of importance (1=Not important, 2=Little important, 3=Moderately important, 4=Very important, 5=Extremely important). 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______Disadvantages You Would Gained By Quitting Bullying Behavior

i. Enlist five major disadvantages of changing bullying behaviour. 1. ______185

2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______ii. Rate and enlist each advantage in their order of importance (importance (1=Not important, 2=Little important, 3=Moderately important, 4=Very important, 5=Extremely important). 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______SELF-EFFICACY MEASURE FOR BULLYING

Think of workplace bullying behaviour you said you were encouraged to change.

Workplace bullying includes:

i. Saying or writing cheap/mean things ii. Activities which hurt someone’s reputation or relationships iii. Activities which hurt someone’s body or possessions)

Please read carefully, utilize your previous knowledge and complete the following questionnaire:

State your level of agreement to the following statements: Hints: (1. Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neutral, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly agree) 1. I have the ability to change bullying behavior 1 2 3 4 5

2. I am quite sure to change bullying behavior and 1 2 3 4 5 sustain new healthy behavior 3. I have fear to relapse in bullying 1 2 3 4 5 4. You are confident that you would change 1 2 3 4 5 bullying behaviors, even in the situation of extreme disadvantages (Would be Gained By Quitting Bullying Behavior) i. ______ii. ______iii. ______iv. ______v. ______5. You are confident that you would change 1 2 3 4 5 bullying behaviors, due to the following 186

benefits (Would be Gained By Quitting Bullying Behavior): i. ______ii. ______iii. ______iv. ______v. ______

PROCESSES OF CHANGE

There are “Ten (10) Processes of Change” suggested by TTM. There are five (05) EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE and five (05) BEHAVIOURAL PROCESS OF CHANGE. The following details pertain to this:

EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES OF BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE PROCESS OF CHANGE i. Consciousness Raising i. Self-liberation ii. Dramatic Relief (Pay Attention to Feelings) ii. Helping relationship iii. Environmental re-evaluation (Notice Your iii. Counter conditioning Effect on Others) iv. Self-re-evaluation (Create a New Self-Image) iv. Reinforcement management v. Social liberation (Notice Public Support) v. Stimulus control Processes 1.1. Consciousness Raising: i. “become informed” inform about negatives of bullying ii. “become informed” inform about positives of quitting bullying iii. Learning new facts, ideas and tips that support the healthy behaviour change, stories, inform about strategies of reducing bullying, iv. What are some places where you could find information about the behaviour you were encouraged to change?, inform about websites (i.e. http://www.workplacebullying.org/) v. What are some other questions you could ask? Make a list. NEGATIVES OF BULLYING BEHAVIOR 1. Stress-Related Health Impairment i. Cardiovascular Problems (heart and blood vessels): Hypertension to Strokes, Heart Attacks ii. Adverse Neurological Changes (disorder of the body nervous system): Neurotransmitter Disruption, Hippocampus and Amygdala atrophy iii. Gastrointestinal (stomach and the intestines): IBD, colitis iv. Immunological Impairment (immune system): More frequent infections of greater severity 187

v. Auto-immune disorders vi. Fibromyalgia (muscular or musculoskeletal pain with stiffness and localized tenderness at specific points on the body), Chronic Fatigue Syndrome vii. Diabetes viii. Skin Disorders 2. Psychological-Emotional-Mental Injuries i. Debilitating Anxiety ii. Panic Attacks (sudden overwhelming feeling of acute and disabling anxiety) iii. Clinical Depression (Clinical depression is the more severe form of depression, also known as major depression or major depressive disorder. It isn't the same as depression caused by a loss, such as the death of a loved one, or a medical condition, such as a thyroid disorder): new to person or exacerbated condition previously controlled iv. Post-traumatic Stress (PTSD) (mental health condition that's triggered by a terrifying event — either experiencing it or witnessing it. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event) from deliberate human-inflicted (caused) abuse v. Shame - sense of deserving a bad fate vi. Guilt vii. Overwhelming sense of Injustice (Equity and Procedural) viii. Low emotional stability

3. Social Harm i. Co-workers’ Ostracism (exclusion from a society or group) ii. Shunning (persistently avoid or ignore) iii. Rejection iv. Abandonment (cease to support) v. Conflicts vi. Helplessness vii. Despair viii. Alienation 4. Impact on Family Life i. Displacement of Anger to Family ii. Emotional Withdrawal iii. Anxiety 188

iv. Despondency (Dejection/low spirits from loss of hope or courage) 5. Co-Workers i. Fear ii. Guilt iii. Depression iv. Disappointment v. Disillusionment (low organizational credibility) vi. Turnover vii. Absenteeism viii. Jealousy ix. Litigation x. Rivalry xi. Less/low acceptance 6. Environment i. Anarchy in workplace setting ii. low performance outcomes iii. lack of quality friendships iv. low quality working relations v. lack of trust vi. intolerance vii. Suspiciousness viii. substance abuse ix. risk of suicide x. lack of community support xi. conflicts, fights, theft and vandalism xii. low coherence among team members xiii. be reluctant to attend team tasks xiv. fear xv. Low work engagement xvi. low staff retention xvii. low satisfaction xviii. insecurity and disrespect 7. Economic Harm i. financial Devastation ii. low opportunities 189

iii. Forced transfers POSITIVES OF QUITTING BULLYING All of the above problems will be solved/minimized.

1.2. Dramatic Relief (Pay Attention to Feelings) i. Also known as “emotional awareness” ii. What kinds of things can help evoke emotions related to your bullying behavior? iii. What kinds of things can help evoke emotions related to quitting bullying behavior? iv. Experiencing negative emotions that go along with bullying behavior and positive emotions that go along with the new behaviour (quitting bullying). Negative Emotions That Go Along With Bullying i. Suppression ii. Domination iii. Deprivation iv. Aggression v. Worry? vi. Guilt? vii. ______viii. ______ix. ______x. ______Positive Emotions That Go Along With the New Behaviour i. Care ii. Attention iii. Love iv. Cooperation v. Respect mutual vi. Win-win situation vii. Affection viii. Sense of ownership ix. Empathy x. Sympathy xi. ______xii. ______190

xiii. ______xiv. ______1.3. Environmental re-evaluation (Notice Your Effect on Others) i. Also known as “consider others”. Others may experience: a. Depression anxiety b. Fear c. Isolation d. ______e. ______f. ______ii. Realizing the negative impact of bullying and positive impact of changed behavior on others. iii. Can you list two people who could be affected if you changed your personal behaviour? Who would benefit? How would they benefit? a. ______b. ______1.4. Self-re-evaluation (Create a New Self-Image) i. Also known as “consider your self-image”. Apply the following: a. Under representation b. Domination c. Authority d. Manipulation e. Control f. ______g. ______ii. Realizing that behavioral change is an important part of your identity. Brief about: a. Perception vs Reality b. Empathy c. Religion/Religious Views d. Humanity e. ______f. ______iii. What words come to mind when you think about how you had feel about yourself if you change bullying behaviour? a. Affectionate 191

b. Loving c. Caring d. Sympathetic e. Cooperative f. Kind g. ______h. ______iv. How would your self-image change after quitting bullying? a. ______b. ______

1.5. Social liberation (Notice Public Support) Processes i. Also known as “noticing the public effort”. They may include the support/effort: a. Organizational Culture b. Praising c. Friends Circle d. Rewards e. Accountability f. ______g. ______ii. Realizing that social norms are changing to support the healthy behaviour. iii. What types of changes do you notice in Pakistan that support the change you were encouraged to make? 5. BEHAVIOURAL PROCESS OF CHANGE

2. 1 Self-liberation i. Otherwise known as “making a commitment to change” ii. In what ways can you show that you have made a commitment to quit bullying behavior? 2. 2 Helping relationship i. Otherwise known as “get support” ii. Seeking and using social support to make and sustain changes iii. Who would support you if you made your bullying behaviour change? iv. How would they help?

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2. 3 Counter conditioning i. Otherwise known as “use substitutes” ii. Substituting healthy alternative behaviors and thoughts for bullying behaviors iii. Can you think of one or two thing you could do when you are tempted to skip or give up your new behaviour? 2. 4 Reinforcement management i. Otherwise known as “rewards management” ii. Increasing the rewards for healthy behaviour change decreasing the rewards for bullying behaviors iii. What are two ways that you could reward yourself for making your personal behaviour change? iv. In what ways would making the behaviour change be in itself rewarding? 2. 5 Stimulus control i. Otherwise known as “manage your environment” ii. Removing reminders or cues to engage in the old behaviors, and using cues to engage in the healthy behaviour iii. What types of cues could you use to help you change bullying behaviour? iv. What kinds of people, place and thing should you avoid? v. What kinds of reminders can you see?

BULLYING BEHAVIORS-PROS AND CONS QUESTIONNAIRE

How important are the following opinions in your decision about whether or not to quit bullying behaviors?

Questions 1 2 3 4 5 Hint: 1. Not important, 2. Little important, 3. Moderately important, 4. Very important, 5. Extremely important I am getting social and financial benefits of quitting bullying. Quitting bullying is a hassle. Quitting bullying is an easy way to keep myself under control. I cannot afford Quitting bullying.

Can you put less value on the downside (cons) of taking your medication, and more value on what you have to gain (pros)? 193

Quitting bullying would decrease the following harms:

1. Stress-Related Health Impairment 2. Psychological-Emotional-Mental Injuries 3. Social Harm 4. Economic Harm 5. Impact on Family Life 6. Co-Workers 7. Environment End with small steps for moving to the next stage.

MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING i. Evidence-based ii. Provides techniques for: a. Eliciting motivation to change b. Resolving ambivalence (inconsistency) iii. Encouraging behaviour change iv. Collaboration is the spirit of MI v. Avoid authoritative stance vi. Involves exploration and support rather than persuasion and argument vii. Is more like dancing than wrestling Four (04) General principles of MI

i. Express Empathy a. Seeks to accept and understand the client’s feelings and perspectives about bullying without judging, criticizing, or blaming. ii. Develop discrepancy a. Create and amplify a discrepancy between bullying and important personal goals and values b. Triggered by awareness of and discontent with costs of bullying and perceived advantage to change c. Client, rather than the counsellor, should present arguments for change iii. Roll with resistance a. Types of resistance: i. Arguing ii. Challenging iii. Negating 194

iv. Blaming v. Excusing vi. Minimizing b. Strategies for rolling with resistance: i. Reframing (Providing a different perspective) ii. Normalizing ambivalences (inconsistency) [(acknowledging that change has its negatives and can be difficult)] iii. Emphasizing personal control (Ensuring that client knows that he/she ultimately makes the decision about whether and under what conditions, he/she will quit bullying) iv. Support self-efficacy a. Self-efficacy is essential in change process b. The client, not the counsellor, is responsible for choosing and carrying out the change c. The counsellor’s own belief in the person’s ability to change is critical The basic approach to interface with clients with MI is summarized in OARS acronym.

OARS i. Open ended questions a. What possible long-term consequences of quitting bullying concern you the most? (open ended) ______b. Are you concerned about quitting bullying? (close ended) ______ii. Affirmations a. Statements of recognition about the client’s strengths b. Help client believe that change is possible c. He/she is capable of implementing that change iii. Reflective listening a. Acknowledge and validate what the client has said b. Start with the following phrases: (i) “It sounds like you……” (ii) “You are feeling……..” (iii) “It seems to you that…….” c. Your client says: “my colleagues are cheap, that’s why I am playing with them by the bullying”. d. Response: 195

(i) “so you are facing a tough situation” (ii) “It sounds like you could use some help” iv. Summaries Form of reflective listening that:

a. Communicates counsellor’s interest in the client b. Builds rapport c. Calls attention to salient elements d. Shifts attention or direction e. Remember that pressuring people to make changes can cause resistance. v. Others i. Some other open ended questions which can be used? ii. What are some other reflective statements which can be used? iii. Counsellor helped client explore ambivalence iv. Counsellor rolled with resistance v. Counsellor allowed client to generate reason for making change vi. OARS can be particularly helpful in engaging a client in coaching STAGE-MATCHED PROCESSES OF CHANGE

Patterns of change vary by types of behaviors and types of population. Strategies for Precontemplation and Contemplation Stages (EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES)

1. Use experiential process of change in early stages, Precontemplation and contemplation. 2. Consciousness raising (become informed) 3. Dramatic relief (increase emotional awareness) 4. Environmental reevaluation (consider others) 5. Self-reevaluation (consider your self-image) 6. Social liberation (notice the public effort) Preparation (EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES + BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES)

Use both experiential and behavioural processes of change in preparation, but focus on commitments.

Self-liberation (make a commitment)

Strategies for Action and Maintenance Stages (BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES) 196

1. Use behavioural processes of change in later stages, action and maintenance 2. Helping relationships (get support) 3. Counter conditioning (use substitutes) 4. Reinforcement management (use rewards) 5. Stimulus control (manage your environment)

PRECONTEMPLATION STAGE STRATEGIES Hallmarks of Precontemplation Stage

i. Cons of changing outweigh the pros ii. Can be defensive, resistant, demoralized iii. Compared to individual in contemplation and preparation iv. Less engaged v. Have made fewer change attempts vi. Use the processes of change far less vii. Less likely to believe they can change their behavior Precontemplation Stage Guidelines for Intervention

 Show empathy  Avoid lectures and confrontation  Don’t try to move to action . Change does not equal action; change means progress to the contemplation stage  Intervention should be less intensive than for individuals in the later stages  Multiple brief contacts are helpful  The goal is to engage in the change process Principle: Decisional Balance

 Ask client to generate list of pros  Review list together  Let client know there are many pros  Add to the list together  Challenge client to double or triple the list of pros before next session Key Phrases to Increase the Pros:

I would like to take a minute to talk about the benefits (of target behavior). 197

You have already mentioned some important benefits (of target behavior). They are summarized.

Can you think of some other benefits for you personally? For others?

Some benefits to think about are………….

I shall give/send you a list of 20 benefits. I would ask that you take a look at them and circle the ones that are most important to you. Add your own benefits to the list.

Decisional Balance Feedback for the Precontemplation Stage

You do not seem to be paying enough attention to the pros of regular exercise

Even if you are not ready to start exercising right now, it helps to think about the benefits of doing so.

Let’s come up with some pros.

Sample: Some pros of regular exercise:

Improve your mood

Decrease your risk of cancer

Relive tension and stress

Give you more energy

Help you burn calories and maintain a healthy weight

Process: Consciousness Raising

 Provide information about behavior and alternatives  Correct misinformation  Make observations and interpretations  Provide information resources such as movies, books and websites Key Phrases for Consciousness Raising:

Did you know……..

Could you ask…………..

Could you find out……………..

During the next few weeks, keep your eyes and ears open for……….

I shall give/provide you more information about…………. 198

Key Process: Social Liberation

Reflect on social trends that support the new behavior

Reframe social policies as opportunities, rather than the coercion

Key Process for Social Liberation

What have you noticed on TV about (target behavior)?

What changes in your community/state/workplace are making it easier for people (towards target behavior)?

What are the motives of people who want you to change?

What are the motives of people who do not want you to change?

How can these policies/changes make it easier for you to change?

CONTEMPLATION STAGE STRATEGIES Contemplation Hallmarks

 Thinking about making changes, but not committed to take action  High pros and cons demonstrate ambivalence  Can get stuck in stage for years (chronic contemplation)  Have begun to use processes  Not ready for action-oriented programs Contemplation: Guidelines for Intervention

 Encourage weighing of pros and cons (raise pros, reduce cons)  Continue to raise consciousness  Encourage evaluation of self-image  Interventions can be more intensive than for Precontemplation Principle: Decisional Balance

 Ask client to add to list of pros  Acknowledge ambivalence by recognizing cons  Shrink cons by: o Comparing them to important pros o Countering or challenging them o Problem solving  Other strategies? Key Phrases for Decisional Balance: 199

You have mentioned some important reasons for changing (target behavior). They are: summarize please.

You also have mentioned some important reasons not to change, such as: summarize please.

Let’s weigh your reasons for changing and not changing.

Are you sure that (cons) will really happen?

Can you imagine another scenario?

Can you think of ways you can prepare for (cons), or deal with it so it’s not such a negative?

Processes of Contemplation

Environmental Re-evaluation (consider others)

 Help client identify the negative effects of their current behavior on others  Help client identify positive effects that a healthier behavior would have on others Key Phrases for Environmental Reevaluation

 I hear you talking quite a bit about (name).  How does your behavior affect him/her?  Are other people impacted in that way? In other ways?  How would he/she/others be affected if you change your behavior?  It sounds (name) looks to you as a role model. In contemplation, we also want to encourage dramatic relief, which means increasing emotional awareness about one’s behavior and the relief that comes from changing. Fear, guilt, inspiration, and hope are some of the emotions that can help people make progress, especially in the early stages.

As counsellors and coaches, we want to help clients identify their feelings about their behavior and recognize when they are trying to avoid uncomfortable feelings.

It’s helpful to use stories, personal testimonials, images, and metaphors that might evoke emotion. We also want to inspire hope and excitement about prospect of changing. Journaling can often be a powerful tool to increase dramatic relief.

Here are some key questions that may be useful when trying to arouse emotions to facilitate progress. 200

Dramatic Relief (increasing emotional awareness)

 Use stories, personal testimonial, images, and metaphor that might evoke emotion  Try to inspire hope and excitement about the prospect of changing  Encourage contemplators to write a journal to express their emotions  Other stories?  Key Phrases for Dramatic Relief  It helps to pay attention to your feelings associated with (old behavior/target behavior)  What do you feel when think about making changes?  I wonder if you might be trying to avoid some of the uncomfortable feelings associated with (old behavior/target behavior)  I shall give you some stories to read/watch about people who have gone through some of the things you are going through. Pay attention to your feelings as you read/watch them.  It can be helpful to record your feelings in a journal. At your next session, we can talk about what you have written. In Precontemplation, we raised consciousness by providing basic information.

Now, we want to encourage clients to become more informed and pay more attention to their behavior-to its triggers and consequences. When do they want to smoke? When they first get up in the morning? After a meal? And what happens afterward? Do they feel relaxed? For how long? Do they feel guilty? And how long is it before they want next cigarette?

We also want to encourage clients to identify questions that they think are important. If clients happen to mention something they had like to learn more about, run with that. You do not need to be the expert. Rather you want to encourage clients to search for answers themselves. Be prepared to refer them to resource like articles, websites and experts.

Can you think of other strategies for raising consciousness for clients in the contemplation stage?

Consciousness Raising (becoming more informed)

 Encourage clients to pay attention to the triggers and consequences of the problem behavior 201

 Encourage them to identify important questions and search for answers  Refer them to resource like articles, websites and experts Key Phrases for Consciousness Raising

 It can be helpful to pay attention to your behavior  Use a chart to record your behavior/its triggers/consequences  What kinds of questions would you like to ask? What kinds of information would be helpful?  Are there sources of information you tend to rely on? What other sources of information could you turn to?  I can recommend some books and reliable websites. Self-Reevaluation is an important process in the early and middle stages.

We want help clients to consider how their self-image would change with changes in behavior.

How do they see themselves now? How would they like to see themselves?

Dissonance, or incongruity, between behavior and self-image can inspire positive change. A woman sees smoking as inconsistent with her healthy self-image might experience this type of dissonance or discrepancy (an MI strategy).

Dissonance between behavior and self-image can also increase risk of relapse. A man who begins practicing stress management but likes to see himself as Type “A” personality who thrives on stress is treading on thin ice.

We want to see a consonance, or congruity, between behavior change goals and self- image. We also want to believe in their capacity to change.

As a counsellor or coach, it’s important to question your own personal beliefs about your client’s capacity to change and consider how those beliefs might impact your work with that client.

Self-Reevaluation

 Help client consider how self-image would change with changes in behavior  How do I see myself?  How would I like to see myself?  Question your own beliefs about your client’s capacity to change Key Phrases for Self-Reevaluation 202

You seem like someone who…………

What are qualities that you have liked most about yourself through your life?

I can see the strength in you when you…………

How does your current behavior fit (or not fit) your self-image?

How would your self-image change if you changed your behavior?

What one word would best describe the person you would become if you (target behavior)?

Self-liberation is both believing that one can change and making commitments to act on that belief. In the contemplation stage, people are not ready to make a commitment to change. But they may be ready to make a commitment to take small, preliminary step. To encourage that kind of commitment, we introduce choices.

We want to ensure that steps are realistic, concrete and measureable.

For example, ask contemplators to select one of several small steps or to choose one of their own that they will do during the next month. Small steps could include taking a ten minute walk every day, using 1% milk or non-fat milk, talking with a close friend about worries and concerns, or delaying that first cigarette each day by 10 minutes.

Also it turns out that the people are more likely to follow through with a commitment if they tell someone about it. So by sharing their commitment with you, they are increasing their likelihood of success. You could also encourage your client to tell someone else about their goal.

Here are some phrases and questions that can be useful when trying to activate self- liberation.

Self-Liberation (making a commitment)

 Introduce choices and encourage contemplators to make a small commitment  Ensure that steps are reliable, concrete and measureable  Encourage clients to choose a small step (for example, for clients who need to exercise to take a ten-minute walk each day for the next two weeks)  Encourage clients to tell someone about their goal Key Phrases for Self-Liberation

 Let’s talk about a small step you can take to move forward with this…..  Can you really see yourself doing this? 203

 How would you be able to start?  It helps to mark your calendar with a (start/quit) date?  Who could you tell about step(s) you are taking?  During our next session, we can follow up to see how you did with this step.

PREPARATION STAGE STRATEGIES Hallmarks of Preparation Stage

The pros of changing start to outweigh the cons

People are ready for action

They are more decisive and committed

They are more confidant, but still experience quite a bit of anxiety

They may already have taken small steps and started to develop a plan

People in preparation stage are the ideal program participants

Preparation: Guidelines for Intervention

 In preparation, we want to encourage, excite and empower.  We want to coach and support, not lecture.  We want to focus on helping people in preparation develop an effective action plan, with such questions as: . What are they going to do? . When are they going to do it? . How are they going to do it? . What difficulties do they anticipate? . How do they plan to deal with those difficulties?  We want to provide praise, support and recognition.  We want to help them solve, and to see that others have succeeded. If others have done it, so can they.  Interventions here should be short, focused and more action-oriented than they were in the earlier stages. In contemplation, we encourage people to make a commitment to a small goal-to take small step. In preparation, we encourage them to make a commitment to take action. Again, making commitments is a part of the process of change of self-liberation.

In preparation, people can strengthen their commitment by: 204

 Developing action plan  Setting quit or start date and writing it down  Telling others about their plan As counsellors and health coaches, you are going to be helping clients make an action plan. To minimize resistance, it’s helpful to offer three choices for taking action. For example, you could present three choices for quitting-nicotine replacement therapy going cold turkey, and gradual reduction. Ask clients to imagine using each of three approaches to quit and to identify the one that is most appealing and likely to work?

Again, people are much more likely to follow through on a commitment if they tell others about others about it. By talking with you about their plan, and telling others, they are more likely to follow through. You could even role play with your client about how they will tell others about their plan.

A good idea is to ask people in the preparation stage to set start and quit date in the next 30 days, and to schedule a call or meeting to check in with them three days after that.

In preparation, the key phrases and questions are very similar to those for self-liberation in the contemplation stage.

Processes of Preparation

Self-Liberation

Help strengthen commitment by:

 Developing an action plan  Setting a quit and start date  Telling others about commitment  Offer choices  Encourage client to tell others Key Phrases for Self-Liberation

 Let’s talk about the specific changes you will make  Can you really see yourself doing this? Is it realistic?  Let’s set a start/quit date in the next 30 days  It helps to mark your calendar  Let’s schedule a call/meeting soon after your start/quit date to see how you are doing 205

 People are more likely to follow through with something when they tell others about their plans. Who could you tell?  Let’s talk about how you will tell them about your plan Helping Relationships (Get Support)

Helping relationships, which means getting support, is another process that is important in many stages. For people in the preparation stage, the goal is to identify others who can provide encouragement, emotional support, and advice and who can help solving the problem.

It would be helpful if they could identify a “buddy” who could work with them to make or sustain the same kinds of changes they are making.

Discuss how and when to ask for support-some people just are not used to ask for help. And encourage them to be as specific as possible about what they had like the other person to do. For example, “I had like you to check in with me every few days to see that I am reaching my exercise goals”; “I had like to be able to call you when I experience the urge to smoke”; “I like you to come with me to a restaurant in town that offers a lot of great low-fat options”.

How else can you help clients identify what kinds of support they need, and ask for it?

As counsellors and health coaches, we are great sources of support of support as well. However, keep in mind that if clients are becoming dependent on us for helping them make and maintain changes, we need to work fade out our support as we approach the end of our work with them. An abrupt termination could become a condition for relapsing.

Helping Relationship

 Help client identify others who can support change efforts  Encourage the buddy system  Discuss how and when client will ask for support  Be available to provide support Key Phrases for Helping Relationships

I can help you with this by………..

Can you think of other ways I can be of help?

It sounds like (name) is an important person in your life. How might he/she be able to help you with this? 206

Who can support you in your efforts to change?

Let’s talk about what (name) can do to help.

It is important to let (name) know exactly how he/she can be helpful. How could you communicate that?

For people I contemplation stage, we wanted to point out any dissonance between self- image and behavior. How does their current behavior fit (or not fit) the way they would like to see themselves? That represents the process of self-reevaluation and the MI strategy of developing discrepancy.

We continue to encourage that kind of self-reevaluation in the preparation stage, but also ask clients to look ahead to the future, and imagine how they will think and feel about themselves after they have taken action.

Here are some key phrases and questions to use when helping clients in preparation stage consider their future self-image. We can ask them to imagine that it has been six months since they changed their behavior. How would they see themselves? What words they use to describe themselves? What words would other people use to describe them?

Self-Reevaluation (consider your self-image)

Help clients look to the future to imagine how they will thinj and feel about themselves after they have taken action.

Key Phrases of Self Reevaluation

 Imagine that it is six months since you have changed your behavior. How would you see yourself?  What words would you use to describe yourself?  What words would others use to describe you? Depending on what our research data tell us for a given behavior, we may begin, in preparation, to encourage use of more behavioural processes of change, such as counter- conditioning. This process of change involves using substitutes. As a counsellor, you can help clients identify problematic beliefs and behaviors, and then problem-solve to come up with positive alternatives. For example

Instead of thinking, “changing is not worth it”, think “changing my behavior is worth it for my children’s sake”. 207

Instead of thinking, “I do not have what it takes to change right now”, think “there are people who can help me”.

Instead of smoking after dinner, go for a walk.

Instead of skipping exercise when it is cold or rainy outside, find an indoor activity.

What other ways could you, or do you, encourage the process of counter conditioning with clients?

Here are some key phrases and questions that can help you work with clients to find healthy substitutes. (Notice open-ended questions)

Counter Conditioning (use substitutes)

 Help clients identify problematic beliefs and behaviors  Help problem-solve to identify positive substitutes  Substitute positive thoughts for negative ones  Substitute positive behavior for unhealthy ones Key Phrases for Counter Conditioning

 Thinking ahead, what kinds of situations might tempt you to go back to your old behavior?  What situations can get in the way of change?  Instead of slipping back into old behaviors in those situations, what are some things you can do instead?  What are some things you can tell yourself?  What would you advise a fiend to do in those situation?  Can you really imagine yourself doing those things?  What kinds of negative thinking can get in the way of change?  What kinds of things can you say to yourself when you find yourself thinking negatively? Another behavioural strategy that is sometimes used in preparation is stimulus control- modify or managing one’s environment to support change.

Our environment includes people, places, and things that encourage or support healthy behaviors. Our environment also includes people, places, and things that encourage or support unhealthy behaviors. Just like we worked in the earlier stages to change the balance of pros and cons, we want to change balance of positive and negative cues or influences in our environment. 208

Some examples might be to:

Clean out refrigerators and cupboards of those high-fat, high-carb foods, and stock them with healthy choices.

Keep our gym bag packed and ready to go, near the front door.

Avoid people who smoke.

It is also helpful if you work with clients to plan ahead how they will change their surroundings. For example, can they come up with a list of non-smoking restaurants they may enjoy?

We also like to encourage people in later stages to manage their environment by using reminders-an inspirational message on the refrigerator or a photograph showing lungs damaged by smoking.

Stimulus Control

Help identify people, places, and things that can:

 Support clients to engage in healthy behavior  Tempt clients to engage in the problem behavior  Assist in thinking ahead about how to change surroundings to make it easier to change behavior  Encourage clients to use reminders Key Phrases for Stimulus Control

We want to make this as easy for you as possible

What kinds of people, places and things can you do to make it easier to stay on track?

What kinds of people, places and things can you surround yourself with or seek out to stay on track?

What kinds of cues and reminders can you use around your home or work to give you a boost? To help you remember to (target behavior)? To inspire you? To help remember why it is important to (target behavior)?

It is important to think and plan ahead to create an environment that supports change. What can you do to plan ahead?

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ACTION STAGE STRATEGIES ACTION: HALLMARKS

Once people reach the action stage, they are meeting the behavioural criteria for action (for example, not smoking at all, exercising 150 minutes per week, or effectively managing stress).

They are actively working to keep up those changes.

People in action may experience strong urges to slip back into old behaviors, especially during times of distress.

As we discussed in an earlier part of this training, slipping back to an earlier stage is common, especially among individuals who have not prepared adequately.

 Meeting action criteria  Actively working to keep up the changes  May experience strong urges to slip back into old behaviors, especially during times of distress  Slipping back to an earlier stage is common, especially among individuals who have not prepared adequately Guidelines for Intervention

For people in action, we want to focus on the behavioural processes of change, which will help them maintain their new behavior. It is time to move beyond the experiential processes like information gathering, and exploring self-image and feelings about change. It is time to “just do it!”-like in the Nike slogan.

As a counsellor or coach, you want to help clients plan ahead to prevent slips and relapses.

Provide support, especially during stressful and demanding times.

Communicate that maintaining change is marathon, not a sprint. They are not finished with the change process because they are eating healthy. In fact, they may never be finished. They may need to struggle with the urge to overeat for the rest of lives. Across behaviors, the number one risk factor for relapse is emotional distress.

 Focus on behavioral processes of change  Plan ahead for difficult times to prevent slips and relapses  Identify source of support  Communicate that maintaining change is a marathon, not a sprint 210

Principle: Self Efficacy (Increase Confidence)

We talked about self-efficacy, or increasing confidence, in part 1 of this training. Although we have not talked much about it since, it is extremely important in TTM Interventions. We assess and give feedback on self-efficacy for most stages, in most behaviors.

In the earlier stages, we can begin increasing awareness of risk and risky solutions. To increase self-efficacy or confidence, we can encourage clients to notice how others around them are managing to make a behavior change, and to remind themselves of other successes in their lives. A lot of our stage-based materials include the personal testimonials of people who were successful, to help participants see that they, too, can be successful.

In the later stages, we can increase self-efficacy by helping clients develop a relapse prevention plan. It is concrete plan for how they will cope with difficult situations that come up.

In the slide that follows, you will see how relapse prevention plans incorporate the behavioural processes of change like stimulus control, counter conditioning and helping relationships.

In earlier stages: increase awareness of risk and risky situations, notice others who have been successful, think of other successes.

In later stages: develop relapse prevention plan that incorporates behavioural processes of change.

Stimulus Control

Stimulus control-modifying environment to support change. As in the preparation stage, the goal is to help clients really think about their environment, its traps and triggers, and ways to manage them.

Now we also want to help clients develop a realistic prevention plan. This plan may involve avoiding certain people, places and things, using reminders to engage in the healthy behavior, changing their daily routines, planning ahead, and reducing stress by seeking support, problem-solving and relaxing.

Taking these types of steps can help clients maintain the healthy changes they have made. The key phrases and questions for increasing stimulus control in the actin stage, are same as those presented in the preparation stage. 211

Stimulus Control (Manage Your Environmnet)

 Help identify causes and triggers  Help develop a relapse plan that is realistic . Avoiding people places and things that increase relapse risk . Using reminders . Changing daily routines . Planning ahead . Reducing stress by seeking support, problem-solving and relaxing Key Phrases for Stimulus Control

 We want to make this as easy for you as possible  What kinds of people, places, and things can you avoid to make it easier to stay on track?  What kinds of people, places, and things can you surround yourself with or seek out to stay on track?  It is important to think and plan ahead to create an environment that supports change. What can you do to plan ahead? Reinforcement Management (Use Rewards)

Reinforcement Management involves using rewards to reinforce progress. As a counsellor, you can help clients identify the best ways they can reward (intrinsic or extrinsic) themselves.

Intrinsic or internal rewards such as sense of accomplishment, satisfaction.

Extrinsic or external rewards are praise form others, a gift we buy ourselves. To prepare people for the longer term, we teach them to rely more on intrinsic rewards. We find that may people want much more praise and recognition than others actually provide. Family members and friends can take action for granted too quickly. Acquaintances typically generate only a couple of positive statements early in Action.

Self-reinforcement are much more under self-control and can be given more quickly and consistently when temptations to lapse or relapse are resisted.

Sometimes we use reinforcement management in the earlier stages, too, to reward and reinforce small steps.

Reinforcement Management (Use Rewards)

 Help clients identify ways they can reward themselves 212

 Nothing intrinsic rewards (sense of satisfaction, accomplishment)  Noticing extrinsic rewards (praise from others, a gift we buy ourselves) Key Phrases for Reinforcement Management

 Great job!  You should feel good about the steps you have taken  How did it feel to (behavior)?  Remember to give yourself a pat on the back for (behavior)  What can you do to reward yourself when you (behavior)?  Have you noticed any benefits of (behavior)? What have been the biggest benefits? Counter Conditioning (use substitutes)

In the Action stage, we want to continue to encourage counter conditioning. Help clients identify problematic beliefs and behaviors, and ways to use healthy substitutes.

Encourage your client to role play using those healthy substitutes, and provide feedback and reinforcement.

 Help clients identify problematic beliefs and behaviors, and ways to use healthy substitutes.  Role play, and provide feedback and reinforcement. Key Phrases for Counter Conditioning

 Thinking ahead, what kinds of situations might tempt you to go back to your old behavior?  What are some things you can do instead in those situations to help you stay on track?  Can you really imagine yourself doing those things?  What kinds of negative thinking can make it more difficult to stay on track?  What kinds of things can you say to yourself instead when you find yourself negatively.  What would you advise a friend to do in those situations?  Who can you turn to for support if or when you find yourself wanting to slip into old behaviors?  Let’s role play what you can tell yourself in difficult situations. 213

 Let’s role play how you can ask (support person) for help in difficult situations. MAINTENANCE STAGE STRATEGIES Maintenance: Hallmarks

In maintenance, there are fewer temptations to slip back into old behaviors.

People are more confident, but continue to be at risk for relapse, especially during times of distress.

 Experience fewer temptations to slip back into old behavior  More confident  At greatest risk for relapse during times of distress

Maintenance: Guidelines for Intervention

Focus on relapse prevention. Work to consolidate gains and increase self-efficacy. The goal is to make the new behavior a habit.

Maintenance is dynamic, not a static stage. Most people remain at risk for relapse, especially during times of distress. So, it is especially important to help clients improve their coping skills. For many people, maintenance can be a life-long struggle. In maintenance, people could also get bored with their behavior. One way to address that risk is to add variety-for example, add variety to a healthy diet or to an exercise or stress management routine.

Maintenance: Guidelines for Intervention

 Continue to focus on relapse prevention.  Work to consolidate gains and increase self-efficacy.  Maintenance is dynamic, not a static stage.  Improve their coping skills.  Remember, for many people, maintenance can be a life-long struggle. Maintenance

For clients in maintenance stage, you will want to continue to encourage use of the more behavioural processes of change:

 Helping relationships  Counter conditioning 214

 Stimulus control  Reinforcement management Processes

Continue to encourage clients to use behavioural processes of change:

 Helping relationships (continue to get support)  Counter conditioning (continue to use substitutes)  Stimulus control (continue to manage your environment)  Reinforcement management (continue to use rewards) Strategies (Work with your client to discover more)

Drawing from those processes, work with your client to identify three strategies for stating on track. For example, you might select planning ahead, tapping social support, and using substitutes to deal with temptation.

 Plan ahead  Tap social support  Use substitutes to deal with temptation Relapse: Dealing with Setbacks

It is important to remember that most of the people will need to deal with setbacks. The change process is not linear, but spiral, with relapse to earlier stages. To help people progress to lifelong maintenance, we encourage them to view temptation and setbacks as opportunities for learning, rather than reasons for giving up.

To help clients cope with setbacks, we can encourage them to:

Move quickly back to better behavior; they can increase self-efficacy by viewing the slip as temporary and trying to understand what happened and what can be done differently next time.

Maintain their image of the type of person they want to be and their image of themselves as someone who is committed to changing and has some successes.

Reassess their stage of change-have they slipped back to Preparation, Contemplation or Precontemplation?

 Change process is not linear  Encourage clients to learn from setbacks and move forward . View the slip as temporary 215

. Develop strategies for coping with similar situations . Help clients maintain image of the person he/she wants to be . Help clients assess their current stage of change READINESS TO USE A STAGE APPROACH

Looking Back

At the beginning of this session, we asked you to write down three change strategies or interventions that you have used the most. Take a look at those strategies. What principles or processes of change do your strategies represent? Are your strategies more experiential and appropriate for people in early stages? Or are they more behavioural and appropriate for people in the later stages? Are there additional TTM principles and processes of change that you could add to your repertoire? Can you integrate them into your work in stage-matched fashion?

Changing ways of working can be just as difficult as changing health behaviors. We are going to end this section by asking you to think about how you can use a stage approach to facilitate use of the stage of change in your work.

Stage of Change

Let us take a look at stage of change…… when you started this session today, what do you think your stage of change was for using the stage approach in your work?

Assess Your Stage of Change for Using the Stage Approach in Your Work

Decisional Balance

What are the pros of using a stage approach? What are the cons? Are there ways to shrink the cons?

Self-Efficacy

What are some situations where using a stage approach could be difficult? What can you do in those situatuions to stay on track?

Identify Situations Where Using A Stage Approach Is Difficult; If In Later Stages, Develop A Relapse Prevention Plan.

Consciousness Raising

Learn the model, study the principles and processes of change, and learn about the scientific research that supports this approach.

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Dramatic Relief

Get excited about using a new approach.

Emotional Reevaluation

Consider the benefits to clients. Is there anyone else who would benefit if you used a stage approach to your work?

Self-Reevaluation

Think of yourself as someone who is able to draw from various theories and change strategies to meet the stage-based needs of clients.

Social Liberation

Notice how your professional community is changing to support use of the stage approach.

Self-Liberation

Make a commitment to use the stage approach, and tell others about your commitment.

Helping Relationships

Get support, feedback, supervision, and discuss cases with co-workers.

Stimulus Control

Create an environment that makes it easy to use a stage approach. For example, keep information on the stage-matched principles and processes at your fingertips.

Counter Conditioning

Counter problematic thoughts and behaviors with positive substitutes. For example, tell yourself, “I can do this”.

Reinforcement Management

Feel good about using a stage approach, notice benefits and accept praise.

Role Plays

Now let us go through two role plays. At various points throughout each, we shall ask some questions and make some comments regarding the motivational interviewing and TTM principles and processes of change.

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SUMMARY

 In Precontemplation stage, help subject to make a commitment to change.  In contemplation, help people think about the kind of person they want to be.  In preparation, help them to implement their commitment (into action)  In action and maintenance, help them maintain changes  Change does not necessarily mean action, change means progress.  Five well defined stages of change exist.  There are stage specific strategies and processes of change to help people move forward.  Helping people move just one stage increases likelihood of successful action.  Redefine success  Stage movement  Increase decisional balance  Increase self-efficacy  Increase use of stage-matched processes of change  You must be the change you wish to see in the world

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APPENDICES

Appendix A:

WORKPLACE BULLYING QUESTIONNAIRE

(سوال نامہ) QUESTIONNAIRE

Regards Muhammad Munir PhD Scholar, University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi 0321-5989693, 0333-9635902; [email protected]

(جواب دینے والوں کی آبادیات) Demography of Respondents

______:(عہدہ) Designation ______:(نام) Name

(خواجہ سرا) Shemale (عورت) Female (مرد) Male (صننف) Gender Don’t want to Marital Status Unmarried Married Separated answer ( طالق یافتہ) ( شادی شدہ) ( غیر شادی شدہ) ( ازدواجی حیثیت) (جواب نہیں دینا چاہتے) Age in Years 46 or Above 18-25 26-35 36-45 (46سال یا زیادہ) (عمر) Maste MS/MPh Education Matriculation Intermeidate Bachelors rs il/PhD ( ایم ایس / ایم انڈرگریجویٹ فل / پی ایچ گریجوی) ( ) ( انٹرمیڈیٹ) ( میٹرک) (تعلیم) ( ڈی (ٹ 219

Total Work Experience (Years) Less than 1 10 or Above 1-5 5-10 (10سال یا زیادہ) (1 سال سے کم) (مالزمت کا کل تجربہ) Here are a number of personality traits that may or may not apply to you. You should rate the extent to which the pair of traits applies to you, even if one characteristic applies more strongly than the other. یہاں شخصیت کی خصوصیات کی ایک بڑی تعداد فراہم کی گئ ہے جوآپ پر الگو ہوتی ہے یا ہو سکتا ہے کہ الگو نہ ہوتی ہو۔ آپ کو خصلتوں کی دی گئ جوڑی درجہ کی بندی کرنی ہے چاہے ایک خصوصیت دوسرے کے مقابلے میں زیادہ شدت سے الگو ہوتی ہو۔ Please tick/encircle the number that best indicates the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements: براہ مہربانی مندرجہ ذیل بیانات کے ساتھ اتفاق ای اختالف کرنے کے لیے بہترین نمبر کا انتخاب کریں: Hints: (1. Strongly Disagree, 2. Moderately Disagree, 3. Disagree a Little, 4. Neither Agree Nor Disagree, 5. Agree a Little, 6. Moderately Agree, 7. Strongly Agree) اشارے: )1۔ بہت زیادہ اختالف، 2۔درمیانہ اختالف، 3۔تھوڑا سااختالف، 4۔ نہ اتفاق اور نہ اختالف، 5۔ تھوڑا سا اتفاق، 6۔ درمیانہ اتفاق، 7۔ بہت زیادہ اتفاق( مجھے لگتا ہے کہ میں ہوں: :I see myself as 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 وسیع سرگرمیوں واال، پرجوش Extraverted, Enthusiastic .1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 نقاد، جھگڑاكرنے واال Critical, Quarrelsome .2 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 قابل اعتماد، نظم و ضبط واال Dependable, Self-disciplined .3 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 فکر مند ، آسانی سے پریشان ہونے واال Anxious, Easily Upset .4 نئے تجربات کرنے کے لئے تیار، انجانے ,Open to New Experiences 5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 خوف کا شکار - Complex 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 با تکلف، کم گو/خاموش طبع Reserved, Quiet .6 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ہمدرد، گرم جوش Sympathetic, Warm .7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 غیرمنظم، بے پرواہ Disorganized, Careless .8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 پرسکون، جذباتی طور پر مستحکم Calm, Emotionally Stable .9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 روایتی، غیرتخلیقی Conventional, Uncreative .10 Please tick/encircle the number that best corresponds with your experience over the last six months: براہ مہربانی مندرجہ ذیل بیانات کے لیےاس نمبر کا انتخاب کریں جوگزشتہ چھ )6( ماہ کے دوران آپ کے تجربات کے ساتھ بہترین مطابقت رکھتا ہو: Hints: (1. Never, 2. Now and Then, 3. Monthly, 4. Weekly, 5. Daily) اشارے: )1۔ کبھی نہیں، 2۔ کبھی کبھار، 3۔ ماہانہ، 4۔ ھفتہ وار، 5۔روزانہ/ ہر روز( 11. Someone withheld information which affected my performance 1 2 3 4 5 کسی نے وہ معلومات چھپائیں جنہوں نے میری کارکردگی کو متاثر کیا۔ 12. I withheld information which affected someone’s performance 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے وہ معلومات چھپائیں جنہوں نے کسی کی کارکردگی کو متاثر کیا۔ 13. I was humiliated or ridiculed in connection with work 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے کام کے سلسلے میں ذلیل کیا گیا یا میرا مذاق اڑایا گیا۔ 14. I humiliated or ridiculed someone in connection with work 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کام کے سلسلے میں کسی کو ذلیل کیا یا مذاق اڑایا۔ 15. I was ordered to do work below my level competence 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے میری قابلیت کی سطح کی نسبت کمتر کام کرنے کے لئے حکم دیا گیا۔ 16. I ordered someone to do work below his/her level competence 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو اس کی قابلیت کی سطح کی نسبت کمتر کام کرنے کے لئے حکم دیا۔ I was assigned with trivial or unpleasant tasks instead of key areas of 17. responsibility 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے میرے ذمہ اہم کاموں کی بجائے معمولی نوعیت کے یا ناخوشگوار کام تفویض کیے گۓ۔ I assigned someone with trivial or unpleasant tasks instead of key areas 18. of responsibility 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو اس کے ذمہ اہم کاموں کی بجائے معمولی نوعیت کے یا ناخوشگوار کام تفویض کیے۔ 19. Gossip and rumors were spread about me 1 2 3 4 5 میرے بارے میں منفی باتیں کی گئیں اور افواہیں میں پھیالئ گئیں۔ 220

20. I spread gossip and rumors about someone 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کے بارے میں منفی باتیں کیں اور افواہیں پھیالئیں۔ 21. I was ignored or excluded from a group (‘Sent to Coventry’) 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے نظر انداز کر دیا یا کسی گروپ سے خارج کر دیا گیا۔ 22. I ignored or excluded someone from a group (‘Sent to Coventry’( 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو نظر انداز کیا یا کسی گروپ سے خارج کر دیا۔ I was insulted or offensive remarks were made about me (i.e. habits and 23. background), my attitudes or private life 1 2 3 4 5 میری توہین کی گئی یا میرے بارے میں )یعنی عادات اور پس منظر کے بارے میں(، میرے رویوں یا نجی زندگی کے بارے میں جارحانہ ریمارکس دئے گۓ۔ I insulted or made offensive remarks about someone (i.e. habits and 24. background), his/her attitudes or private life 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کی توہین کی یا اس کے بارے میں )یعنی عادات اور پس منظر کے بارے میں(، اس کے رویوں یا نجی زندگی کے بارے میں جارحانہ ریمارکس دئے۔ 25. I was shouted at or being the target of spontaneous (or rage) 1 2 3 4 5 میرے اوپرچلالیا گیا تھا یا مجھے اچانک غیظ و غضب کا ہدف بنایا گیا۔ 26. I shouted at someone or make him/her target of spontaneous 1 2 3 4 5 میں کسی کے اوپرچلالیا یا کسی کواچانک غیظ و غضب کا ہدف بنایا۔ I was the target of intimidating behaviour such as finger-pointing, of 27. personal space, shoving, blocking/barring the way 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے دھمکی آمیز رویے جیسا کہ انگلی کے اشارہ سے نشان دہی کرنا، ذاتی معامالت میں دخل، دھکا دینا، راستہ روکنا وغیرہ کا ہدف بنایا گیا۔ I made someone the target of intimidating behaviour such as finger- 28. pointing, of personal space, shoving, blocking/barring the way 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو دھمکی آمیز رویے جیسا کہ انگلی کے اشارہ سے نشان دہی کرنا، ذاتی معامالت میں دخل، دھکا دینا، راستہ روکنا وغیرہ کا ہدف بنایا۔ 29. I went through hints or signals from others that I should quit my job 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے دوسروں کی طرف سے اشارے ملے کہ مجھے اپنی نوکری چھوڑ دینی چاہئے۔ 30. I showed hints or signals to someone that he/she should quit his/her job 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو اشارے دۓ کہ اسے اپنی نوکری چھوڑ دینی چاہئے۔ Repeated reminders of my errors or mistakes were made 31. 1 2 3 4 5 میری غلطی یا غلطیوں کی بار بار یاددہانی کروائ گئ۔ I made repeated reminders of someone’s errors or mistakes 32. 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو اس کی غلطی یا غلطیوں کی بار بار یاددہانی کروائ۔ 33. I was ignored or faced a hostile reaction when approach 1 2 3 4 5 جب میں نے کسی سے کوئی درخواست کی تو مجھے نظر انداز کر دیا گیا یا معاندانہ رویہ اختیار کیا گیا۔ I ignored or made a hostile reaction when someone approach 5 4 3 2 1 جب کسی نے مجھ سے کوئی درخواست کی تو میں نے اسے نظر انداز کر دیا یا معاندانہ رویہ اختیار .34 کیا۔ 35. I experienced persistent criticism of my work and effort 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے اپنے کام اور کوشش پرمسلسل تنقید کا سامنا کیا۔ 36. I persistently criticized someone of his/her work and effort 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو اس کے کام اور کوشش پرمسلسل تنقید کا نشانہ بنایا۔ 37. My opinions and views were ignored 1 2 3 4 5 میری رائے اور خیاالت کو نظر انداز کر دیا گیا۔ 38. I ignored someone’s opinions and views 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کی رائے اور خیاالت کو نظر انداز کر دیا۔ 39. Practical jokes carried out by people I didn’t get with 1 2 3 4 5 لوگوں نے میرے ساتھ عملی مذاق کئے جو میرے مزاج سے بالکل مطابقت نہیں رکھتے تھے۔ 40. I carried practical jokes which someone didn’t get with 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے لوگوں سے عملی مذاق کئے جو ان کے مزاج سے بالکل مطابقت نہیں رکھتے تھے۔ 41. I was given tasks with unreasonable targets or deadlines 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے غیر معقول اہداف یا غیر معقول وقت )ڈیڈ الئن( کے ساتھ کام تفویض کیے گۓ۔ 42. I gave tasks with unreasonable targets or deadlines 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کوغیر معقول اہداف یاغیرمعقول وقت )ڈیڈ الئن( کے ساتھ کام تفویض کیے۔ 221

43. I experienced allegations made against me 1 2 3 4 5 میرے خالف الزامات لگاۓ گۓ جن کا میں نے سامنا کیا۔ 44. I made allegations against someone 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کے خالف الزامات لگاۓ۔ 45. I experience excessive monitoring of my work 1 2 3 4 5 میرے کام کی ضرورت سے زیادہ کی نگرانی کی گئ۔ 46. I excessively monitor someone’s the work 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے ضرورت سے زیادہ کسی کے کام کی نگرانی کی۔ I felt pressure not to claim something which by right I entitled to (e.g. 47. sick leave, holiday entitlement, travel expenses) 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے دباؤ محسوس کیا کہ میں کسی ایسی چیز کا بھی مطالبہ نہ کروں جس کا میں حقدار بھی ہوں )جیسے بیماری کی چھٹی، قانون کی طرف سے مقرر کردہ تعطیالت، سفر کے اخراجات(۔ I exerted pressure not to claim something which by right someone 48. entitled to (e.g. sick leave, holiday entitlement, travel expenses) 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی پردباؤ ڈالال کہ وہ کسی ایسی چیز کا بھی مطالبہ نہ کرے جس کا وہ حقدار بھی ہے )جیسے بیماری کی چھٹی، قانون کی طرف سے مقرر کردہ تعطیالت، سفر کے اخراجات(۔ 49. I was the subject of excessive teasing and sarcasm 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے بہت زیادہ تنگ کیا گیا اور طنزوتشنیع نشانہ بنایا گیا۔ 50. I made excessive teasing and sarcasm of someone 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو بہت زیادہ تنگ کیا اور طنزوتشنیع نشانہ بنایا۔ 51. I was exposed to an unmanageable workload 1 2 3 4 5 مجھ پر استطاعت سے زیادہ کام کا بوجھ ڈالال گیا۔ 52. I provided someone an unmanageable workload 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی پر اس کی استطاعت سے زیادہ کام کا بوجھ ڈالال۔ 53. I experienced threats of violence of physical abuse or actual abuse 1 2 3 4 5 مجھے جسمانی تشدد کی دھمکیاں دی گئیں یا مجھے اصل تشدد کا نشانہ بنایا گیا۔ 54. I made threats of violence of physical abuse or actual abuse 1 2 3 4 5 میں نے کسی کو جسمانی تشدد کی دھمکیاں دیں یا کسی کو اصل تشدد کا نشانہ بنایا۔ 5 4 3 2 1 مجھے برے ناموں سے پکارا گیا۔ I was called names .55 5 4 3 2 1 میں نے کسی کو برے ناموں سے پکارا۔ I called someone names .56 5 4 3 2 1 میری چیزیں توڑ دی گئیں۔ My things were broken .57 5 4 3 2 1 میں نے کسی کی چیزیں توڑ دیں۔ I broke someone’s things .58 Bad things were written 5 4 3 2 1 میرے بارے میں بری چیزیں لکھی گئیں۔ .59 about me I wrote bad things about 5 4 3 2 1 میں نے کسی کے بارے میں بری چیزیں لکھیں۔ .60 someone Who bullied you? (You may choose more than one option) کس نے آپ کو دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ بنایا؟ )آپ ایک سے زیادہ بیانات کاانتخاب کر سکتے ہیں(  فوری نگران Immediate Supervisor □ □ Other Superiors/Managers in the  ادارے کے کوئی اور اعلی افسران/مینیجرز Organization 61. کام کے ساتھی Colleagues □  زیر نگرانی مالزمین Subordinates □  گاہک/مریض/طلباء Customers/Patients/Students □ کوئی اور : ______□ Any Other: ______ You bullied whom? (You may choose more than one option) آپ نے کس کو دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ بنایا؟ )آپ ایک سے زیادہ بیانات کاانتخاب کر سکتے ہیں(  فوری نگران Immediate Supervisor □ □ Other Superiors/Managers in the  ادارے کے کوئی اور اعلی افسران/مینیجرز .62 Organization کام کے ساتھی Colleagues □  زیر نگرانی مالزمین Subordinates □ 222

 گاہک/مریض/طلباء Customers/Patients/Students □ کوئی اور : ______:Any Other □  He/she bullied you due to (You may choose more than one option): اس نے آپ کو دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ کس وجہ سے بنایا؟ )آپ ایک سے زیادہ بیانات کاانتخاب کر سکتے ہیں(:  آپ کی شخصیت کی خاصیت Your Personality Trait □  اس کی شخصیت کی خاصیت His/Her Personality Trait □ آپ کی پیشہ ورانہ مہارت Your Professional Competency □  اس کی پیشہ ورانہ مہارت His/Her Professional Competency □  آپ کی پیشہ ورانہ نااہلی □ 63. Your Professional Incompetency  اس کی پیشہ ورانہ نااہلی His/Her Professional Incompetency □  آپ اس سے جونیئر ہیں You Are Junior to Him/Her □  وہ آپ سے جونیئر ہیں He/She is Junior to You □  آپ اس سے سینئر ہیں You Are Senior to Him/Her □  وہ آپ سے سینئر ہیں He/She is Senior to You □ کوئی اور : ______□ Any Other: ______ You bullied him/her due to (You may tick more than one option): آپ نے اس کو دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ کس وجہ سے بنایا؟ )آپ ایک سے زیادہ بیانات کاانتخاب کر سکتے ہیں(:  آپ کی شخصیت کی خاصیت Your Personality Trait □  اس کی شخصیت کی خاصیت His/Her Personality Trait □ آپ کی پیشہ ورانہ مہارت Your Professional Competency □  اس کی پیشہ ورانہ مہارت His/Her Professional Competency □  آپ کی پیشہ ورانہ نااہلی □ 64. Your Professional Incompetency  اس کی پیشہ ورانہ نااہلی His/Her Professional Incompetency □  آپ اس سے جونیئر ہیں You Are Junior to Him/Her □  وہ آپ سے جونیئر ہیں He/She is Junior to You □  آپ اس سے سینئر ہیں You Are Senior to Him/Her □  وہ آپ سے سینئر ہیں He/She is Senior to You □ کوئی اور : ______:Any Other □  Please state the number (quantity) and gender of your perpetrators (who bullied you): :جنہوں نے آپ کو دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ بنایا، ان کی تعداد )نمبر( اور صنف بیان کریں  مرد قصوروار : ______Male Perpetrators □ خواتین قصوروار : ______.65 □ Female Perpetrators ______  خواجہ سرا قصوروار : ______Shemale Perpetrators □ Please state the number (quantity) and gender of your victims: آپ نے جنہیں دھونس/ جارحانہ رویہ کا نشانہ بنایا ان کی تعداد )نمبر( اور صنف بیان کریں:  مرد متاثرین : ______Male Victims □ 66. خواتین متاثرین : ______Female Victims □ ______ خواجہ سرا متاثرین : □ Shemale Victims ______ THANK YOU VERY MUCH آپ کا بہت بہت شکریہ *******

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Appendix B:

EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE QUESTIONNAIRE

(سوال نامہ) QUESTIONNAIRE

Assalam-O-Alaikum Respected Sir/Madam, I am a PhD Scholar in Management Sciences at University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. I am conducting a research on ‘REDUCING THE INCIDENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING AND MITIGATING ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE’. I shall be highly obliged if you are kind enough to spare some of your precious time to complete this questionnaire. Your opinion will go long way in completing my research Study. Employee performance refers to the achievement of goals in an effective and efficient manner. High performance of the employee shows how well he performs his/her job duties and extra-role activities needed for the achievement of goals. An employee’s performance is divided into two dimensions; i) in-role performance consisting of obligatory tasks required and ii) extra-role performance consisting of organizational citizenship behaviors حح;by a job that contribute to the goals of the organization by creating a positive impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization. Being a supervisor, you are requested to please provide your views about the performance of the employee mentioned here under. Information, comments, suggestions and views provided thus will be only for research purpose, and shall be kept strictly confidential. السالم علیکم سر/ میڈم، میں انسٹی ٹیوٹ آف مینجمنٹ سائنسز، پیر مہر علی شاہ ایرڈ ایگریکلچر یونیورسٹی، راولپنڈی میں ڈاکٹر آف فلسفی (پی۔ایچ۔ڈی) کا محقق ہوں۔ میں "مالزمت کی جگہ سے (Bullying) دھونس / جارحانہ رویوں کے واقعات کو کم کرنااور ان رویوں کے مالزمین کی کارکردگی پر پڑنے والے منفی اثرات کو کم کرنا" کے موضوع پرایک تحقیق کر رہا ہوں۔اپنے قیمتی وقت میں سے کچھ وقت نکال کراس سوالنامے کو مکمل کرنےاوراپنی قیمتی رائے کے اظہار پر میں آپ کاانتہائی شکر گزار ہوں گا۔ مالزم کی کارکردگی سے مراد بہترین )وقت اور کوشش کا کم از کم ضیاع(اور موثر انداز میں)مطلوبہ نتائج پیدا کرنے میں کامیاب(مقاصد کا حصول ہے۔ مالزم کی اعلی کارکردگی سے مراد ہے کہ وہ کتنی اچھی طرح اپنی مالزمت کے فرائض ادا کرتا ہےاور ماورائے کام سرگرمیاں انجام دیتا ہے جو مقاصد کے حصول کے لئے ضروری ہوتی ہیں۔ایک مالزم کی کارکردگی کو دو جہتوں میں تقسیم کیا جاتا ہے؛ i( مالزمت کے ضروری فرائض ؛اور ii( ماورائے مالزمت سرگرمیاں جوایک تنظیم کی کارکردگی اور اس کے سماجی و نفسیاتی حاالت پر مثبت اثرات مرتب کرتی ہیں۔ آپ سے درخواست ہے کہ ایک سپروائزر ہونے کے ناطے، اپنے ماتحت مذ کور ذیل مالزم کی کارکردگی کے بارے میں اپنے خیاالت فراہم کریں۔ آپ کی قیمتی رائے ،تبصرے،اور تجاویز کو"صرف تحقیق کے مقصد کے لئے" استعمال کیا جائے گااور"انتہائی خفیہ" رکھاجائے گا۔

Regards Muhammad Munir PhD Scholar, University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi 0321-5989693, 0333-9635902; [email protected] (جواب دینے والوں کی آبادیات) Demography of Respondents

______:(عہدہ) Designation ______:(نگران کا نام) Supervisor’s Name

(خواجہ سرا) Shemale (عورت) Female (مرد) Male (صننف) Gender ______:(عہدہ) Designation ______:(مالزم کا نام) Employee’s Name

(خواجہ سرا) Shemale (عورت) Female (مرد) Male (صننف) Gender 224

State your level of agreement to the following statements regarding Mr./Ms.______: ______کے بارے میں مندرجہ ذیل بیانات کے لحاظ سے اپنا اتفاق بتائیں: Hints: (1. Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neutral, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly agree) اشارے: )1۔ بہت زیادہ اختالف، 2۔ اختالف، 3۔ نہ اتفاق اور نہ اختالف، 4۔ اتفاق، 5۔ بہت زیادہ اتفاق( 1. Adequately completes assigned duties. 1 2 3 4 5 مناسب طریقے سے تفویض کردہ سر انجام دیتا/دیتی ہے۔ 2. Fulfills responsibilities specified in job description. 1 2 3 4 5 مالزمت میں بیان کردہ ذمہ داریاں پورا کرتا/کرتی ہے۔ 3. Performs tasks that are expected of him/her. 1 2 3 4 5 خود سے متوقع کاموں کو ادا کرتا/کرتی ہے ۔ 4. Meets formal performance requirements of the job. 1 2 3 4 5 مالزمت کی کارکردگی کی باقاعدہ ضروریات کو پورا کرتا/کرتی ہے۔ 5. Engages in activities that will directly affect his/her performance 1 2 3 4 5 evaluation. ایسی سرگرمیوں میں مصروف ہوتا/ہوتی ہے جو براہ راست اس کی کارکردگی کی تشخیص کو متاثر کرتی ہیں۔ 6. Neglects aspects of the job he/she is obligated to perform. 1 2 3 4 5 مالزمت کے ان پہلوؤں کو نظر انداز کرتا/کرتی ہے جنہیں وہ انجام دینے کا/کی پابند ہے۔ 7. Fails to perform essential duties. 1 2 3 4 5 ضروری فرائض انجام دینے میں ناکام ہوتا/ہوتی ہے۔ 8. Eager to tell outsiders good news about the organization and 1 2 3 4 5 clarify their misunderstandings. )تنظیم( سے باہر والوں کو تنظیم کے بارے میں اچھی خبریں بتانے اور ان کی غلط فہمیوں کو دور کرنے کے لیے بے تاب رہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 9. Willing to stand up to protect the reputation of the organization. 1 2 3 4 5 تنظیم کی ساکھ کی حفاظت کے لئے اٹھ کھڑے ہونے کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 10. Makes constructive suggestions that can improve the operations 1 2 3 4 5 of organization. تنظیم کے افعال کو بہتر بنانے کے لئے تعمیری تجاویز دیتا/دیتی ہے۔ 11. Actively attends meetings 1 2 3 4 5 تند ہی سے اجالسوں )میٹنگز( میں شریک ہوتا/ہوتی ہے۔ 12. Willing to assist new colleagues to adjust to work environment. 1 2 3 4 5 نئے ساتھیوں کو کام کے ماحول میں ہم آہنگ )ایڈجسٹ( کرنے میں مدد کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 13. Willing to help others solve work-related problems. 1 2 3 4 5 کام سے متعلق مسائل کو حل کرنے میں دوسروں کی مدد کرنے کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 14. Willing to cover work assignments for others when needed. 1 2 3 4 5 ضرورت پڑنے پر دوسروں کے کام کی ذمہ داریاں ادا کرنے کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 15. Willing to coordinate and communicate with other teams. 1 2 3 4 5 دیگر ٹیموں کے ساتھ باہمی تعاون اور بات چیت کرنے کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 16. Often arrives early and starts to work immediately. 1 2 3 4 5 اکثروقت سے پہلے پہنچتا/ پہنچتی ہے اور فوری طور پر کام شروع کردیتا/دیتی ہے۔ 17. Takes job seriously and rarely makes mistakes. 1 2 3 4 5 کام کو سنجیدگی سے لیتا/لیتی ہے اور شاذ و نادر غلطی کرتا/کرتی ہے۔ 18. Complies with organizational rules and procedures even when no 1 2 3 4 5 one is watching and no evidence can be traced. 225

تنظیم کے قوانین اور طریقہ کارکی پابندی اس وقت بھی کرتا/کرتی ہے جب کوئی بھی نہیں دیکھ رہا ہو اور نہ ہی کوئی ثبوت مل سکتا ہو۔ 19. Does not mind to take on new or challenging assignments. 1 2 3 4 5 نئی یا دشوار ذمہ داریاں لینے سے اسے کوئی اعتراض نہیں ہوتا ہے۔ 20. Willing to use personal time and financial resources to participate 1 2 3 4 5 in various training programs. مختلف تربیتی پروگراموں میں حصہ لینے کے لئے ذاتی وقت اور مالی وسائل کو استعمال کرنے کے لئے تیاررہتا/رہتی ہے۔ 21. Tries hard to self-study to increase the quality of work outputs. 1 2 3 4 5 کام کے نتائج کے معیارکو بڑھانے کے لئے اپنے آپ کا مطالعہ بہت کوشش سے کرتا/کرتی ہے۔

THANK YOU VERY MUCH آپ کا بہت بہت شکریہ *******

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Appendix C:

CONSENT FORM FOR BULLIES

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL (TTM) OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE

Dear health care professional, you are invited to participate in a research study, titled “REDUCING THE INCIDENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING AND MITIGATING ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE”. The study is being conducted by Muhammad Munir, PhD (HRM) candidate at Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi supervised by Dr. Rauf-I-Azam, Professor/Director at University Institute of Management Sciences, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. This is an experimental study in which the Transtheoretical model (TTM) of behavior change will be utilized. This model helps a person to change un-desired behavior into a new positive behavior. Your participation in the study is expected to enhance your knowledge about behavior change, impart within you the skills and abilities to change an un-desired behavior. You are free to contact the researcher to discuss the study at the following contact information:

Muhammad Munir PhD Scholar, University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi 0321-5989693, 0333-9635902, [email protected]

ACTIVITIES We seek your consent to participate in the study and to commit time out of your busy schedules for the following activities: 1. Filling questionnaire (approximately 01 hour) [individual time at your convenience]. 2. Detailed interview (approximately 1½ hour) [individual time at your convenience]. 3. Attend behavior modification learning/training based on The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) [approximately 06 months; weekly 01 session of 01 hour on individual basis and group basis where necessary]. 4. Filling questionnaire (approximately 1 hour) [individual time at your convenience]. 5. Detailed interview (approximately 1:30 hour) [individual time at your convenience].

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RISKS There are no known risks attached with your participation in this study except for possible inconvenience, discomfort or tiredness. An effort will be made to reduce these otherwise temporary and minor risks. COST AND COMPENSATION There are no costs or remunerations for participation in the training program. PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your refusal of participation in the training program or refusal to completed questionnaire will have no penalty or negative consequences. BENEFITS There are no costs or remunerations for participation. The training will impart knowledge, skills and abilities which can be helpful in your personal and professional growth and success. CONFIDENTIALITY All of your personal information will remain confidential to be used for tracking purposes only. Findings of the study will only be reported in aggregate and will not be traceable to any individuals. Please provide following information and put down your signature to indicate your consent. Please note that it will not be desirable for a participant to withdraw at a later stage. However, they are not forced to complete the training.

Name: ______Designation: ______Contact info: ______Email: ______Signature: ______Dated: ______THANK YOU VERY MUCH آپ کا بہت بہت شکریہ *******

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Appendix D:

CONSENT FORM FOR VICTIMS

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE TRAINING

Dear health care professional, you are invited to participate in a research study, titled “REDUCING THE INCIDENCE OF WORKPLACE BULLYING AND MITIGATING ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE”. The study is being conducted by Muhammad Munir, PhD (HRM) candidate at Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi supervised by Dr. Rauf-I-Azam, Professor/Director at University Institute of Management Sciences, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. This is an experimental study in which emotional intelligence will be imparted through training in order to enhance your performance at workplace. Emotional intelligence (EI) is perceived as the most important skill for the success in all fields of life especially at workplace. Your participation in the study is expected to enhance emotional intelligence score and resultantly enhanced employee performance. You are free to contact the researcher to discuss the study at the following contact information:

Muhammad Munir PhD Scholar, University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi 0321-5989693, 0333-9635902, [email protected]

ACTIVITIES We seek your consent to participate in the study and to commit time out of your busy schedules for the following activities: 1. Filling questionnaire (approximately 01 hour) [individual time at your convenience]. 2. Attend Emotional Intelligence Training [approximately 06 months; weekly 02 sessions of 02 hours to whole group]. 3. Filling questionnaire (approximately 1 hour) [individual time at your convenience]. 4. Detailed interview (approximately 1:30 hour) [individual time at your convenience]. RISKS There are no known risks attached with your participation in this study except for possible inconvenience, discomfort or tiredness. An effort will be made to reduce these otherwise temporary and minor risks. 229

COST AND COMPENSATION There are no costs or remunerations for participation in the training program. PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your refusal of participation in the training program or refusal to completed questionnaire will have no penalty or negative consequences.

BENEFITS The training will impart knowledge, skills and abilities which can be helpful in your personal and professional growth and success. CONFIDENTIALITY All of your personal information and answers will be kept confidential and to be used for tracking purposes only. Findings of the study will only be reported in aggregate and will not be traceable to any individuals. While reporting and publishing the results, your identity will strictly be kept confidentially. Please provide following information and put down your signature to indicate your consent. Please note that it will not be desirable for a participant to withdraw at a later stage. However, they are not forced to complete the training.

Name: ______Designation: ______Contact info: ______Email: ______Signature: ______Dated: ______

THANK YOU VERY MUCH آپ کا بہت بہت شکریہ *****