Litho- and Biostratigraphic Correlations of Chert Beds in Various Rock Units Along the Malaysia-Thailand Border

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LITHO- AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATIONS OF CHERT BEDS IN VARIOUS ROCK UNITS ALONG THE MALAYSIA-THAILAND BORDER

By: The Malaysian-Thai Working Group

A joint project carried out by Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia And Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand

The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) 2012

PREFACE

The study on the litho- and biostratigraphic correlations of chert beds in various rock units along the Malaysia-Thailand border area is the result of close co-operation between the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand in resolving problems related to cross border geological and stratigraphical correlations between the two countries. Most of the data presented in this report are gathered from reports by previous workers who have made detailed studies on the radiolaria found in the cherts that occur in various rock units ranging in age from the Carboniferous to Triassic, cropping out along/near the border areas of Malaysia and Thailand. Several trips of fieldwork and collection of some new data were also carried out independently by geoscientists of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand covering the individual territories in the year 2011 and 2012. New data obtained from the joint survey carried out by the Malaysian and Thai Working Groups in the Belum-Hala Transect area are also included in this report. Problems on the litho- and biostratigraphic correlations between chert beds in various rocks units in both sides of the common border areas have been satisfactorily resolved. Other than that, with the implementation of this project, the objective of the establishment of the Malaysia- Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) to foster closer cooperation between both countries in the field of geosciences is successfully achieved.

Dato’ Yunus bin Abdul Razak Mr. Nitat Poovatanakul Director-General, Director-General, Minerals and Geoscience Department, Department of Mineral Resources, Malaysia. Thailand. September 2012 September 2012

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Malaysian-Thai Working Group would like to thank the Director General of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia (JMG) and the Director General of the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand (DMR) for their encouragement, support and funding of this project.

Thanks are extended to Mr. Mior Sallehhuddin bin Mior Jadid, the Director of Technical Services Division, Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia and Mr. Montri Luengingkasoot, the Director of Bureau of Geological Survey, Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand, for their encouragements during the study.

Due thanks are also dedicated to all officers and staffs of the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia and Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand for their involvements in this project either directly or indirectly. The Malaysian and Thai military, provincial and border police officials are duly thanked for their assistance in the security matters.

The Malaysian-Thai Working Group would also like to express their gratitude to Dr. Assanee Meesook for his free consultation especially in identifying the fossil samples collected on both Malaysian and Thai sides.

Last but not least to all local residences in both sides of the Malaysia-Thailand common border areas for their support and assistance during the fieldworks.

Litho- and Biostratigraphic Correlations of Chert Beds in Various Rock Units along the Malaysia-Thailand Border by The Malaysian-Thai Working Group

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) had agreed to undertake the study on the litho- and biostratigraphic correlations of the chert beds in various rock units along the Malaysia-Thailand border during the 7th Meeting of the Committee held in Krabi in June 2010. The joint study was scheduled to be carried out in two years duration i.e., in the year 2011 and 2012. The occurrence of chert beds and other radiolarian bearing rock types in various rock units ranging in age from Carboniferous to Triassic along the Malaysia-Thailand border areas has been reported by many previous workers. On the Malaysian side, chert occurs in the lower part of the Kubang Pasu Formation, in the Cherty unit and in the Semanggol Formation. Chert or rather siliceous shale also occurs in the Silurian-Devonian Setul and Mahang Formations. However, no radiolarian is discovered in these older formations so far. On the Thai side, Early Carboniferous radiolarian occurs in the chert beds belonging to the Yaha and Khuan Klang Formations. Early to Middle Triassic radiolarians had been retrieved from thin-bedded limestones at Khao Chiak, Phattalung Province. The oldest chert or rather siliceous shale occurred along the Malaysia-Thailand border area belongs to the Silurian-Devonian Setul Formation. The cherty beds occur in the Lower Detrital Member and Upper Detrital Member of the Setul Formation that are well-exposed in the north western coast of Langgun Island in Langkawi. Cherty beds also occur in the Mahang Formation exposed in central and south Kedah, to the south, outside of the Malaysia-Thailand border area. However, to date, no radiolarian was discovered in these rock units. On the Malaysian side, radiolarian chert occurs in the lower part of the Tournaisian (Lower Carboniferous) Kubang Pasu Formation exposed in the Perlis and Kedah areas. This chert, associated with clastic rocks particularly shale, represents deep marine environtment along the continental margin. Biostratigraphically, three zones of radiolarian assemblages had been recognized; Albaillella deflandrei Zone and Albaillella pseudoparadoxa Zone of Tournaisian age, as well as Albaillella indensis to Latentifistula concentric Zone of Visean age. On the Thai side, the Early Carboniferous radiolarian faunas were reported from two localities in southern Thailand such as the Saba Yoi area in Songkhla Province and the Kabang area in Yala Province. The radiolarian fauna of the Saba Yoi area is quite similar to that of the Entactinia variospina assemblage in Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous). The radiolarian fauna from the Kabang area, Yala Province was assigned to the Albaillella deflandrei Zone which is estimated as upper Tournaisian in age. On the Malaysian side, Permian radiolarian chert beds are represented by the Mangga and Gerik Formations, whilst the Early Permian to Middle Triassic radiolarian chert beds are

represented by the chert in the Cherty unit. The Mangga Formation is well-exposed in western Kelantan, along the East-West highway connecting the Gerik town in Perak and Batu Melintang in Kelantan. The Gerik Formation is well-exposed in the Gerik area, Upper Perak. The Cherty unit is well-exposed in the Pokok Sena and Kuala Ketil areas, Kedah. Prior to the Malaysian-Thai Working Group joint geological survey, the Cherty unit was considered as the lower part of the Permian-Triassic Semanggol Formation. The Cherty unit had been taken out from the Semanggul Formation as it exhibits different characteristics from the Rhythmite and Conglomeratic units of the Semangol Formation in terms of lithostratigraphy, paleontology and age as well as paleoenvironment (The Malaysian and Thai Working Group, 2006). Biostratigraphically, nine zones of Permian radiolarian assemblages had been recognized; Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata assemblage Zone of Wolfcampian to Sakmarian (Early Permian to late Early Permian), Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis assemblage Zone of Kungurian age (Middle Permian), Pseudoalbaillella globosa assemblage Zone of Roadian age (Middle Permian), Follicucullus monacanthus assemblage Zone of Wordian (Middle Permian), Follicucullus porrectus assemblage Zone of Capitanian to Wuchiapingian (late Middle Permian to early Late Permian), Neoalbaillella ornithoformis of Wuchiapingian (Late Permian), Neoalbaillella optima assemblage Zone of Wuachiapingian to Changhsingian (Upper Permian), Follicucullus scholasticus of Guadalupian (Late Permian), and Albaillella levis assemblage Zone of Late Permian. On the Thai side, only one zone of radiolarian assemblage of the latest Middle to earliest Late Permian (Capitanian to Wuchiapingian) age had been identified. This radiolarian assemblage zone is reported from the Hat Yai area, Songkhla Province. Biostratigraphically, on the Malaysian side, four zones of Triassic radiolarian assemblages had been identified; Entactinosphaera chiakensis of Early Triassic, Triassocampe coronata of middle Anisian (Middle Triassic), Triassocampe deweri of middle to late Anisian, and Oertlispongus inaequispinosus of Ladinian (Middle Triassic). On the Thai side, three Triassic radiolarian assemblage zones had been recognized; Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages Zone of Olenekian to early Anisian in age, Entactinia nikorni Assemblages Zone of Olenekian to Early Anisian (Triassic) in age and Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone of Middle Triassic. The Palaeozoic to Mesozoic radiolarian-bearing rocks in northern Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand are represented by the siliceous and calcareous sedimentary rocks such as chert, siliceous shale and limestone. The deposition might occur in different oceanic environments such as in depressions of the continental slope/rise, and in shallow and deep oceanic basins. However, the depositional environment of the radiolarian-bearing rock sequences in Thailand and Malaysia are still debatable. The study of lithostratigraphay and radiolarian biostratigraphy of radiolarian- bearing rocks is very important in elucidating the depositional environment and tectonic development of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic in Malaysia and Thailand. Further detailed work is recommended to resolve this issue.

CONTENTS Page PREFACE ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... v CONTENTS ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2. SIGNIFICANCE OF RADIOLARIANS ...... 3 3. REGIONAL TECTONIC FRAMEWORK ...... 5 3.1 Sibumasu Terrane ...... 6 3.2 Indochina Terrane ...... 7 3.3 Simao Terrane ...... 7 3.4 East Malaya Terrane ...... 8 4. DISTRIBUTION OF CHERT IN NORTHERN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA AND SOUTHERN THAILAND...... 9 4.1 Malaysian side ...... 9 4.2 Thai side ...... 10 5. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY ...... 13 5.1 Malaysian side ...... 13 5.1.1 Setul Formation ...... 13 5.1.2 Kubang Pasu Formation ...... 13 5.1.3 Mangga formation ...... 18 5.1.4 Gerik Formation ...... 19 5.1.5 Cherty unit ...... 22 5.2 Thai side ...... 28 5.2.1 Yaha Formation ...... 28 5.2.2 Khao Phra Formation ...... 34 5.2.3 Na Thawi Formation ...... 36 5.2.4 Chaiburi Formation ...... 40 6. RADIOLARIAN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY ...... 46 6.1 Carboniferous ...... 46 6.1.1 Malaysian side ...... 46 6.1.2 Thai side ...... 47 6.2 Permian ...... 48 6.2.1 Malaysian side ...... 48 6.2.2 Thai side ...... 52 6.3 Triassic ...... 53 6.3.1 Malaysian side ...... 53 6.3.2 Thai side ...... 56 7. DEPOSIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF RADIOLARIAN-BEARING ROCKS ...... 58 7.1 Chert ...... 58 7.1.1 Pelagic chert (or Type 1 Chert) ...... 60 7.1.2 Hemipelagic chert (or Type 2 Chert) ...... 61 7.2 Siliceous shale ...... 62 7.3 Limestone...... 62 8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 63 vii

8.1 DISCUSSION ...... 63 8.2 CONCLUSION ...... 65 REFERENCES ...... 67 APPENDIX ...... 74

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LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Different relationship between the nucleus and the axoplast on polycystine radiolarian...... 4 Figure 2: Distribution of principal continental terranes and sutures of East and Southeast Asia...... 6 Figure 3: Distribution of chert on the Malaysian side along the Malaysia-Thailand border ...... 9 Figure 4: Index map of radiolarian locality in the Saba Yoi area...... 10 Figure 5: Index map, Outcrops 1 and 2, Lower Carboniferous radiolarian in the Yaha Formation, Kabang area ...... 10 Figure 6: Map showing the locations of studied sections, northwest of Hat Yai...... 11 Figure 7: Index map of Khao Chiak, Phatthalung Province...... 11 Figure 8: Map showing the distribution of Devonian to Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia...... 12 Figure 9: Carboniferous radiolarian found at Bukit Telaga Jatoh...... 14 Figure 10: 1, 2, 3; Entactinia variospina (Won) with two polar spines (100 µm), 4 and 5; E. variospina with three spines (100 µm), E. variospina with four spines (80 µm), 7; E. variospina with five spines (100 µm) ...... 15 Figure 11: 1; Entactinia unispina (Won) (100 µm), 2; Entactinia (?) inaequoporosa (Won) (100 µm), 3; Callela hexatinia (Won) (100 µm), 4; Callela cf. parvispinosa (Won) (100 µm), 5; Duplexia ? foremanae (Ormiston and Lane) (80 µm), 6; Duplexia parviperforata (Won) (80 µm), 7; Treanosphaera herbes (Won), and 8; Cubaxonium ? octaedrospongiosum (Won) (100 µm) .. 15 Figure 12: Carboniferous Radiolarian as reported by Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) ...... 16 Figure 13: Some more Carboniferous Radiolarian as reported by Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) .. 17 Figure 14: Stratigraphic distributions of selected taxa occurring at Malaysia-Thailand border security road near Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak...... 18 Figure 15: Subvertical to vertical strata of well-bedded light grey to grey radiolarian bearing chert and silliceous shale interbedded with thin beds of shale at Km 18.6 East-West Highway ...... 19 Figure 16: Thinly-bedded radiolarian bearing siliceous shale interbedded with thin beds of shale located at the old stretch of the East-West Highway ...... 19 Figure 17: Middle to Late Permian radiolarian from the Gerik area...... 21 Figure 18: Geographic distribution of chert in the Semanggol Formation in the Pokok Sena and Kuala Ketil areas ...... 22 Figure 19: Permian radiolarians from Bukit Barak and Bukit Nyan ...... 23 Figure 20: Permian radiolarians from Bukit Nyan ...... 24 Figure 21: Early and Late Permian radiolarian faunas discovered by Spiller and Metcalfe (1995a): ...... 25 Figure 22: Early Permian radiolarian assemblage in the chert sequence of the lowermost part of the Cherty unit at Bukit Kampong Yoi and Bukit Larek ...... 26 Figure 23: Thirteen species of Anisian to Ladinian (Middle Triassic) radiolarinas had been discovered in the chert exposed at Pokok Pauh, Bukit Tembaga near Pokok Sena, Kedah ...... 27 Figure 24: Locality map of sample localities along the Highway 42. A. location of Early Carboniferous and Early Triassic radiolarian-bearing siliceous rocks. B. Sketch map of Early Triassic radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale. C and D. Sketch map of Early Carboniferous radiolarian- bearing siliceous shale at a quarry along the Highway 42 ...... 29 Figure 25: Radiolarain from the Saba Yoi area ...... 30 Figure 26: Sketch of outcrop and stratigraphic section at Outcrops 1 and 2, Yaha Formation, Kabang area, Thailand...... 31 Figure 27: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area ...... 32 Figure 28: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area ...... 33 Figure 29: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area...... 34 Figure 30: Measured stratigraphic sections of studied sections, northwest of Hat Yai...... 35 Figure 31: Triassic radiolarian from the Hat Yai area, Songkhla Province...... 37 Figure 32: Triassic radiolarian from the Saba Yoi area, Songkhla Province...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 33: Triassic radiolarian from the Chana area, Songkhla Province...... 38

Figure 34: Conodont from Khao Chiak Limestone...... 41 Figure 35: Radiolarians from Khao Chiak Limestone...... 42 Figure 36: 1-7, 9, 10, 15, Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, 8, 11-14, 16, 17, Thaisphaera minuta Sashida and Igo. Scale bar, A to C =100 µm, D= 10µm; A applies to 1-4, 6, 7, 9, 10, B to 5, 8, 11, 12, C to 13, 14, 16, 17, and D to 15)...... 43 Figure 37: 1-15, Polyentactinia ? phatthalungensis Sashida and Igo. Scale bar = 100µm; A applies to 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 14, 15, B to 3-5, 8, 10-12 and C to 13...... 44 Figure 38: 1, 2 Archaeothamnulus sp., 3-5. Fish teeth. 6-8 holothurian sclerites. Scale bar, A and B equal to 100 µm; A applies to 1, 3-8 and B to 2...... 45 Figure 39: Albaillella deflandrei assemblage zone, Tournaisian, Early Carboniferous discovered at border security road, Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak (after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011).9. Archocyrtium lagabriellei Gourmelon (100μm); 10. Archocyrtium pulchrum Braun (50μm); 11. Archocyrtium venustum Cheng (100μm); 12. Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov (100μm); 13. Stigmosphaerostylus vulgaris (Won)( 75μm); 14. Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon (100μm); 15. Astroentactinia multispinosa Won (75μm); 16. Ceratoikiscum berggreni Gourmelon (100μm); 17. Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane) (75μm); 18. Pylentonema antiqua Deflandre (100μm)...... 46 Figure 40: Stratigraphic distribution of selected Carboniferous taxa occurred at Bukit Binjal, Kedah ..... 47 Figure 41: Radiolarian assemblage of the Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Zone: ...... 49 Figure 42: Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis and Pseudoalbaillella globosa zones late Early Permian and early Middle Permian, respectively...... 50 Figure 43: Radiolarian assemblage of the Follicucullus monacanthus and Follicucullus porrectus Zones...... 51 Figure 44: Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy...... 53 Figure 45: Entactinosphaera chiakensis and Triassocampe coronata Zones, late Early Triassic and early Middle Triassic respectively ...... 54 Figure 46: Triassocampe deweveri and Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Zones, Middle Triassic...... 56 Figure 47: Sources of material and controls on sedimentation in deep Oceans...... 58 Figure 48: The schematic illustration of the various facies successions of radiolarian-bearing rock and other associated rocks in southern Thailand ...... 59 Figure 49: Depositional environments of radiolarian-bearing rocks in southern Thailand. A: Pelagic Chert, B and C: Hemipelagic Chert/Siliceous Shale/Limestone ...... 60 Figure 50: The schematic illustration of the pelagic chert and other associated rocks in southern Thailand ...... 61 Figure 51: The schematic illustration of the hemipelagic chert and other associated rocks in southern Thailand...... 61 Figure 52: The schematic illustration of the radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale and other associated rocks in southern Thailand ...... 62 Figure 53: Radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area...... 64 Figure 54: Correlation of the radiolarian fauna in southern Thailand...... 65

1. INTRODUCTION In the modern understanding of the geotectonics of Southeast Asia, it is widely accepted that Southeast Asia is composed of several terranes or continental blocks (e.g., Metcalfe, 1996). The origin of most of the terranes is believed to be the Indian to northern or northwestern Australian margin of Gondwana (Metcalfe, 2005). The continental terranes were drifted away from Gondwanaland at different times. The developmental process of the Tethyan Ocean was divided into several stages created by rifting of continental blocks, and finally these continental blocks amalgamated to the Southeast Asian continent (e.g., Metcalfe, 1999). In addition, detailed biostratigraphic data of the siliceous sedimentary rocks that yield radiolarians are necessary to elucidate the tectonic development and paleogeography of the Southeast Asia. Geological and paleontological knowledge of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic in Southeast Asia has been rapidly accumulated during the last four decades. Most of the paleontological works in Thailand, however, were restricted to the shallow-water near shore faunas in carbonate and clastic rock facies. Although cherts and other siliceous sedimentary rocks thought to be of deep sea or pelagic and hemipelagic origins are extensively distributed in Thailand, paleontological studies of faunas contained in these rocks were rare. In the past three decades, detailed biostratigraphic data based on micropaleontological studies of siliceous sedimentary rocks have provided age constraints necessary for studies of collision tectonics and terrane analysis (e.g., Sashida et al., 2000, 2002; Sashida and Igo, 1999; Kamata et al., 2009; Saesaengseerung et al., 2007, 2008, 2009). However, the timing of these events is still debatable. The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee (MT-JGSC) had agreed to undertake the study on the litho- and biostratigraphic correlation of the chert beds in various rock units along the Malaysia-Thailand border during the 7th Meeting of the Committee held in Krabi in June 2010. The joint study was scheduled to be carried out in two years time i.e., in the year 2011 and 2012. On the Malaysian side, the occurrence of radiolarian cherts is common in the Late Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic rock units of the western belt of Peninsular Malaysia. The cherts were deposited in deep marine environment. The radiolarian biozones are very important for the age determination of deep water sedimentary sequence where other fossils are lacking (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2012). The occurrence of radiolaria in cherts of the Kubang Pasu Formation had been studied by Basin Jasin (1995), Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2001), Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006), Ong and Basir (2007) and The Malaysia-Thailand Joint Geological Survey Working Group (2009). Basir Jasin (1995) reported the age of the radiolarian chert in the Kubang Pasu Formation is Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) based on the discovery of Entactinia variospina in the cherts interbedded with terrigenous clastic sediments. Ong and Basir (2007) reported the occurrence of the Lower Carboniferous (Tournaisian) chert unit at Hill C at Guar Jentik or also known as Guar Sanai. The studies of the radiolarians in the cherts of the Semanggol Formation had been done by Sashida et al. (1993, 1995), Basir Jasin (1994, 1996, 1997), Metcalfe and Spiller (1994), and Spiller and Metcalfe (1995a, 1995b). While studying the chert sequence in south Kedah, Basir Jasin (1994 and 1997) reported the occurrence of Permian and Middle Triassic radiolarians in the cherts of the Semanggol Formation exposed near the Merbau Pulas area. Sashida et al., (1995) reported the occurrence of Middle and Late Permian radiolarians in the cherts of the Semanggol Formation. Basir Jasin, (1996) reported the discovery of Early Permian radiolarians from the same formation. Spiller (2002) reported the occurrence of poorly preserved Middle Triassic Triassocampe sp. at Kampung Keledang, west of Baling, Kedah. Basir Jasin et al. (2005a) and Basir Jasin et al. (2005b) have studied in detail and published their works on the Permian radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Semanggol Formation, south Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia and 1

Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Semanggol Formation, south Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia, respectively. Radiolarian assemblages of Early Permian to Late Permian and late Spathian to early Ladinian of Triassic ages had been identified. The cherts in the Kodiang Formation situated outside the Malaysia-Thailand border area had been studied by Basir Jasin et al. (1995), and Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2001). The southern Thailand insurgency is still a big problem for the field survey to be carried out on the Thai side. Several publications of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic radiolarian studies in the southern Thailand have been compiled herein including depositional environments of these radiolarian-bearing rocks.

2. SIGNIFICANCE OF RADIOLARIANS Radiolarians are planktonic protozoa that are widely distributed in the Oceans, throughout the water column from the near surface to the bottom waters. They are the abundant organism record and the oldest known fossils contributing enormously to our understanding of the history of the Earth. Radiolarians provide data for palaeoecological interpretations, and they are especially useful in biostratigraphy because of their small size and abundance. Most radiolarians are solitary forms, whose maximum dimension varies from 30μm to 2 mm. Ehrenberg (1838) described the first fossil radiolarians from the Eocene-Oligocene diatomites of Barbados and gave the name “Polycystina” to designate these organisms that he thought to be multicellular. Haeckel (1860) first used the informal word “Radiolarians”, to designate all polycystines, acantharians and phaeodarians In the fossil record, only class Polycystinea (or polycystine) encompassing the orders Spumellar (spumellarians) and Nassellar (or nassellarians) (Figure 1), which possess solid opaline skeletal structures, and the order Phaeodarea (or phaeodarians), which possess hollow skeletal structures of an admixture of silica and organic matter, are well-preserved. The polycystine radiolarians are amongst the oldest planktonic microfossils known within an abundant Palaeozoic fauna and documented representatives dating from the Cambrian (>500 Ma), the widest biogeography (pole to pole, surface to abyss), and the most diverse taxonomy of the well-preserved microzooplankton, they are used extensively in biostratigraphy, in palaeoceanography, and in studies on the tempo and mode of evolution. Radiolarians are commonly used as palaeoceanographic indicators to determine ancient water temperatures, circulation patterns, productive regions, ocean depths, upwelling, and the age of water masses (Richard E. Casey in Jere H. Lipps, 1993). In 1970s, application of new techniques has permitted good recovery of Mesozoic and Palaeozoic radiolarians from indurated siliceous rocks, and the construction of continuously improved biostratigraphy. Radiolarians are now extensively used for age determination and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction (De Wever et al., 2001). Recently, detailed age determinations based on radiolarian biostratigraphy of pelagic, hemipelagic and continental margin sediments distributed in Southeast Asian countries have been used for terrane analysis and for understanding continental collisions and the opening and/or closing of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. The radiolarian ages provide constraints on the ages of opening of the Palaeo-Tethys and of the closure of its main and subsidiary branches (e.g., Sashida et al., 1993, 1997; Sashida and Igo, 1999; Kamata et al., 2002). However, the timing of these events is still debatable. The study of radiolarians is very important in elucidating the tectonic development of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic in Malaysia and Thailand.

Figure 1: Different relationship between the nucleus and the axoplast on polycystine radiolarian. A) Entactinaria, B) Spumellaria, C) Nassellaria (after De Wever et al., 2001).

3. REGIONAL TECTONIC FRAMEWORK The Peninsular Malaysia is formed by the welding of Sibumasu and East Malaya or Indochina (Figure 2) plates after the closure of Paleo-Tethys. The welding of the two plates is marked by the Bentong-Raub Suture Zone. It was interpreted that the Paleo-Tethyst has opened in the Lower Devonian with the separation of Sibumasu from the Gondwanaland, and closed during the Triassic due to the Indosinian orogenic collision after the subduction of the Sibumasu plate under the East Malayan plate. The rocks along the suture zone comprise oceanic ribbon chert, pelagic cherts, mélange, schist, phyllite, slate with the occurrences of serpentinite bodies. The suture zone, trends approximately N-S direction, can be traced from western Kelantan in the north to Melaka state in the south. The mainland of Thailand has recently been reinterpreted as representing three principal continental terranes: the western Sibumasu, central northern Simao and eastern Indochina terranes (Metcalfe, 2002, 2005, 2006; Feng et al., 2005). The boundary between the Sibumasu and Simao terranes in the Northern Thailand is the Chiang Mai suture and was interpreted as representing the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean (Metcalfe, 2005). Furthermore, the Nan-Uttaradit suture in the Northern Thailand has been regarded as representing a segment of the back-arc basin which opened in Carboniferous time between the Simao Terrane and South China/Indochina terranes (Ueno and Hisada, 1999; Wang et al., 2000; Metcalfe, 2002, 2005). Hada et al. (1997, 1999) proposed the Sra Kaeo-Chanthaburi suture zone (or Sra Kaeo suture zone) in the Eastern Thailand, which comprises a western chert-clastic belt (Chanthaburi Chert-Clastic Sequence), and an eastern belt of serpentinite mélange (Thung Kabin mélange) that may occur as inferred fault- bounded packages. According to Metcalfe (2002), the Sra Kaeo suture was interpreted as representing the main Palaeo-Tethys and forming the eastern boundary of the Sibumasu Terrane. However, the reconstructed oceanic plate stratigraphy by Wakita and Metcalfe (2005) suggested that the Palaeo-Tethyan back-arc basin (representing by Sra Kaeo suture zone) was probably related to the Nan-Uttaradit suture zone and opened in the Carboniferous and closed in the Triassic. The Bentong-Raub Suture is distributed in the southernmost part of Peninsular Thailand. This Bentong-Raub Suture represents a segment of the main Devonian to Middle Triassic Palaeo- Tethys Ocean, and forms the boundary between the Gondwana-derived Sibumasu and East Malaya terranes (Metcalfe, 2006). The Sibumasu and Indochina terranes were thought to have formed the outer margin of northern Gondwanaland in the Early Palaeozoic around the palaeoequator. The Indochina Terrane is composed mainly of Precambrian rocks with some Palaeozoic shallow marine faunas and floras probably deposited in a warm climate (Metcalfe, 1986). This terrane drifted away from Gondwanaland in the Devonian, during the opening of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. The basement of Sibumasu Terrane consists of high-grade metamorphic rocks, gneiss, and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age with Late Carboniferous to Early Permian glacial-marine diamictite and Early Permian cool-water fauna (e.g., Bunopas, 1981). The Sibumasu Terrane was removed from Gondwanaland after the Early Permian and collided with the Indochina Terrane in the Late Triassic, after the closing the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean (e.g., Metcalfe, 1999). Recently, Metcalfe (2005) proposed the Nan-Uttaradit suture zone in the northern Thailand as representative of the collision between the Simao with Indochina terranes in the Middle to early Late Triassic (Figure 2). The Simao Terrane was first proposed by Wu et al. (1995) from SW China. In northern Thailand, the Simao Terrane is bounded to the west by the Chiang Mai suture zone and to the east by the Nan-Uttaradit suture zone (Metcalfe, 2002, 2006) (Figure 2). In contrast, the collision between the Sibumasu and Indochina terranes is the cause of the Palaeo-Tethys closing in the Late Triassic that led to the development of the Chiang Mai suture (Metcalfe, 2002) or the Chiang Rai Tectonic Line (Ueno and Hisada, 2001) in the central northern Thailand. The Sra Kaeo suture

zone remains in the eastern Thailand, and the Bentong-Raub Suture zone remains in southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Metcalfe, 2000, 2002 and 2005).

Figure 2: Distribution of principal continental terranes and sutures of East and Southeast Asia. WB=West Burma; SWB=Southwest Borneo; S=Semitau Terrane; HT=Hainan Island terranes; L=Lhasa Terrane; QT=Qiangtang Terrane; QS=Qamdo–Simao Terrane; SI=Simao Terrane; SG=Songpan Ganzi accretionary complex; KL=Kunlun Terrane; QD=Qaidam Terrane; AL=Ala Shan Terrane; KT=Kurosegawa Terrane (after Metcalfe, 2006).

3.1 Sibumasu Terrane Sibumasu Terrane includes parts of western Yunnan (Baishan and Techong Blocks), the Shan States of Burma, northwest Thailand, Peninsular Burma and Thailand, western Peninsular Malaysia and northwest Sumatra (Metcalfe, 1988). It is bounded on the east by the Changning- Menglian, Chiang Mai, Sra Kaeo and Bentong-Raub suture zones, which have been interpreted as representing the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean (Metcalfe, 1999, 2005; Metcalfe et al., 1999). Its eastern boundary in Sumatra is contentious problem. Palaeobiogeographic and tectonostratigraphic data for Sibumasu indicate that these continental terrenes were formed from part of the India-Australian margin of Gondwana in the Lower Palaeozoic (Metcalfe, 1986, 1988, 1996, 1999; Burrett et al., 1990: Rong et al., 1995). Gondwana biogeographic affinities of the faunas and floras on Sibimasu continue up to the Early Permian (Sakmarian), and the presence of Lower Permian glacial-marine diamictites, indicate that this terrane was still attached to the margin of Gondwana until the Early Permian. This is supported by gross tectonostratigraphical

comparisons between the Sibumasu Terrane and the Canning Basin of NW Australia, suggesting that the Cambrian to Lower Permian stratigraphy of Sibumasu is an extremely good fit for a position outboard of NW Australia during that period. In post Permian Sakmarian times, faunas and floras were initially developed as an independent Cimmerian Province. By Wuchiapigian- Changhsingian times, the brachiopod faunas had become assimilated into the Cathaysian Province (Shi and Archbold, 1998). These changes of provincial affinities of the brachiopod faunas of Sibumasu document the northwards drift of the terrane during the Permian (Metcalfe, 2002).

3.2 Indochina Terrane This terrane is bounded to the northeast by the Song Ma suture zone in North Vietnam, and to the west by the Nan-Uttaradit-Sra Kaeo and Bentong-Raub sutures in Thailand and Malaysia, respectively (Metcalfe, 2005). Its eastern and southern boundaries are poorly defined and constrained. The basement of the terrane comprises a Precambrian core (Kontum massif) of granulite facies rocks exposed in Vietnam, and it has been suggested that this may have originally formed part of the Gondwanaland granulite belt (Katz, 1993). Early to Middle Palaeozoic rocks are rare and restricted to the marginal areas of the terrane. Silurian brachiopods from Central Vietnam belong to the Sino-Australian Province (Rong et al., 1995) indicating Gondwanaland connections in the Silurian. Devonian fish, including a yannanolepiform antiarch previously known only from the South China terrane, has recently been reported from central Vietnam (Thanh et al., 1996) that indicates close proximity/continental connection with the South in the Early to Middle Devonian. The Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic faunas and floras of Indochina are Cathaysian/Tethyan types, which have affinities to those of South and North China, and show no relationship to Gondwanaland (Metcalfe, 1986, 1988). Ordovician and Silurian faunas of Indochina show Gondwana affinities, but during the Early Carboniferous and younger time there appears to be no Gondwana connections (Metcalfe, 1988). It seems most likely that the Indochina Terrane, along with South and North China and Tarim, was separated from Gondwana in the Devonian.

3.3 Simao Terrane This terrane includes what has previously been variously referred to as the “Lanpin-Simao”, and “Qamdo-Simao” terranes of Tibet in which some authors have termed the “North Qiangtang Terrane” (e.g., Jin, 2002, Bian et al., 2004) or “Eastern Qiangtang” Block (Zhang et al., 2002) and the Simao Terrane of SW China (Wu et al., 1995). New information on the Ailaoshan and Nan- Uttaradit suture zone in SW China and Thailand, respectively, indicates that these sutures probably represent a marginal back-arc basin (Wang et al., 2000; Ueno and Hisada, 1999), and identification of the main Tethys Ocean suture in the Chiang Mai-Chiang Dao area of NW Thailand (Metcalfe, 2002), suggests that the Simao Terrane is a separate block derived from South China by back-arc spreading in the Early Carboniferous. The terrane is bounded to the west by the Chiang Mai, Changning-Menglian and Lancangjiang suture zones and to the east and south by the Jinshajiang, Ailaoshan and Nan-Uttaradit suture zones. The basement rocks of this terrane are buried beneath thick Palaeozoic-Mesozoic sequences. High grade metamorphic rocks sporadically outcropping in Qinhai may represent a Precambrian crystalline basement (Chang et al., 1989). The oldest sedimentary rocks are Lower Ordovician low grade metasedimentary rocks including slates, phyllites, quartzites and meta-limestones. The Ordovician is unconformably overlain by Middle Devonian basal conglomerates and shallow- marine sediments followed by Carboniferous to Permian shallow-marine and continental sediments with coal measures in places, and Lower and Middle Triassic shallow-marine clastics

and carbonates. Permian faunas and floras of this terrane are Tethyan and Cathaysian, respectively, and there are no known Lower Permian glacial-marine deposits on this terrane. Disconformities are common in the Late Permian and Triassic. Upper Triassic red continental clastics are underlain by these sediments. Recently, Ueno and Hisada (1999) and Ueno (1999, 2003) have equated the “Changning-Menglian Belt” with the “Inthanon Zone” of Thailand (Barr and Macdonald, 1991) and they can be compared with the part of “Sukhothai Fold Belt” (Mitchell, 1992).

3.4 East Malaya Terrane The East Malaya Block is bounded to the west by the Bentong–Raub Suture Zone (Metcalfe, 2006) and to the south by the Median Sumatra Suture. The eastern and northern boundaries are difficult to place precisely. The tectonostratigraphy, and the Tethyan faunas and Cathaysian floras of this block are extremely similar to Indochina (see Metcalfe, 2005 for detail) and this similarity led to include this block as part of the Indochina terrane in a number of recent papers (e.g., Metcalfe, 2002). However, more recent studies of macrofossil biogeography (Sone et al., 2003) and a reassessment of the tectonic framework of SE Asia have indicated that East Malaya may well have been an independent Cathaysian terrane at times in the Late Palaeozoic. Indochina, East Malaya and West Sumatra, may be disrupted blocks of a single large Late Palaeozoic Cathaysian terrane. Further work is required to resolve this issue.

4. DISTRIBUTION OF CHERT IN NORTHERN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA AND SOUTHERN THAILAND

4.1 Malaysian side On the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area, the occurrences of chert had been reported in Kedah including Langkawi, Perlis, Perak and western Kelantan. Cherts, occurring as beds as well as disturbed beds, are found in various rock units namely the Setul, Mahang, Kubang Pasu, Gerik, Mangga and Kodiang Formations, and Cherty unit (previously considered as the lower part of the Semanggol Formation). Cherts in the Lower Palaeozoic Setul and Mahang Formations had been deformed and recrystallised, most of the radiolarian within the chert had been destroyed. To date, no radiolarian is discovered from these cherts although many attempts had been made to recover the radiolarians from the Lower Palaeozoic cherts (Basir Jasin, 2003). Several radiolarian assemblages had been identified from the cherts within the Kubang Pasu Formation and Cherty unit in Kedah, and the Gerik Formation in Perak giving the age ranging from Silurian to Late Triassic. Chert also occurs in the Early Permian to Middle Triassic Cherty unit that had been taken out from the Semanggol Formation in Kedah (The Malaysian-Thai Working Group, 2006). In this report, the term Cherty unit will be used to refer to the chert in the Semanggol Formation as described by previous workers. The Malaysia-Thailand Working Group also has recently discovered the Permian radiolarian from the pelagic chert beds within the Gerik Formation in Gerik, Upper Perak and the Mangga Formation in northwestern Kelantan. Distribution of chert along the Malaysia-Thailand border area is shown in Figure 3.

O O O 101 E 102 E 103 E N 1 PERLIS 2 THAILAND 3 4 5 O 6 O 6 N 6 N KEDAH 7

8 KELANTAN 9 11 10 TERENGGANU O O O 101 E 102 E 103 E PERAK

Legend: Semanggol Formation Kubang Pasu Formation Mangga Formation Mahang Formation Gerik Formation Setul Formation

Figure 3: Distribution of chert on the Malaysian side along the Malaysia-Thailand border area (modified after Basir Jasin, 2011).1. Bukit Tuntung, 2. Bukit Binjal, 3. Kodiang, 4. Bukit Kamelong, 5. Bukit Tembaga, 6. Bukit Larek, 7. Bukit Yoi, 8. Lepang Nenering, 9. Merbau Pulas, 10. Kuala Ketil, 11. Km 73.2, East-West Highway

4.2 Thai side The Carboniferous to Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks were reported from several areas of southern Thailand such as Hat Yai, Chana, Saba Yoi areas in Songkhla Province and Yala Province. These radiolarian-bearing rock sequences belong to the Yaha Formation (Carboniferous), Khao Phra Formation (Permian), Na Thawi Formation and Chaiburi Formation (Triassic). The Carboniferous and Triassic radiolarian faunas were reported from fine-grained siliceous sedimentary rocks of the Yaha Formation (Carboniferous) and Na Thawi Formation (Triassic) in the Saba Yoi and Chana areas, Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000) (Figure 4). They are from lenticular rock bodies embedded in strongly sheared, alternating sandstone and siliceous shale. These siliceous shales are thinly bedded, intercalated with siliceous claystone of a few millimeters thick, and are usually dark grey or light grey in colour. In contrast to the surrounding alternating beds of sandstone and shale, these radiolarian-bearing siliceous shales have undergone weak shearing.

Figure 4: Index map of radiolarian locality in the Saba Yoi area (after Sashida et al., 2000).

Lower Carboniferous radiolarian fauna from the Kabang area, Yala Province, southernmost part of peninsular Thailand were published by Sashida et al, (2002). Lower Carboniferous radiolarians were found from two outcrops of the Yaha Formation (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Index map, Outcrops 1 and 2, Lower Carboniferous radiolarian in the Yaha Formation, Kabang area (after Sashida et al., 2002).

In the Hat Yai area of Songkhla Province, Kamata et al. (2009) reported the Middle Triassic and Late Permian radiolarian faunas from 50 km west of Songkhla city in southern Thailand, the outcrops are well exposed along Highway no. 4 (Figure 6). The radiolarian-bearing rock sequences in this area might belong to the Khao Phra Formation (Permian) and the Na Thawi Formation (Triassic).

Figure 6: Map showing the locations of studied sections, northwest of Hat Yai (Kamata et al., 2009).

Sashida and Igo (1992) reported the Triassic radiolarian fauna from a limestone outcrop exposed at Khao Chiak near the city area of Phatthalung Province, southern Thailand (Figure 7). Limestones distributed around the Phatthalung area have been regarded as the southern extension of the Permian Ratburi Limestone. However, Igo et al. (1988) and Ampornmaha (1995) reported the occurrence of Triassic conodonts from a limestone exposed at Khao Chiak. Recently, this Triassic limestone was assigned to be the Chiak Member of the Chaiburi Formation (Ampornmaha, 1995). Distribution of Devonian to Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia is shown in Figure 8. The distribution of the radiolarian-bearing rocks has an obvious N- S trend and close to the suture zones in Thailand and Malaysia. Radiolarian data from several previous works (modified from Saesaengseerung, 2009 in Thailand and Hutchison, 2009 in Malaysia).

Figure 7: Index map of Khao Chiak, Phatthalung Province (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

Figure 8: Map showing distribution of Devonian to Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Correlation of radiolarian-bearing rock distribution is present in the spot lines and areas (green/orange/purple colors). The distribution of the radiolarian-bearing rocks has an obvious N-S trend and close to the suture zones in Thailand and Malaysia. Radiolarian data from several previous works (modified from Saesaengseerung, 2009 in Thailand and Hutchison, 2009 in Malaysia).

5. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

5.1 Malaysian side Chert occurs in various rock units along the Malaysia-Thailand border. The oldest chert in Malaysia occurs in the Ordovician-Silurian Setul and Mahang Formations in Kedah. The Mahang Formation is exposed in central and south Kedah, to the south, outside of the Malaysia-Thailand border area. The chert in the Setul and Mahang Formations is impure chert or can be described as siliceous shale. However, to date, no radiolarian is discovered from these formations. The radiolarian chert in the Kubang Pasu and Semanggol Formations had been studied by numerous workers especially in the state of Kedah. Recently, the Malaysian-Thai Working Group has discovered some Permian radiolarians in the chert of the Gerik and Mangga Formations in Upper Perak.

5.1.1 Setul Formation The Setul Formation is well exposed in the eastern Langkawi Islands and in the western Perlis. It is composed predominantly of grey to dark grey impure limestone. The Setul Formation is divisible into four members in ascending order; Lower Setul Limestone, Lower Detrital Member, Upper Setul Limestone and Upper Detrital Member (Jones, 1978). He reported the occurrence of cherty beds in the Lower Detrital Member of the Setul Formation at Teluk Mempelam in Pulau Langgun, Langkawi Islands. Jones (1978) also recorded the occurrence of the platy siliceous shale in the Upper Detrital Member of the Setul Formation also in the Pulau Langgun. To date, no radiolarian is reterived from this rock unit (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011).

5.1.2 Kubang Pasu Formation The Carboniferous Kubang Pasu Formation crops out in western Perlis, Kedah and extends further east to northern Perak. Generally, the Kubang Pasu Formation comprises thick bedded sandstone interbedded with mudstone and shale. Chert occurs as lenticular bodies within the Kubang Pasu Formation. Generally, the formation is gently folded in the N-S direction. Chert in the Kubang Pasu Formation has thinly bedded, known as ribbon chert; with thickness of individual bed is generally less than 5 cm. Chert of the Kubang Pasu Formation is exposed in several localities in Kedah and northern Perak. Basir Jasin (1995) recorded the occurrence of bedded radiolarian chert in the Kubang Pasu Formation exposed at three abandoned earth quarries near Pokok Sena town, Bukit Beringin and Bukit Telaga Jatoh, Tobiar, in northern Kedah. The bedded chert is grey in colour, strikes 340o- 350o and dips 50o-70o and interbedded with siliceous mudstone. Quite well preserved radiolarian faunas had been discovered from the chert exposed at Bukit Telaga Jatoh. Two species of radiolarian had been identified; Entactinia variospina (Won) and Callela sp. (Figure 9). Entactinia variospina indicating the age of Early Carboniferous, probably Tournaisian age (Braun and Schmidt-Effing, 1993).

Figure 9: Carboniferous radiolarian found at Bukit Telaga Jatoh: 1; Callela sp., 2-4; Entactinia variospina (Won) (after Basir Jasin, 1995).

Later Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2001) reported the discovery of bedded radiolarian chert in the Kubang Pasu Formation exposed in several earth quarries at Guar Kepayang, Bukit Telaga Jatoh, Bukit Kamelong, Kampung Belukar, Ladang Cheong Chong Kaw, Kampung Panchor, Bukit Inas and Bukit Binjal in northern Kedah and Pauh in Perlis. The chert at these localities is known as ribbon chert, and it is also interbedded with siliceous mudstone. The chert varies in colour from light grey to dark grey; occasionally it is black and contains minute pyrite crystals. Radiolarian Entactinia variospina had been discovered in the chert from Guar Kepayang. Meanwhile eight radiolarian faunas discovered at Bukit Binjal contain Entactinia variospina (Won), Entactinia unispina (Won), Entactinia (?) inaequoporosa (Won), Callela hexatinia (Won), Callela cf. parvispinosa (Won), Treanosphaera herbes (Won), Cubaxonium? octaedrospongiosum (Won), Duplexia? foremanae (Ormiston and Lane), and Duplexia parviperforata (Won). The faunas are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) reported the discovery of Early Carboniferous radiolarian in the chert exposed along the border security road near Lepang Nenering, Pengkalan Hulu; close to the Malaysia-Thailand Border in northern Perak. The rock sequence is composed of bedded chert and intraformational chert conglomerate in the lower part and interbedded mudstone and sandstone towards the upper part. Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) suggested that this rock sequence can be assigned as a new formation. However, based on lithological characteristics, the Malaysian-Thai Working Group (2009a) believed the rock sequence is the eastward extension of the Kubang Pasu Formation. The rock sequence was considered as the northern extension of the Kati Formation (Azhar Hussin, 1994), which was first assigned as Kati beds in the Kuala Kangsar-Taiping area in Perak by Foo (1990).

Figure 10: 1, 2, 3; Entactinia variospina (Won) with Figure 11: 1; Entactinia unispina (Won) (100 µm), two polar spines (100 µm), 4 and 5; E. variospina with 2; Entactinia (?) inaequoporosa (Won) (100 µm), three spines (100 µm), E. variospina with four spines (80 3; Callela hexatinia (Won) (100 µm), 4; Callela cf. µm), 7; E. variospina with five spines (100 µm) (after parvispinosa (Won) (100 µm), 5; Duplexia? foremanae Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2001) (Ormiston and Lane) (80 µm), 6; Duplexia parviperforata (Won) (80 µm), 7; Treanosphaera herbes (Won), and 8; Cubaxonium ? octaedrospongiosum (Won) (100 µm) (after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2001).

Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) recorded the occurrence of two chert localities i.e., near the army post at Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak (005o 40.59’N, 101o 6.75’E) and at Km 19 (005o 40.47’N, 101o 6.85’E) on the Malaysian side of the border security road. They have identified 20 radiolarian taxa of Albaillella cf. perforata Won, Archocyrtium lagabriellei Gourmelon, Archocyrtium pulchrum Braun, Archocyrtium venustum Cheng, Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, Astroentactinia digitosa Braun, Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon, Astroentactinia multispinosa Won, Astroentactinia stellaesimilis Won, Belowea hexaculeata Won, Belowea variabilis Ormiston and Lane, Ceratoikiscum berrgreni Gourmelon, Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre, Pylentonema antiqua Deflandre, Stigmosphaerostylus brilonensis Won, Stigmosphaerostylus tostispina Ormiston and Lane, Stigmosphaerostylus variospina Won, Stigmosphaerostylus vulgaris Won, Trilonche altasulcata Won and Triaenosphaera sp. (Figures 12 and 13). Stratigraphic distribution of selected taxa occurred at Malaysia-Thailand border security road near Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak is shown in Figure 14. The Malaysia-Thailand Joint Geological Survey Working Groups (2009b) reported the discovery of well-preserved radiolarian fossils probably indicative of Tournaisian age (Early Carboniferous) in seven chert samples. The locality is situated along the border security road near Bukit Tangga, Kedah. The identification of the radiolarian had been done by Professor Katsuo Sashida of the Tsukuba University, Japan. The radiolarian faunas identified are 15

Stigmosphaerostylus sp., Archocyrtium riedeli Deflandre. Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane), Triaenospahera? Bareillensis Gourmelon, Astroentactinia multispinosa (Won), Helioentactinia polycanthina (Foreman), Stigmosphaerostylus cfr. palimbola (Foreman), Archocyrtium sp., Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre, and Pylentonema sp.

Figure 12: Carboniferous Radiolarian as reported by Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) 1 Albaillella cf. perforata Won (100 µm) 2 Archocyrtium lagabriellei Gourmelon (100 µm) 3 Archocyrtium pulchrum Braun (50 µm) 4 Archocyrtium venustum Cheng (100 µm) 5, 6 Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov (100 µm and 75 µm) 7, 8 Astroentactinia digitosa Braun (100 µm) 9, 10 Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon (100 µm) 11, 12 Astroentactinia multispinosa Won (75 µm and 80 µm respectively) 13 Astroentactinia stellaesimilis Won (75 µm) 14 Belowea hexaculeata Won (125 µm)

Figure 13: Some more Carboniferous Radiolarian as reported by Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006) 1 Belowea variabilis Ormiston and Lane (100 µm) 2 Ceratoikiscum berrgreni Gourmelon (100 µm) 3 Palaeoscenidium cladophorum Deflandre (50 µm) 4 Pylentonema antiqua Deflandre (100 µm) 5 Stigmosphaerostylus brilonensis Won (100 µm) 6, 7 Stigmosphaerostylus tostispina Ormiston and Lane (75 µm) 8, 9 Stigmosphaerostylus variospina Won (75 µm and 100 µm respectively) 10, 11 Stigmosphaerostylus vulgaris Won (75 µm) 12 Trilonche altasulcata Won (100 µm) 13 Triaenosphaera sp. (75 µm)

Figure 14: Stratigraphic distributions of selected taxa occur at Malaysia-Thailand border security road near Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak (after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2006).

5.1.3 Mangga formation The term Mangga formation was introduced by Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript) to describe the low- to medium-grade metamorphic sequences of psammitic, pellitic, pyroclastic, hornfels and marble as well as schistose rocks distributed in the Sungai Mangga area, northeastern Kelantan. It is named after the Sungai Mangga where this rock unit was first mapped and good outcrops had been recorded. The Mangga formation which is strongly deformed and metamorphosed, trends N-S and dips moderately to steeply either westwardly or eastwardly. The thickness of the succession is indeterminable due to its strongly deformed nature. The Mangga formation is represented by a low grade metamorphic sequence that can be subdivided into argillaceous, arenaceous, pyroclastic and calcareous facies. The argillaceous unit consists mainly of metamorphosed siliceous shale, slate, phyllite, metasiltstone and hornfels. There are two strata of argilliceous facies representing the lower and upper parts of this formation. The upper part consists of hornfelsic rocks such as calc-silicate hornfels. The best outcrop of hornfels can be observed near the junction to Felda Tumbi Rapat, Kelantan. The rocks are light grey in colour, very fine-grained, slightly foliated and recrystallized with both quartz and calcite veinlets. Petrographically, the main minerals are quartz with minor muscovite, biotite, diopsite and iron oxide. The chert is light grey to grey with some impure cherts forming ribbon cherts (The Malaysian-Thai Working Group, 2006). During the Malaysia-Thailand Working Group joint field check in March 2010, several chert and siliceous shale samples were collected near the Telekom Malaysia telecomunication tower at Km 173.2 of the East-West Highway (N 05o 35.883’, E 101o 36.002’). Radiolarians extracted from the chert and siliceous shale are poorly preserved. However, the radiolarian can be identified 18

as Follicuculus sp. and others, quite similar with that found in the Gerik Formation at Km 18.6 of the East-West Highway, Upper Perak. These fossils suggest that the age of the rock unit is possibly of Capitanian to Wuchiapingian (Middle to Late Permian).

5.1.4 Gerik Formation The term Gerik Formation was proposed by the Malaysian Working Group (2009) to replace the term Grik tuff of Jones (1970). The Gerik Formation comprises sequence of pyroclastic rocks consisting predominantly of tuffs of rhyolitic to rhyodacitic composition and their volcaniclastic derivatives that well exposed in the Gerik area. Detailed studies revealed that the rock unit also contains subordinate calcareous shale, limestone, tuffaceous sandstone and pelagic chert, and occasionally metamorphosed. Jones (1970) thought that the Gerik Formation was distributed only in the Gerik-Lawin areas. However, current investigations revealed that the rock unit is extended eastwardly up to the Temengor Lake and the surrounding areas. With the inclusion of the tuffaceous sandstone as well as the pelagic chert sequence exposed along the East-West Highway stretching from Gerik to Banding Island, the Gerik Formation now covers a larger area than the previous interpretation. In the Permian Gerik Formation, chert is cropping out at several localities along the East- West Highway in Upper Perak. In March 2010, during the course of the joint field check by the Malaysia-Thailand Working Group along the East-West Highway to the northeast of Gerik as part of the joint study on the Belum-Hala Transect area, several radiolarian- bearing rock samples were collected at Km 18.6 (5o 31.655’N, 101o 14.790’E) (Figure 15) and at a locality on the old stretch of the East-West Highway (5o 31.633’N, 101o 17.633’E) (Figure 16). The rock sequences are composed of slightly-metamorphosed chert and fine-grained clastic rocks (the thickness of individual beds are about 1-10 cm). Slump folds are commonly observed in these sequences. Ten samples were collected for microfossil analysis. Unfortunately, only poorly to moderately preserved Middle to Late Permian radiolarians have been recovered from some samples. The radiolarian fauna is composed of Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock, F. porrectus Rudenko, Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, Hegleria mammilla (Sheng and Wang), Latentibifistula asperspongiosa Sashida and Tonishi, Latentifistula sp., Triplanospongos sp., Ishigaum sp., Ishigaum ? sp. and others (Figure 17).

Figure 15: Subvertical to vertical strata of well- Figure 16: Thinly-bedded radiolarian bearing bedded light grey to grey radiolarian bearing chert and siliceous shale interbedded with thin beds of shale silliceous shale interbedded with thin beds of shale at located at the old stretch of the East-West Highway (N5o Km 18.6 East-West Highway (N5o 31.655’, E101o 31.633’, E101o 17.633’). 14.790’).

Although the radiolarian fauna in the Gerik area do not include any Neoalbaillellarians, it is quite similar to that of the Follicucullus scholasticus Assemblage (latest Middle to earliest Upper Permian; Capitanian to Wuchiapigian), Neoalbaillella optima Assemblage (Upper Permian; Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) and Neoalbaillella ornithoformis Assemblage (uppermost Permian; Changhsingian) from Thailand and Malaysia (Sashida and Igo, 1999), the Follicucullus scholasticus Zone (latest Middle to earliest Upper Permian; Capitanian to Wuchiapigian) and Neoalbaillella optima/Albaillella levis Zone (Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) from Northern Thailand (Saesaengseerung, 2009), the F. scholasticus m. I Zone, F. bipartitus - F. charveti Zone and F. scholasticus m. II Zone (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian), N. optima Zone (Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) and N. ornithoformis Zone (Changhsingian) from the Tamba-Mino Terrane, Japan (Ishiga, 1990), the F. scholasticus- F. ventricosus Zone (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian), F. bipartitus- F. charveti Zone (Wuchiapigian) and N. optima- N. ornithoformis Zone (Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) from South China (Wang et al., 1994) and the F. scholasticus Zone (Capitanian to Wuchiapigian), N. optima Zone (Wuchiapigian to Changhsingian) and N. ornithoformis zones (uppermost Permian; Changhsingian) from Oregon, USA (Blome and Reed,1992). As mentioned above, the occurrence of radiolarians in the Gerik area indicates close faunal assemblage similarity among Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, South China and United States of America. The age of this radiolarian fauna is Middle to Late Permian (Capitanian to Changhsingian).

Figure 17: Middle to Late Permian radiolarian collected from the Gerik area. 1-4. Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto. 5, 6, 19. Latentibifistula asperspongiosa Sashida and Tonishi. 7, 9. Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock. 8, 10-13. Follicucullus porrectus Rudenko.14-16. Triplanospongos sp. 17, 20, 21. Latentifistula sp. 22, 23. Ishigaum ? sp. 18, 24, 25. Ishigaum sp. 26-28. Gustefana sp. 29-30. Hegleria mammilla (Sheng and Wang). 31. Genus and species indeterminate. Scale bar A= 7-18, 20-31: B= 5, 6, 19: C= 1-4 (Mat Niza Abdul Rahman et al., 2012).

5.1.5 Cherty unit The term Cherty unit was informally used by Mat Niza Abdul Rahman and Meesook (2002) and The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups (2006) to describe the sequence of light grey, buff and white, well-bedded pelagic chert exposed in northern Kedah. Previously, it was considered as the lower part of the Semanggol Formation. The Cherty unit was taken out from the Semanggol Formation and considered as a single unit ranging in age from Early Permian to Middle Triassic (The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups, 2006). The Cherty unit was separated from the original “Semanggol Formation” because of the Cherty unit is different from the Rhythmite and Conglomeratic units in terms of lithostratigraphy, paleontology and age, and paleoenvironment (Mat Niza Abdul Rahman and Meesook, 2002; The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups, 2006). Distribution of chert (Cherty unit) in the Semanggol Formation in the Pokok Sena and Kuala Ketil areas in Kedah is shown in Figure 18 (after Nuraiteng Tee Abdullah, 2009).

o 103 35’ E 100o 35’ 100o 40’ 100o 45’ E

5o 40’ N 0 5

k Km a b Kuala m e T Nerang g. S

til . Ke Sg Kuala Kg. Batu Lima 5o 35’ Ketil 1 Bukit Kukus 6 Merbau g Sg. Bakun Pulas 4 6 S Pokok 3 Padang g . S Sena Serai e o Kg. Sungai d 6 10’ N im To Alor Setar Karangan 5o 30’ 5 Bukit 2 Kampong Yoi 7 6 Pokok Pauh

b Semanggol Formation 2 Radiolarian locality 6 a a. chert b. clastics Bukit Nyan Road

River 0 5 Km N

A B

Figure 15: Geographic distribution of chert in the Semanggol Formation in the Pokok Sena area (A) and Kuala Ketil area (B) (modified from Nuraiteng Tee Abdullah, 2009).

Sashida et al. (1995) reported the presence of late Middle Permian radiolarians in a siliceous limestone block embedded in siliceous shale in the upper part of the Cherty unit exposed at Bukit Barak quarry in the vicinity of Pokok Sena town. The only identified species is Follicucullus monacanthus Ishiga and Imoto. They also discovered Late Permian (Dzulfian to Dorashamian) radiolarians in chert beds exposed at Bukit Nyan, near Pokok Sena. The radiolarian faunas identified are as follows and shown in Figures 19 and 20. Neoalbaillella cfr. ornithoformis Takemura and Nakaseko Albaillella excelsa Ishiga, Kito and Imoto

Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto Albaillella triangularis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto Entactinosphaera pseudocimelia Sashida and Tonishi Entactinosphaera sp. Octatormentum? sp. Nazarovella gracilis De Wever and Caridroit Nazarovella inflata Sashida and Tonishi Praedeflandrella sp. Pseudotormentus sp. Ishigaum? sp. Triplanospongos musashiensis Sashida and Tonishi

Figure 169: Permian radiolarians from Bukit Barak and Bukit Nyan (after Sashida et al., 1995) 1-4 Neoalbaillella cfr. ornithoformis Takemura and Nakaseko 5-11 Albaillella excelsa Ishiga, Kito and Imoto 12-15 Follicucullus monacanthus Ishiga and Imoto 16-17 Albaillella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto 18-20 Albaillella triangularis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto

Figure 20: Permian radiolarians from Bukit Nyan (after Sashida et al., 1995) 1-3 Entactinosphaera pseudocimelia Sashida and Tonishi 4-6 Entactinosphaera sp. 7-11 Ishigaum? sp. 12-13 Triplanospongos musashiensis Sashida and Tonishi 14 Praedeflandrella sp. 15-16 Nazarovella inflata Sashida and Tonishi 17, 19 Nazarovella gracilis De Wever and Caridroit 18 Pseudotormentus sp. 20 Octatormentum? sp.

Spiller and Metcalfe (1995) recorded the occurrence of Early and Late Permian radiolarians from the Cherty unit in the samples collected from a sequence of interbedded tuffaceous mudstone and chert from a locality near Pokok Sena, Kedah. Pseudoalbailella sp. possibly of latest Early Permian age was reported to occur in the lower part of the sequence, and Follicucullus scholasticus of Late Permian age in the upper part of the sequence (Figure 21).

a b c d e

Figure 21: Early and Late Permian radiolarian faunas near Pokok Sena, Kedah (after Spiller and Metcalfe,1995a): a. e Pseudoalbailella sp. b. f Pseudoalbailella sp. c. g Follicucullus scholasticus morphotype I d. h Follicucullus scholasticus morphotype II e. i Follicucullus scholasticus morphotype II

Basir Jasin (1996) reported the occurrence of Early Permian radiolarian assemblage in the chert sequence of the lowermost part of the Cherty unit at Bukit Kampong Yoi and Bukit Larek in the vicinity of Pokok Sena town. The radiolarian faunas are Pseudoalbaillella scalprata Holdsworth and Jones morphotype scalprata Ishiga, Pseudoalbaillella scalprata Holdsworth and Jones morphotype postscalprata Ishiga, Pseudoalbaillella scalprata Holdsworth and Jones morphotype rhombothoracata Ishiga, and Pseudoalbaillella elongata Ishiga and Imoto (Figure 22) Basir Jasin (2008) reported the discovery of 15 taxa of Early to Middle Permian radiolarian fauna in the chert sequence at Bukit Yoi, Pokok Sena, Kedah. The radiolarian faunas are belonging to Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata, Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis and Pseudoalbaillella globosa Zones. Basir Jasin (1994) reported 13 species of Anisian to Ladinian (Middle Triassic) radiolarinas discovered in the chert exposed at Pokok Pauh, Bukit Tembaga near Pokok Sena, Kedah. The faunas are Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rust), Pseudostylosphaera Magnispinosa Yeh, Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera compcata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Parasepsagon variabilis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Parasepsagon cf. Asemtricus (Kozur and Mostler), Eptigium manfredi Dumitrica, Hozmadia rotunda (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Acanthosphaera awaensis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe sp., Yeharaia japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura) and Cryptostephanidium sp. (Figure 23)

Figure 22: Early Permian radiolarian assemblage in the chert sequence of the lowermost part of the Cherty unit at Bukit Kampong Yoi and Bukit Larek (after Basir Jasin, 1996). 1. Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. scalprata (100 µm) 2. Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. postscalprata (60 µm and 94 µm respectively 3. Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata (75 µm) 4. Pseudoalbaillella elongata (116 µm)

Figure 23: Thirteen species of Anisian to Ladinian (Middle Triassic) radiolarinas discovered in the chert exposed at Pokok Pauh, Bukit Tembaga near Pokok Sena, Kedah (after Basir Jasin, 1994). 1. Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rust) 2. Pseudostylosphaera Magnispinosa Yeh 3. Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 4. Pseudostylosphaera compcata (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 5. Parasepsagon variabilis (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 6. Parasepsagon cf. Asemtricus (Kozur and Mostler) 7. Eptigium manfredi Dumitrica 8. Hozmadia rotunda (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 9. Acanthosphaera awaensis (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 10. Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 11. Triassocampe sp. 12. Yeharaia japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura) 13. Cryptostephanidium sp.

Twenty seven taxa of Triassic radiolarian faunas had been identified in the Cherty unit in the Kuala Ketil area, Kedah (Basir Jasin et al., 2005). The faunas are Entactinosphaera sp., Thaisphaera sp., Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, Archaeosemantis cristianensis Dumitrica, Archaeosemantis sp., Cenosphaera andoi Sugiyama, Thaisphaera cf. minuta Sashida and Igo, Entactinia sp., Parentactinia sp., Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe coronata Bragin, Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, Acanthosphaera awaensis Nakaseko and Nishimura, Pseudostylosphaera tenue Nakaseko and Nishimura, Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rust), Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Acanthosphaera sp., Triassocampe sp., Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Muelleritortis cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe annulata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Baumgartneria retrospina Dumitrica, Baumgartneria lata Kozur and Mostler, Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Canoptum sp., Parasepsagon variabilis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), and Sarla sp. Unidentified spherical spumellarian is also occurred (Basir Jasin et al., 2005).

5.2 Thai side

5.2.1 Yaha Formation The Carboniferous Yaha Formation clastic rocks are exposed in the Yaha District, Yala Province and Sabayoi District, Na Thawi Distrct and Sadao District of Songkhla Province, Pattani and Phatthalung Province. The stratigraphic name was taken after the Yaha District, Yala Province. The Yaha Formation in the Yaha, Bahoi and Na Thawi (Thailand), approximately 400-450 m thick, can be subdivided into six members in ascending order as follows (The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups, 2006): i) The massive to very thick-bedded quartzitic sandstone member consisting mainly of massive to very thick-bedded quartzitic sandstone intercalated with mudstone. Individual sandstone beds are up to 4 m thick with a total thickness of 30 m. ii) The interbedded mudstone and sandstone member overlies conformably on the previous member. The sequence, approximately 180-300 m thick showing obvious fining upwards and coarsening upwards cycles, is composed predominantly of mudstone intercalated with sandstone. iii) The well-bedded, dark grey sandstone member overlies conformably the previous member. The sequence, approximately 15-50 m thick, consists mainly of well wavy- bedded lithic sandstone. iv) The tuffaceous sandstone intercalated with mudstone member overlies conformably the previous member, and is approximately 10-50 m thick. The sequence comprises intercalations of tuffaceous sandstone, unevenly-bedded graywacke, thick-bedded mudstone and siltstone. v) The chert member overlies conformably on the earlier member. The 15 m thick sequence comprises mainly thin-bedded (ribbon) chert, changing gradually to siliceous siltstone, which often shows tight and recumbent folding. The Early Carboniferous radiolarians had been reported in the chert member from the Kabang vicinity (Sashida et al., 2000). vi) The evenly bedded shale interbedded with sandstone member is sporadically distributed in the Transect area. The approximately 40-50 m thick sequence overlies conformably the chert member, and is composed of interbedded mudstone with sandstone. The characteristic sedimentary structures of very thin, evenly bedded and 28

sharp base bedded sedimentary structures exhibited in the sequence reflect flysch-type or outer fan deposits. The age of the Yaha Formation was substantiated by late Tournaisian conodonts from a chert and siliceous shale succession at the northern end of Ko Yo in Songkhla Province (Igo, 1973). Moreover, the Early Carboniferous radiolarian assemblage were reported from this Yaha Formation in west of the Saba Yoi area, Songkhla Province and the Kabang area, Yala Province (Sashida et al., 2000 and 2002). Various primary sedimentary structures in the coarser lithological units are indicated as a near-shore environment of deposition, probably in either intertidal or upper subtidal zones. The middle unit in this area is represented by shale and tuffaceous sandstone. The sequence may be interpreted as having been deposited in the outer shelves, where winnowing process may have led to the deposition of chert and finer-grained sediments. The existence of ribbon chert and siliceous shale in the upper part of the formation may be due to the increasing supply of silica from volcanic activities. The coarsening and thickening upwards, and fining and thinning upwards sequences at the top part may represent the regressive and transgressive phases, respectively. These phases may have been caused by fluctuation of sea level or tectonism or both in the Late Carboniferous to probably Permian. The Early Carboniferous radiolarian-bearing rocks west of Saba Yoi, consist of siliceous shale. They are from lenticular rock bodies embedded in strongly sheared, alternating sandstone and shale (Figure 24). These siliceous shales are thinly bedded, intercalated with siliceous claystone of a few millimeters thick, and are usually dark grey or light grey in colour. In contrast to the surrounding alternating beds of sandstone and shale, these radiolarian-bearing siliceous shales have undergone weak shearing. Under microscopic observation, these siliceous shales are composed of abundant radiolarian tests with a clay-size matrix. Scattered, angular detrital quartzs are common. The origin of this siliceous shale is thought to be either an olistostrome or submarine slides from surroundings Lower Carboniferous siliceous shale. The radiolarian fauna consists of Entactinia variospina (Won), Entactinia cf. vulgaris Won, Entactinia sp., Astroentactinia multispinosa (Won), Pylentonema cf. rachebeaufi Gourmelon, Triaenosphaera cf. hebes Won, Archocytium lagabriellei Gourmelon, Polyfistula? grantmackiei Sashida, and Polyfistula? sp., among others. Except for the new species and unidentified species, this fauna is quite similar to that in Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) of France (Gourmelon, 1987), Germany (Braun, 1990), southwestern China (Wang et al., 1998), Thailand (Sashida et al., 1998), and Peninsular Malaysia (Spiller, 1996) (Figure 25).

Figure 17: Locality map of sample localities along the Highway 42. A. location of Early Carboniferous and Early Triassic radiolarian-bearing siliceous rocks. B. Sketch map of Early Triassic radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale. C and D. Sketch map of Early Carboniferous radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale at a quarry along the Highway 42 (after Sashida et al., 2000).

Figure 18: Radiolarain from the Saba Yoi area, 1-3. Polyfistula? grantmackiei Sashida, 5-12. Entactinia vatiospina (Won), 13, 15-18. Archocyrtium lagabriellei Gourmelon, 14. Pylentonema cf. racheboeufi Gourmelon, 19-21, 28. Entactinia sp., 22, 23. Astroentactinia multispinosus (Won), 24, 27. Triaenosphaera cf. hebes (Won), 25, 26. Entactinia cf. vulgaris Won. 1-3, 5, 8, 10-13, 15 17-19, 21, 24-27. 83; 6, 7, 9, 14, 16, 20, 22, 28.125; 23. 166 (after Sashida et al., 2000).

Furthermore, the Lower Carboniferous radiolarian fauna from the Saba Yoi-Kabang area, southernmost part of peninsular Thailand were published by Sashida et al, (2002). Lower 30

Carboniferous radiolarians were found from two outcrops of the Yaha Formation. Outcrop 1 is located at a road cut made for road construction (6o 29'370"N, 100o 59'470" E). Rocks at this outcrop consist of 10 m of a lower sandstone unit and upper black chert unit (Figure 26). The sandstone unit is thickly bedded and consists of dark grey medium to fine-grained arenitic sandstone with intercalated thin black shale layers. Black bedded chert, which conformably overlies the sandstone, is well bedded, several centimeters thick and is intercalated with thin siliceous clay. The cherts are composed of abundant radiolarian tests with clay minerals and fine authigenic quartz grains. Outcrop 2 is located about 10 km southeast of Outcrop 1 (6o 25'391"N, 101o 02'842" E). The sequence is conformable and has the following lithostratigraphy in ascending order: grey to pale grey thickly bedded sandstone (more than 3 m), black bedded chert (5 m), and dark grey thickly bedded sandstone (more than 2 m) (Figure 26). The litholigical characteristics of the black bedded chert and sandstones of Outcrop 2 are almost the same as in Outcrop 1. In Outcrop 2, however, there is a 1 m brecciated chert in the upper part of the chert member. The brecciated chert consists of angular to subangular breccias of chert in coarse-grained sandstone matrix. Maximum diameter of most chert breccias and grains is less than 10 cm.

Figure 19: Sketch of outcrop and stratigraphic section at Outcrops 1 and 2, Yaha Formation, Kabang area, Thailand. Note position of x-Saba5-9 samples (after Sashida et al., 2002).

These radiolarian-bearing rocks are thought to have been deposited in pelagic or hemipelagic environments in the Palaeotethys Ocean. The radiolarian fauna consists of Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon, Archocyrtium tinnulum (Deflandre), Pylentonema antique Deflandre, Stigmosphaerostylus variospina (Won), Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, Astroentactinia mirous Gourmelon, and others (Figures 27-29). These radiolarian species have been reported from phophatic nodules from Montage Noire and central Pyrenees, France by Gourmelon (1987). The age of this radiolarian fauna from France is well controlled by co-occurring conodonts and ammonites. The radiolarian fauna of the Kabang area is assigned to the Albaillella deflandrei Zone from Germany by Braun and Schmit-Effing (1993), with estimated as upper Tournaisian. Moreover, radiolarian faunas that contain the above-listed species or similar forms are reported from Germany (Braun 1990), southwestern China (Feng et al., 1997), southern China (Wu et al., 1994), Thailand (Sashida et al., 1998, 2000), and Istanbul, Turkey (Holdsworth, 1973).

Figure 20: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area, southernmost part of peninsular Thailand. 1-4, 7- 11. Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon, 5-6. Albaillella sp., 12-13. Archocyrtium tinnulum Deflandre, 14-17, 20-22. Pylentonema antique Deflandre, 18, 23-24. Stigmosphaerostylus variospina (Won). 19. Archocyrtium sp., 1113, 2150, 3163, 4152, 5176, 6128, 7 160, 8169, 9142, 10157, 11170, 12220, 13220, 14120, 15160, 16130, 17145, 18133, 19207, 20185, 21140, 22160, 23150, 24135 (after Sashida et al., 2002).

Figure 21: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area, southernmost part of peninsular Thailand. 1. Spongentactinia? sp., 2. Pylentonema antique Defkandre, 3?, 11. Triaenophaera sicarius Deflandre, 4, 13. Stigmoshaerostylus? sp., 5. Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, 6, 14. Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon, 7?, 12. Stigmosphaerostylus cf. vulagaris (Won), 8, 16, 20. Entactinia gen. et sp. indet. A., 9. Entactinaria gen. et sp. indet. B., 10. Triloche cf. guangxiensis (Li and Wang), 15. Trilonche sp. B., 17. Entactinaria gen. et sp. indet. C., 18-19. Trilonche sp. A. 1125, 2148, 3130, 4121, 5153, 6220, 7120, 8142, 9106, 10170, 11120, 12112, 13147, 14270, 15137, 1687, 17156, 18153, 19178, 2094 (after Sashida et al., 2002).

Figure 22: Radiolarian from the Yaha Formation, Kabang area, southernmost part of peninsular Thailand. 1. Stigmosphaerostylus cf. crustescens (Foreman), 2, 6, 8-9, 11?. Pylentonema antique Deflandre, 3. Spullmellaria gen. et sp. indet., 4, 7, 10. Triaenoshaera? sp., 5. Stigmosphaerostylus? sp., 12?, 15. Stigmosphaeostylus variospina (Won), 14. Stigmosphaerostylus sp., 16. Palaeoscenidium sp. 1123, 2131, 3180, 4184, 5121, 6131, 7213, 8184, 9140, 10200, 11192, 12146, 13 , 14146, 15181, 16174 (after Sashida et al., 2002).

5.2.2 Khao Phra Formation This Formation consists of dark-grey to black, partly fossiliferous shale (with the bryozoans Fenestella sp. and Polypora sp. and the brachiopod Spirifer sp.); fine- to course-grained, poorly sorted sandstone; and pebbly shale containing limestone. The formation is typically exposed at Khao Phra, 8 km west of Ban Don Sai in the Khao Yoi area of Phetchaburi Province where it is 340 m thick. Its thickness is 520 m in the Kaeng Krachan Dam area (Ueno and Charoentitirat, 2011).

The Khao Phra Formation of the Kaeng Krachan Group along the Malaysia-Thailand border, approximately 170-200 m thick, is composed predominantly of dark grey, fine- to very coarse- grained, poorly sorted, moderately rounded, moderately cemented, thick-bedded and laminated mudstone, shale, siltstone and pebbly mudstone. Pebbles consist of quartz, sandstone and shale. Sandstone, liminated siltstone, mudstone and shale of the Khao Phra Formation are exposed in the vicinity of Ban Khao Rub Chang, Sadao District containing Spinomartinia sp., brachiopods. In places, fusulinids are found. Spinomartinia sp. and other brachiopods, and fusulinids found in mudstone in the vicinity of Ban Khao Rub Chang and Ban Khuan Pho indicate Early Permian age. Medium- to thick-bedded sequence of mudstone, shale and siltstone suggests that this formation was deposited in a rather quiet environment. Dark coloured rocks as well as the presence of perfect isometric system of pyrite crystals embedded within this rock unit may indicate a reducing environment. This implies that the deposition of the Khao Phra Formation was probably taken place in a quite deep marine environment probably in the outer continental shelf. However, there were some parts of the depositional basin that were relatively shallower as indicated by the presence of bioturbation as a result of benthic faunas activities. In the Hat Yai area, Kamata et al. (2009) reported the Middle Triassic and Late Permian radiolarian faunas from 50 km west of Songkhla city in southern Thailand, the outcrops are well exposed along Highway no. 4. In this area, well-bedded, Middle Triassic, radiolarian-bearing chert stratigraphically overlies radiolarian-bearing, laminated Permian shale. The Permian shale consists of interlayered brown shale, yellowish brown, silty shale, and black or brown shale with calcareous nodules. The uppermost part of the shaley unit is siliceous and contains intercalated chert layers very similar to the Triassic bedded chert. The dark-colored shale with calcareous nodules may be equivalent to the ammonoid-bearing Permian shale elsewhere (Fujikawa et al., 2005). Radiolarian fauna is composed of the Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage (Ladinian) and the Follicuculus sholasticus Assemblage (late Guadalupian) (Figure 30). The depositional environment was likely restricted to the vicinity of the Sibumasu continental slope or rise.

Figure 23: Measured stratigraphic sections of studied sections, northwest of Hat Yai (Kamata et al., 2009).

5.2.3 Na Thawi Formation The rock unit, 100 to 250 m thick, consists of rhythmic alternation of sandstone and shale or mudstone. In addition, unmappable chert beds had also been reported in the upper part of this unit. Generally, the rocks are light grey in colour, parallel bedded ranging from 10 to 50 cm in thickness. The graded bedding sandstone shows sharp base grading upward to the overlying shale or mudstone. Primary sedimentary structures, such as scour and ripple marks and load structures can be observed at the top part of sandstone beds. The prominent sandstone of the Na Thawi Formation is medium- to coarse-grained, typically poorly sorted and can be classified as quartz arenite, litharenite, sublitharenite, graywacke and lithic graywacke. The dominant non-preferred orientation grains of quartz, chert and rock fragments are generally subangular to subrounded and moderate to high sphericity while the interstitial matrix consists of silt-size quartz and clay. Feldspars are very rare and are completely altered, mainly to clay minerals and sericite. Thick-bedded sandstone, with overall thickness up to 10 m crops out in the Na Thawi (Thailand) area. The sandstone beds, ranging from 0.5 to 1 m thick, are interbedded with thin- bedded shale. The argilliceous rocks of the formation consist predominantly of shale and mudstone with minor siliceous shale. Generally, the rocks are dark grey when fresh and pale grey when weathered. The well laminated shale, 1 cm to 1 m thick, is normally interbedded with sandstone. Coarsening upwards sequences of sandstone can be recognised at the place where the conglomerate occurs as beds or lenses intercalated within the NaThawi Formation. It is characterised by a sequence grading from sandstone to conglomeratic sandstone and eventually conglomerate. Grant-Mackie et al. (1980) reported the presence of the Triassic bivalve Daonella sp., which can be observed in the Na Thawi area, Songkhla Province. During the Middle to Late Triassic, the depositional environment of the Na Thawi Formation was assigned as the basin which dominated the outer (distal) submarine fan environment. The Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks from the Saba Yoi and Chana areas, Songkhla Province are belonging to the Na Thawi Formation. The Middle Triassic radiolarian faunas were reported from 50 km west of Songkhla city in the Hat Yai area, the outcrops are well exposed along Highway no. 4 (Kamata et al., 2009). Well- bedded, Middle Triassic, radiolarian-bearing chert stratigraphically overlies radiolarian-bearing, laminated Permian shale. Radiolarian fauna is composed of the Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage (Ladinian) (Figure 31). The depositional environment was likely restricted to the vicinity of the Sibumasu continental slope or rise. The Early Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks crop out in the Highway 42 road cut west of Saba Yoi area, Songkhla Province having strongly folded and faulted beds (Sashida et al., 2000). Siliceous shale alternating sandstone and shale beds are dark grey to pale grey. The sandstone is fine-grained, poorly-sorted, and has abundant fragments that are mostly monocrystalline quartz grains with a minor amount of feldspar. The shale portion consists mostly of siliceous shale layers. Small scale sedimentary structures such as gradation and cross-laminations are evident. The radiolarians include Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Sashida, P. okuchichibuensis (Sashida), Archaeosemantis venusta Sashida, Heptacladus ? sp., Plafkerium ? sp., Spumellaria gen. et sp. indet. A, and Tetrahopalus ? sabayoiensis Sashida (Figure 32 ). This radiolarian fauna is comparable to the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages from Mt. Kinkazan, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan by Sugiyama (1992). Regarding the age of the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages, Sugiyama (1992) recovered conodonts representing the Neospathodus homeri Assemblage of Koike (1981). Although, the radiolarian-bearing rocks in the Saba Yoi area did not contain conodont, the radiolarian fauna is assigned to the upper Olenekian to lower Anisian (Triassic) by Sashida et al. (2000). The Middle Triassic radiolarian-bearing chert is in a quarry northwest of Chana, Songkhla Province. Although pale green of light grey cherts occur locally this chert is mostly red

and dark grey. These cherts are well bedded and have several centimeters thick, with intercalated siliceous claystone partings that are a few millimeters thick. Under microscopic observation, the chert is composed of abundant radiolarian tests within clay minerals and, rarely, with fine-grained iron oxides. Terrigenous materials coarser than clay are absent, except for occasional thick to thin intercalations of sandstone. Most of these sandstone layers are composed of fine- to medium- grained lithic greywacke. No radiolarians are known from the sandstone layers. These radiolarian cherts may have deposited in the Palaeotethys Ocean. Identified radiolarians are Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), and T. scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Yeharaia ? sp., Paratriassocampe ? sp., Pararuesticyrtium sp., Syringocapsa ? sp. and others (Figures 33). These radiolarian faunas are comparable to that of the middle to upper subzone of the Spongosilicarmiger italicus Zone of Kozur and Mostler (1994) in Middle Triassic interval.

Figure 24: Triassic radiolarian from the Hat Yai area, Songkhla Province. 1. Triassocampe coronata Bragin, 2. T. deweveri Nakaseko and Nishimura, 3. Pseudotriassocampe? sp., 4. Pseudostylosphaera sp., 5. P. cf. hellenicum, 6. Pantanellium? sp., 7. Eptingium cf. nakasekoi Kozur and Mostler, 8. Cryptostephanidium? sp., 9. Eptingiidae gen. et. indet., 10. Hozmadia cf. reticulate Dumitrica, 11. Triassobipedis? sp., 12. Plafkerium? sp., 13. Stauracontium trispinosa Dumitrica et al., 14. Staurosphaera? sp., 15. Triassobipedis? sp., 16. Pentactinocarpus sp., 17. Entactinaria gen. et. sp. indet., 18. Archaeospongoprunum mesotriassicum Kozur and Mostler (scale: 1-7, 9, 12-14, 17= 1cm:50µm; 8, 10, 11, 15-16, 18= 1cm:30µm) (after Sardsud and Saengsrichan, 2002)

Figure 25: Triassic radiolarian from the Saba Yoi area, Songkhla Province. 1-7. Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Sashida, 8-10. Parentactinia okuchichibuensis (Sashida), 11. Archaeosemantis venusta Sashida, 12, 13, Tetrarhopalus? Sabayoiensis Sashida, 14-17. Heptacladus? sp., 18, 19. Spumellaria gen. et sp. indet. A, 20, 21. Plafkerium? sp., 22-24. Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, 25, 26. Eptingium sp., 27. Pseudostylosphaera sp. A, 28, 30. Pseudostylosphaera sp. B, 31. Oerlispongidae gen. et sp. indet. 31.62; 7, 12-17, 22- 30. 83; 1- 6, 8-11, 18- 21.125; 2.166 (after Sashida et al., 2000).

Figure 26: Triassic radiolarian from the Chana area, Songkhla Province. 1-5, 7, 8, 11-13, 22-25, 27, 28. Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), 6, 9, 14-18, 29, 30. Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur, and Mostler, 10, 26, 31, 32. Triassocampe sp., 19, 20, 21. Paratriassocampe? Sp., 33. Pararuesticyrtium sp., 34. Yeharaia? sp., 35. Pentactinocarpus sp., 36. Syringocapsa? sp., 25, 62; 4, 5, 8, 17, 18, 20, 23, 26, 29, 31, 32, 36.83; 1- 3, 6, 7, 9-16, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 30, 33- 35. 125 (after Sashida et al., 2000).

5.2.4 Chaiburi Formation Ampornmaha (1995) proposed the Chaiburi Formation for the Triassic limestone in the Phatthalung Province. The Chaiburi Formation is named after the largest carbonate mountain in the Phatthalung area, and is subdivided into the Phukhaothong Dolomite, Chiak Limestone and Phanomwong Limestone Members, in ascending order. The Chaiburi Formation includes five microfacies with a total thickness of at least 400-500 m. These carbonate rocks grades from dolomite, laminated mudstone and bioclastic packstone/grainstone in ascending order. The microfacies change observed in the Chaiburi Formation shows that the depositional environment shifted from lower to high energy and from deep to shallow conditions. This change of depositional environment resulted from progradation of the carbonated platform during the Triassic. The conodonts indicate Early Triassic age for the Phukhaothong Dolomite and late Early to Middle Triassic for the Chiak Limestone. The Schleratinian corals, foraminifers, and some molluscs found on the top of the Chaiburi Formation indicate a Canian age (early Late Triassic). The Chiak Limestone Member conformably overlies the Phukaothong Dolomite Member. The thickness of this member at its type section is about 300 m. It is comporsed of grey to dark grey, thinly to thickly bedded limestone. Some beds are laminated and many chert layers, nodules and lenses are intercalated. This unit also contains some fossils such as radiolarians, ostracods, gastropods echinoderms etc. Microfacies of this member are laminated mudstone and bioclastic mudstone. The lithology and fabric of these two microfacies including micritic matrix, laminated to unlaminated fabric, indicate low energy depositional environment conditions. Radiolarians are abundant and concentrated near laminations in some levels. This Chiak Limestone Member yields many conodonts species, such as: Neospathodus homeri (Bender), Neospathodus timorensis (Nogami), Neohindeodella aequiramosa Kozur and Mostler (Figure 34), Neospathodus kockeli (Tatge), Neogondolella bulgarica (Budurov and Stefanov). These conodonts indicate the interval of Spathian to middle Anisian (latest Early to Middle Triassic). The age of the upper part, bioclastic mudstone of the Chiak Limestone Member should be at least the same or younger. Hence the age of the upper part of this member is probably middle to late Anisian (early Middle Triassic) or up to the Ladinian (late Middle Triassic). Furthermore, this part underlies the Canian Phanomwang Limestone Member. Sashida and Igo (1992) reported the Triassic radiolarian fauna from a limestone outcrop exposed at Khao Chiak near the city area of Phatthalung Province, southern Thailand. Limestones distributed around the Phatthalung area have been regarded as the southern extension of the Permian Ratburi Limestone. However, Igo et al. (1988) and Ampornmaha (1995) reported the occurrence of Triassic conodonts from a limestone outcrop exposed at the Khao Chiak. Recently, this Triassic limestone was assigned to the Chaiburi Formation (Ampornmaha, 1995). Khao Chiak, one of these isolated limestone hills, is located 5 to 6 km west of the city area of Phatthalung and is mostly thickly covered by heavy tropical scrubby vegetation. This limestone generally strikes N-S and dips 30 to 80 degree eastward and is characteristically thin bedded, frequently laminated, fine-grained, pale grey to dark grey and partly pinkish to maroon. However, dark grey to transparent, cobble- to pebble-size characteristics are lenticulated in the micritic part. Stylolites developed mostly parallel with a bedding plane are very common in micritic limestone. Macrofossils are rare throughout this limestone, but fragments of small-sized gastropods and bivalves can be occasionally seen in several levels. Radiolarian fauna is composed of Entactinia nikorni Sashida and Igo, Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, Polyentactinia? phatthalungensis Sashida and Igo, Archaeothamnulus sp., Thaisphaera minuta Sashida and Igo, Hozmadia? sp. (Figures 35-38). This radiolarian fauna was assigned to be Entactinia nikorni assemblage of upper Olenekian to lower Anisian (Triassic) by Sashida and Igo (1992). Many genera and species attributed to the family Actinommidae were recorded from Triassic limestones in the Europearn Tethys by Kozur and Mostler (1981). An

unidentified species of the genus Archaeothamnulus from Khao Chiak has a close similarity with Archaeothamnulus pterostephanus Dumitrica from the Middle Triassic limestone of Europe. The genus Hozmadia is also an important constituent of the Middle Triassic radiolarian faunas (Dumitrica et al., 1980; Kozur and Mostler, 1981). This radiolarian fauna has both Palaeozoic and Mesozoic affinities, but is less similar to that described from Early Triassic chert of the Kanto Mountains (Sashida, 1991) except for one spicule-type palaeoscenid and tripod Nassellaria. Concerning paleogeographical significance, this Triassic radiolarian fauna can be expected to have affinities of transition between high-latitude Southern Hemisphere and Tethys faunas. The Triassic radiolarian fauna of the high-latitudes of Southern Hemisphere and southeastern Asian Tethys is very sparse. Moreover, Ampornmaha (1995) established the microfacies of this Triassic limestone (Chaiburi Formation) that shows depositional environments gradually changed from lower to higher energy conditions as a result of progradation of a carbonate platform. This limestone monoclinally dips E, but biostratigraphic evidence shows that the formation is structurally repeated several times in the Phatthalung area. Thus faulting may reflect the geotectonic development of the Sibumasu terrane.

Figure 27: Conodont from Khao Chiak Limestone. 1, 2, Neospathodus homeri (Bender). 3. Neospathodus timorensis (Nogami). 4. Neohindeodella aequiramosa Kozur and Mostler. Scale bars =100µm; A applies to 1, 3 B to2, 6, 7 and C to 4, 5 (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

Figure 28: Radiolarians from Khao Chiak limestone. 1-12, Entactinia nikorni Sashida and Igo. 13-15, Hozmadia? sp. Scale bar =10 µm; A applies to 2, 4, 7, 9-11, B to 3, 5, 6, 12, C to 1, 14, and D to 13 (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

Figure 29: 1-7, 9, 10, 15, Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, 8, 11-14, 16, 17, Thaisphaera minuta Sashida and Igo. Scale bar, A to C =100 µm, D= 10µm; A applies to 1-4, 6, 7, 9, 10, B to 5, 8, 11, 12, C to 13, 14, 16, 17, and D to 15 (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

Figure 30: 1-15, Polyentactinia? phatthalungensis Sashida and Igo. Scale bar = 100µm; A applies to 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 14, 15, B to 3-5, 8, 10-12 and C to 13 (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

Figure 31: 1, 2 Archaeothamnulus sp., 3-5. Fish teeth. 6-8 holothurian sclerites. Scale bar, A and B equal to 100 µm; A applies to 1, 3-8 and B to 2 (after Sashida and Igo, 1992).

6. RADIOLARIAN BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

6.1 Carboniferous

6.1.1 Malaysian side

Albaillella deflandrei Zone

According to Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2006), radiolarians assemblage discovered along the border security road near Lepang Nenering, Pengkalan Hulu, Upper Perak belongs to the Albaillella deflandrei Zone of Braun and Schmidt-Effing (1993). It is late Tournaisian, Tn3 Early Carboniferous in age. The presence of Archocyrtium lagabreillei Gourmelon, Archocyrtium pulchrun Braun, Archocyrtium venustum Cheng, Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, Stigmosphaerostylus vulgaris (Won), Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon, Astroentactinia multispinosa Won, Ceratoikiscum berggreni Gourmelon, Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane), and Pylentonema antiqua Deflandre (Figure 39) suggests this faunal assemblage belongs to Albaillella deflandrei Zone (Noble et al., 2008), see Figure 14.

Figure 32: Albaillella deflandrei assemblage zone, Tournaisian, Early Carboniferous discovered at border security road, Lepang Nenering, Upper Perak (after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011); 9. Archocyrtium lagabriellei Gourmelon (100μm); 10. Archocyrtium pulchrum Braun (50μm); 11. Archocyrtium venustum Cheng (100μm); 12. Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov (100μm); 13. Stigmosphaerostylus vulgaris (Won)( 75μm); 14. Astroentactinia mirousi Gourmelon (100μm); 15. Astroentactinia multispinosa Won (75μm); 16. Ceratoikiscum berggreni Gourmelon (100μm); 17. Stigmosphaerostylus tortispina (Ormiston and Lane) (75μm); 18. Pylentonema antiqua Deflandre (100μm).

Albaellella indensis Zone to Latentifistula concentric Zone Refering to Braun andSchmidt-Effing (1993), radiolarian Entactinia variospina (Won) that had been discovered from the chert of the Kubang Pasu Formation at Bukit Telaga Jatoh, northern Kedah belongs to the Albaellella indensis Zone (Tournaisian) to Latentifistula concentric Zone (Visean) of Early Carboniferous age (Basir Jasin (1995). The occurrence of short ranging species Cubaxonium? oectaedrospongiosum, Callella hexatinia, Entactinia inaequoporosa, and Duplexia parviperforata in the chert at Bukit Binjal, Kedah, indicates that the assemblage belongs to Albaillella indensis-rota Zone of Won (1998). This assemblage indicates late Tournaisian age, Early Carboniferous (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2001). Stratigraphic distribution of selected Carboniferous taxa is shown in Figure 40. Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun (2011) reported the presence of Stigmosphaerostylus variospina, Callela hexatinia, Entactinia inaequoporosa and Cubaxonium? Octaedrospongiosum (see Figure 11) of Albaillella indensis Zone, late Tournaisian - early Visean of Early Carboniferous (Won, 1990). Stigmosphaerostylus variospina (Won) and Callela hexatinia Won were also found at outcrops at Bukit Kamelong, Kedah and Bukit Tuntung, Perlis. This assemblage may represent the same age.

Albaillella pseudoparadoxa Zone Refering to Won (1998), radiolarian Entactinia variospina with two, three, four and five spines in the chert at Bukit Binjal in Kedah belong to Albaillella pseudoparadoxa Zone of Tournaisian age (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2001).

Figure 33: Stratigraphic distribution of selected Carboniferous taxa occurred at Bukit Binjal, Kedah (after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2001).

6.1.2 Thai side The Early Carboniferous radiolarian faunas were reported from two localities in southern Thailand such as, the Saba Yoi area in Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000) and the Kabang

area in Yala Province (Sashida et al., 2002). The radiolarian fauna of the Saba Yoi area is quite similar to that of the Entactinia variospina assemblage in Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) of Thailand by Sashida et al. (1998). Moreover, the radiolarian fauna from the Kabang area, Yala Province was assigned to the Albaillella deflandrei Zone of Germany (Braun and Schmit-Effing, 1993), suggesting upper Tournaisian age.

Entactinia variospina Assemblage Zone This radiolarian fauna is defined by the co-ocurence of Entactinia variospina (Won), Entactinia cf. vulgaris Won, Entactinia sp., Astroentactinia multispinosa (Won), Pylentonema cf. rachebeaufi Gourmelon, Triaenosphaera cf. hebes Won, Archocytium lagabriellei Gourmelon, Polyfistula? grantmackiei Sashida, and Polyfistula? sp., among others (see Figure 25). Except for the new species and unidentified species, this fauna is quite similar to that in Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) of France (Gourmelon, 1987), Germany (Braun, 1990), southwestern China (Wang et al., 1998), Thailand (Sashida et al., 1998), and Peninsular Malaysia (Spiller, 1996). The top of this zone is defined by the first appearance of Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon.

Albaillella deflandrei Zone The base of this zone is marked by the first appearance of Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon. Radiolarian fauna of this zone is composed of diversified radiolarians including Archocyrtium tinnulum (Deflandre), Pylentonema antique Deflandre, Stigmosphaerostylus variospina (Won), Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, Astroentactinia mirous Gourmelon, and others (see Figures 27-29). These radiolarian species have been reported from phosphatic nodules from Montage Noire and central Pyrenees, France by Gourmelon (1987). The age of the radiolarian fauna from France is well controlled by co-occurring conodonts and ammonites. The radiolarian fauna of the Kabang area is assigned to the Albaillella deflandrei Zone from Germany by Braun and Schmit- Effing (1993), indicative of upper Tournaisian. Moreover, radiolarian faunas that contain the above-listed species or similar forms are reported from Germany (Braun 1990), southwestern China (Feng et al., 1997), southern China (Wu et al., 1994), Thailand (Sashida et al., 1998; Sashida et al., 2000), and Istanbul, Turkey (Holdsworth, 1973).

6.2 Permian

6.2.1 Malaysian side

Pseuodoalbailella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Assemblage Zone

Basir Jasin (1996) reported that the occurrence of radiolarian assemblage belongs to the Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Zone of Wolfcampian stage (Early Permian). in the chert sequence of the lowermost part of the Cherty unit at Bukit Kampong Yoi and Bukit Larek in the vicinity of Pokok Sena town. This zone is characterised by Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Ishiga, Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. scalprata Ishiga and Pseuodoalbaillella elongata Ishiga and Imoto (Basir Jasin, 1997 and 2003). Other species discovered in this zone are Albailella cf. asymmetrica Ishiga and Imoto, and Ruzhencevispongus sp. In Kuala Ketil area, Basir Jasin et al. (2005) recorded the occurrence of Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Ishiga, Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. scalprata Ishiga,

Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. postscalprata Ishiga, Pseuodoalbaillella cf. lomentaria Ishiga and Imoto, Latentifistula sp., Latentifistula cf. patagilaterala, Ruzhencevispongus sp., Quinqueremis sp. and Entactinia sp. (Figure 41). This faunal assemblage zone is assigned as Sakmarian, late Early Permian (Ishiga, 1986). This zone is the oldest zone discovered in the chert of the Semanggol Formation (now the chert sequence is taken out from the formation and known as the Cherty unit).

Figure 34: Radiolarian assemblage of the Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Zone (after Basir Jasin, 2005): 1,2. Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. scalprata Ishiga (100 µm) 3,4. Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. postscalprata Ishiga (100 µm) 5,6. Pseuodoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Ishiga (140 µm) 7. Pseuodoalbaillella cf. lomentaria Ishiga and Imoto (130 µm) 8. Latentifistula cf. patagilaterala Nazarov and Ormiston (126 µm) 9. Ruzhencevispongus sp. (115 µm) 10. Quinqueremis sp. (120 µm) 11. Latentifistula sp. (100 µm) 12. Entactinia sp. (120 µm)

Pseuodoalbailella longtanensis Assemblage Zone

Basir Jasin (2008) reported the discovery of the Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis Assemblage Zone from the Cherty unit exposed at Bukit Yoi, Pokok Sena, Kedah. The radiolarian faunas consist of Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis Sheng and Wang, Pseudoalbaillella aidensis Nishimura and Ishiga, Pseudoalbaillella fusiformis (Holdsworth and Jones) (Figure 42, nos. 1-6)). Other taxa

recorded are Pseudoalbaillella cf. longicornis and Pseudoalbaillella sp. The zone represents Kungurian age (Middle Permian).

Pseudoalbaillella globosa Assemblage Zone The Pseudoalbaillella globosa Assemblage Zone is found in the Cherty unit exposed at Bukit Yoi, Pokok Sena, Kedah (Basir Jasin, 2008). The faunal assemblage zone is characterized by the abundance of the zonal marker, Pseudoalbaillella globosa Ishiga, Kito and Imoto together with Pseudoalbaillella yanaharensis Nishimura and Ishiga, Pseudoalbaillella fusiformis (Holdsworth and Jones), Latentifistula texana Nazarov and Ormiston, and Raciditor inflata (Sashida and Tonishi) (Figure 42, nos. 7-12). Pseudoalbaillella globosa occurs from the late Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis Zone to the Follicucullus monacanthus Zone. Pseudoalbaillella yanaharensis is a good indicator for the zone (Jin Yugan et al., 1994). The zone represents Roadian age of Middle Permian (Basir Jasin, 2008).

Figure 35: Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis and Pseudoalbaillella globosa zones late Early Permian and early Middle Permian respectively. (Scale bar = 100μm) (after Basin Jasin, Basir 2008). 1., 2. Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis Sheng and Wang 3., 4. Pseudoalbaillella aidensis Nishimura and Ishiga 5., 6. Pseudoalbaillella fusiformis (Holdsworth and Jones) 7., 8. Pseudoalbaillella globosa Ishiga, Kito and Imoto. 9., 10. Pseudoalbaillella yanaharensis Nishimura and Ishiga 11. Latentifistula texana Nazarov and Ormiston 12. Raciditor inflata (Sashida and Tonishi). 50

Follicucullus monacanthus Assemblage Zone Late Middle Permian radiolarians fauna including Follicuculus monacanthus Ishiga and Imoto had been discovered in an allochthonous siliceous limestone block embedded in siliceous shale in the upper part of the Cherty unit at Bukit Barak near Pokok Sena, Kedah (Sashida et al., 1995). In the Kuala Ketil area, Basir Jasin et al. (2005) recorded the abundance of Follicucullus monacanthus Ishiga and Imoto with some Entactinia sp. and Quadriremis sp. (Figure 43, nos. 1 and 2) in thinly bedded chert. This zone is assigned to Wordian (Middle Permian) by Basir Jasin et al.,( 2005).

Follicucullus porrectus Assemblage Zone

This zone is characterized by the occurrence of the zonal marker Follicucullus porrectus Rudenko (Basir Jasin et al., 2005). Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock and Follicucullus elongatus are most common species in this zone. Quinqueremis sp. and Entactinia sp. are very rare (Figure 43, nos. 3-9). This assemblage indicates Capitanian to Wuchiapingian, late Middle Permian to early Late Permian age (Basir Jasin et al., 2005).

Figure 36: Radiolarian assemblage of the Follicucullus monacanthus and Follicucullus porrectus Zones (after Basir Jasin, 2005): 1, 2. Follicucullus monacanthus Ishiga and Imoto (100 µm) 3, 4, 5. Follicucullus porrectus Rudenko (120 µm) 6, 7. Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock 8, 9. Follicucullus elongatus Spiller (115 µm) 10. Triplanospongos cf. musachiensis Sashida and Tonishi (135 µm) 11. Quinquiremis sp. (135 µm)

Neoalbaillella ornithoformis Assemblage Zone This zone is defined by the occurrence of Neoalbaillella cfr. ornithoformis and spumellarians including Entactinosphaera pseudocimelia Sashida and Tonishi, Nazarovella gracilis De Wever and Caridroit, Nazarovella inflata Sashida and Tonishi, and Triplanospongos musashiensis Sashida and Tonishi (Sashida et al., 1995). These faunas had been discovered in the chert beds exposed at Bukit Nyan, Kedah. In Kuala Ketil area, Basir Jasin et al. (2005) reported that this zone is characterized by the occurrence of Neoalbaillella ornithoformis Takemura and Nakaseko, The age of Neoalbaillella ornithoformis Zone are considered to be Wuchiapigian of Late Permian (Basir Jasin et al., 2005).

Neoalbaillella optima Assemblage Zone At Bukit Nyan, Kedah, this zone is characterised by the joint occurrence of Albailella triangularis and Neoalbaillella optima (Sashida et al., 1995). Radiolarian fauna which is quite similar to that of Neoalbaillella optima Assemblage Zone (Wuachipigian to Changhsingian of Upper Permian) occurs in the Gerik Formation (Mat Niza Abdul Rahman et al., 2012).

Follicucullus scholasticus Assemblage Zone Spiller and Metcalfe (1995a) reported the occurrence of Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock morphotype I and Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock morphotype II from the Follicucullus scholasticus Zone of Ishiga (1990) indicates Late Permian age (Guadalupian). Mat Niza Abdul Rahman et al. (2012) reported the occurrence of Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock in the chert of the Gerik Formation in the Gerik area.

Albailella levis Assemblage Zone

This zone is characterised by Albailella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, Albailella triangularis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, Albailella excelsa Ishiga, Kito and Imoto, and Follicucullus ventricocus Ormiston and Babcock (Basir Jasin, 1997 and 2003). These species indicate Late Permian age. Other species within this zone are Neoalbailella cf. ornithoformis Takemura and Nakaseko, Neoalbailella cf. pseudogrypus Sashida and Tonishi, Neoalbailella sp., Entactinosphaera sp., Triplanospongos musashiensis Sashida and Tonoshi, Nazarovella inflata Sashida and Tonoshi, Octatormentum sp. and Copicyntra sp. In the Gerik area, Mat Niza Abdul Rahman et al. (2012) reported the occurrence of Albailella levis Ishiga, Kito and Imoto and Triplanospongos sp. in the chert of the Gerik Formation.

6.2.2 Thai side

Follicuculus sholasticus Assemblage Zone This zone is defined by the occurrence of the nominal species Follicuculus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock and associated with others speices that similar radiolarian fauna has been reported from Japan (e.g. Ishiga, 1990), eastern Thailand (Sashida et. al, 1997) and Oregon (Blome and Reed, 1992). The age of this zone is estimated through the interval of the latest Middle to earliest Late Permian (Capitanian to Wuchiapingian) based on the occurrence of

radiolarian species which are recorded from the Gaudalupian Lamar Limestone of Texas by Ormiston and Babcock (1979), and biostratigraphic study by Ishiga (1986). These Permian radiolarians were reported from Hat Yai area, Songkhla Province (Kamata et al., 2009).

6.3 Triassic

6.3.1 Malaysian side Basir Jasin et al., 2005 reported that the Triassic radiolarian faunas in Malaysia belong to Entactinosphaera chiakensis Assemblage Zone, Triassocampe coronata Assemblage Zone, Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone, and Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Assemblage Zone. The Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy is summarized in Figure 44 (after Basir Jasin et al., 2005) and described below.

Figure 37: Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy (after Basir Jasin et al., 2005).

Entactinosphaera chiakensis Assemblage Zone Basir Jasin et al. (2005) who studied in detail the chert sequence that exposed in Kuala Ketil area reported that this zone is characterized by the presence of Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, Thaisphaera cf. minuta Sashida and Igo, Cenosphaera andoi Sugiyama, Archaeosemantis cristiaensis Dumitrica (Figure 45, nos. 1, 3, 4 and 5), Archaeosemantis sp., Entactinia sp., Entactinosphaera sp., Thaisphaera sp. and Parentactinia sp.. This assemblage is Early Triassic in age.

Triassocampe coronata Assemblage Zone In the chert sequence exposed in the Kuala Ketil area, Basir Jasin et al. (2005) reported that this zone is characterized by the existence of Triassocampe coronate Bragin. Other species

occurred in this zone are Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, Acanthosphaera awaensis (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (Figure 45, nos. 6-9), and Acanthosphaera sp. The age of this assemblage is middle Anisian, Middle Triassic.

Figure 38: Entactinosphaera chiakensis and Triassocampe coronata Zones, late Early Triassic and early Middle Triassic respectively (after Basir Jasin et al., 2005). Scale bar is indicated in parentheses. 1. Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo (100 μm) 2. Entactinia nikorni Sashida and Igo (50 μm) 3. Thaisphaera minuta Sashida and Igo (100 μm) 4. Cenosphaera andoi Sugiyama (90 μm) 5. Archaeosemantis cristianensis Dumitrica (100 μm) 6. Triassocampe coronata Bragin (100 μm) 7. Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (200μm) 8. Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica (100 μm) 9. Acanthosphaera awaensis Nakaseko and Nishimura (115 μm).

Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone Basir Jasin (1997) identified 14 radiolarian taxa within this zone which indicate the Anisian- Ladinian of Middle Triassic age. This zone is characterized by Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera compacta (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura), and Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica. Other species discovered are Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rüst), Pseudostylosphaera compacta (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera magnispinosa Yeh, Parasepsagon cf. asymetricus Kozur and Mostler, Parasepsagon variabilis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica,

Triassistephanidium laticornis Dumitrica, Busuanga sp., Hozmadia rotunda (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Acanthosphaera awaensis Nakaseko and Nishimura, Heliosoma sp. and Triassocampe sp. Spiller (2002) recorded the occurrence of middle Anisian to late Ladinian radiolarians belonging to Triassocampe coronata Zone in the Kuala Nerang area and Triassocampe deweveri Zone in the Bukit Tembaga area, Kedah. In the Kuala Ketil area, Basir Jasin et al. (2005) reported that this faunal assemblage zone is characterised by the presence of Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera tenue (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rüst), Acanthosphaera awaensis Nakaseko and Nishimura, Triassocampe sp., Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, and Acanthosphaera sp. (Figure 46). Triassocampe deweveri Zone is assigned as middle to late Anisian in age (Basir Jasin et al., 2005). This zone also had been identified at Bukit Tembaga (Basir Jasin, 1994; Spiller and Metcalfe, 1995), Pokok Pauh (Basir Jasin, 1994, 1997) and Merbau Pulas (Basir Jasin, 1994).

Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Assemblage Zone Basir Jasin et al. (2005) reported the presence of this faunal assemblage zone is in the chert exposed in the Kuala Ketil area. It is characterized by the occurrences of Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Muelleritortis cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Triassocampe annulata (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Baumgartneria retrospina Dumitrica, Baumgartneria lata Kozur and Mostler, Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Parasepsagon variabilis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Acanthosphaera awaensis (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Canoptum sp., Acanthosphaera sp. and Sarla sp. (Figure 46). This assemblage represents Ladinian age of Middle Triassic (Basir Jasin et al., 2005).

Figure 39: Triassocampe deweveri and Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Zones, Middle Triassic. (Scale bar is indicated in parentheses). 1, 2. Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (100 μm) 3. Triassocampe scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler (100 μm) 4. Pseudostylosphaera tenui (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (100 μm) 5. Pseudostylosphaera japonica (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (100 μm) 6. Pseudostylosphaera coccostyla (Rüst) (100 μm) 7. Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica (130 μm) 8, 9. Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler (100 μm) 10. Muelleritortis cochleata (Nakaseko and Nishimura)(120 μm) 11. Triassocampe annulata (Nakaseko and Nishimura) (100 μm) 12. Baumgartneria retrospina Dumitrica (90 μm) 13. Baumgartneria lata Kozur and Mostler (90 μm) 14. Acanthosphaera awaensis Nakaseko and Nishimura (100 μm)

6.3.2 Thai side Triassic radiolarians have been discovered within four localities in southern Thailand such as the Chana, Saba Yoi and Hat Yai areas of Songkhla Province and Phatthalung areas. The radiolarian fauna from the Chana and Saba Yoi areas, Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000) is 56

comparable to the middle to upper subzone of the Spongosilicarmiger italicus Zone of Kozur and Mostler (1994) in Middle Triassic interval, and the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages (upper Olenekian to lower Anisian) from Mt. Kinkazan, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan (Sugiyama, 1992). Furthermore, the Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage (Middle Triassic) has been reported in the Hat Yai area, Songkhla Province (Kamata et al., 2004, 2009). Radiolarian fauna from Khao Chaik limestone in Phatthalung Province were assigned to be the Entactinia nikorni assemblage of upper Olenekian to lower Anisian (Triassic) by Sashida and Igo (1992).

Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages Zone This zone is defined by the occurrence of Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Sashida, P. okuchichibuensis (Sashida), Archaeosemantis venusta Sashida, Heptacladus? sp., Plafkerium? sp., Spumellaria gen. et sp. indet. A, and Tetrahopalus? sabayoiensis Sashida (see Figure 32). This radiolarian fauna is recognized in the Saba Yoi area, Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000) and comparable to the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages from Mt. Kinkazan, Gifu Prefecture, central Japan by Sugiyama (1992). Regarding the age of the Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblages, Sugiyama (1992) recovered conodonts representing the Neospathodus homeri Assemblage of Koike (1981). Although, the radiolarian-bearing rocks in the Saba Yoi area did not contain conodont, the radiolarian fauna is assigned to the late Olenekian to early Anisian on the basis of co-occurring conodonts in Japan (Sugiyama, 1992).

Entactinia nikorni Assemblages Zone The base of this zone is defined by the first appearance of the Entactinia nikorni Sashida and Igo. The following radiolarians co-occur with the nominal species, Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo, Polyentactinia? phatthalungensis Sashida and Igo, Archaeothamnulus sp., Thaisphaera minuta Sashida and Igo, Hozmadia ? sp. and others (see Figures 35-38). This zone is recognized in the Khao Chaik limestone in Phatthalung Province (Sashida and Igo, 1992). This radiolarian fauna were assigned to be Entactinia nikorni assemblage of late Olenekian to Early Anisian (Triassic) by Sashida and Igo (1992). Many genera and species attributed to the family Actinommidae were recorded from Triassic limestones in the Europearn Tethys by Kozur and Mostler (1981). An unidentified species of the genus Archaeothamnulus from Khao Chiak has a close similarity with Archaeothamnulus pterostephanus Dumitrica from the Middle Triassic limestone of Europe. The genus Hozmadia is also an important constituent of the Middle Triassic radiolarian faunas (Dumitrica et al., 1980; Kozur and Mostler, 1981). This radiolarian fauna has both Palaeozoic and Mesozoic affinities, but is less similar to that described from Early Triassic chert of the Kanto Mountains (Sashida, 1991) except for one spicule-type palaeoscenid and tripod Nassellaria.

Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone This zone is defined by the occurrence of Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica, T. scalaris Dumitrica, Kozur and Mostler, Yeharaia ? sp., Paratriassocampe ? sp., Pararuesticyrtium sp., Syringocapsa ? sp. and others (see Figures 31and 33). This zone is recognized in the Chana and Hat Yai areas of Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000, Kamata et al., 2004, 2009). Expect the nominal species; the fauna of this zone includes the following Middle Triassic, T. deweveri, E. manfredi, T. scalaris and others. Furthermore, this radiolarian zone is comparable to that of the middle to upper subzone of the Spongosilicarmiger italicus Zone of Kozur and Mostler (1994) in Middle Triassic interval. A similar radiolarian fauna is also known to occur in the Far East of Russia (Bragin, 1991) and central Japan (Sugiyama, 1997). 57

7. DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF RADIOLARIAN-BEARING ROCKS There are many discussions in the literature about the conditions of deposition of radiolarian- bearing rock. Previously, it was thought that these siliceous sediments were accumulated in large deep oceanic basins (>3,000 m) enriched in silica by volcanism along spreading ridges (Figure 47). Recently, it is believed that the deposition of old siliceous sediments was not necessarily occurred in deep environments and nearby volcanism. The biosiliceous deposits that might be modern equivalents of radiolarians are found in different oceanic environments. They are located in shallow coastal basins, in depressions of the continental slope, on continental margins, and in shallow and deep oceanic basins. The fossil-bearing siliceous sediments ultimately transformed into radiolarian-bearing rock were thought to be initially devoid of calcareous components and it was, thus, supposed that they were deposited under the calcite carbonate compensation depth (CCD). Currently there are, however, some indicators that the Mesozoic deposits may contain some carbonaceous components and the corresponding CCD was probably shallower than that in the modern ocean (De Wever et al., 2001).

Figure 40: Sources of material and controls on sedimentation in deep oceans (modified after Gary, 1999).

On the Malaysian side, radiolarians have been recovered mostly from siliceous shale and chert. Most of the chert are associated with clastic rocks, especially shale. To date no report on the radiolarian found in limestone. The radiolarian-bearing rocks in southern Thailand are siliceous and calcareous sedimentary rocks such as chert, siliceous shale and limestone. There are found in different oceanic environments such as in depressions of the continental slope/rise, and in shallow and deep oceanic basins (Figures 48 and 49). Furthermore, the depositional environments of the radiolarian-bearing rocks in Thailand were summarized by some papers (Kamata et al., 2009; Saesaengseerung, 2009).

7.1 Chert The depositional environment of chert can be interpreted based on the rocks association (Jones and Murchey, 1986; Karl, 1989). The association of radiolarian chert and other lithology can be used as indicator for tectonic environment as well as the environment of the depositional basin (Basir Jasin, 2003).

In most cases, the chert in Peninsular Malaysia is interbedded within thin beds of shale. This is known as chert-shale association (Karl, 1989) or known as continental margin chert association (Jones and Murchey). This rock association is widespread and represents deep-marine environment along the continental margin (Karl, 1989). No calcareous materials occur in this association suggesting that the deposition took place below the CCD level where all the calcite had been disolved. Radiolarian chert deposits are quite widespread especially in the Late Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic of the western belt of Peninsular Malaysia. Deposition of chert was quite abundant in the Early Carboniferous and diminished in the Late Carboniferous. Radiolarian chert is more extensive in Permian and Triassic (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). Chert sequence occupies the lower part of the Kubang Pasu Formation; overlain by interbedded sandstone and mudstone and then followed by turbiditic sandstone. This vertical change of lithology suggests that the environment of deposition was situated close to the continental margin from which an occasional influx of sand was derived by turbidity currents (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). Chert sequence in the Semanggol Formation (now known as Cherty unit) is also of chert- shale association, however it also contains minor tuff beds. This indicates that the depositional environment of the chert is situated in the continental margin that is not far from volcanic activities. The tuff in the Semangol Basin is probably originated from volcanic activities in the central belt of the Peninsular Malaysia during the late Early Permian to Triassic (Basir Jasin, 2003). On the Thai side, radiolarians are recovered from cherts cropping out in Songkhla and Yala Provinces (Sashida et al., 2000 and 2002; Kamata et al., 2009). Slump folds are commonly observed in these chert sections. Chert in southern Thailand can be divided into two different types; pelagic chert (or Type 1 Chert by Kamata et al., 2009) and hemipelagic chert (Type 2 Chert by Kamata et al., 2009) based on their sedimentary characteristics.

Figure 41: The schematic illustration of the various facies successions of radiolarian-bearing rock and other associated rocks in southern Thailand (data from Sashida and Igo, 1992; Sashida et al., 2000, 2002; Kamata et al., 2009).

Figure 42: Depositional environments of radiolarian-bearing rocks in southern Thailand. A: Pelagic Chert, B and C: Hemipelagic Chert/Siliceous Shale/Limestone (data from Sashida and Igo, 1992; Sashida et al., 2000, 2002; Kamata et al., 2009).

7.1.1 Pelagic chert (or Type 1 Chert) This type of chert is commonly well-bedded, variably coloured (red, grey, black), and lack of terrigenous material larger than silt. The pelagic chert sections are mainly as a block from few to several meters in diameter within shale and intercalation of siliceous shale/sandstone in Thailand. This pelagic chert is distributed in the Kabang area, Yala Province (Sashida et al., 2002). This chert is Lower Carboniferous in age based on the occurrence of radiolarian. The sequence has the following lithostratigraphy in ascending order: i. grey to pale grey thickly bedded sandstone (more than 3 m), ii. black bedded chert (5 m), iii. dark grey thickly bedded sandstone (more than 2 m). However, there is a 1 m brecciated chert in the upper part of the chert member. The brecciated chert consists of angular to subangular breccias of chert in coarse-grained sandstone matrix. Maximum diameter of most chert breccias and grains is less than 10 cm. Black chert is well- bedded of about several centimeters intercalated with thin-film of shale (Figure 50). Under microscope, pelagic chert consists of abundant radiolarian tests, with clay minerals, and fine authigenic quartz grains. This chert contains no terrigenous grain larger than silt-sized particles. Based on the lithology, sedimentary structure and stratigraphy of these bedded cherts this radiolarian-bearing chert might have been primarily deposited in wide and deep oceans, which were remote from land areas (refer Figures 48 and 49). The pelagic chert is compared to the typical bedded chert of ocean plate stratigraphy which has been well documented in ancient accretionary wedges in East and Southeast Asia (Wakita and Metcalfe, 2005). In Thailand, this pelagic chert is thought to have been accumulated in a pelagic-ocean of Palaeo-Tethys, situated far from the continent and free from the influx of terrigenous materials.

Figure 43: The schematic illustration of the pelagic chert and other associated rocks in southern Thailand (data from Sashida et al., 2002).

7.1.2 Hemipelagic chert (or Type 2 Chert) The hemipelagic chert is distributed in the Hat Yai and Chana areas, Songkhla Province (Sashida et al., 2000 and Kamata et al., 2009). The age of these cherts is Middle Triassic based on radiolarian biostratigraphy. This hemipelagic chert is well bedded (a few cm thick), milky white or red and dark grey, although pale green of light grey cherts occur locally and intercalation of siliceous claystone partings/sandstone (Figure 51). Most of these sandstone layers are composed of fine- to medium-grained lithic greywacke. No radiolarians are known from the sandstone layers. Under the microscope, the chert is composed of scattered radiolarian tests with clay minerals and/or calcareous organisms such as foraminifers, thin shells and ostracods. The abundance and diversity of calcareous fossils in the chert means that the sedimentary basin was shallower than the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD). The time-span of hemipelagic chert deposition was restricted to the Triassic. This suggests that the depositional environment of this Triassic hemipelagic chert was not abyssal plain oceanic crust consisting of basaltic rocks, but instead was continental slope sediments consisting of Permian clastics and/or calcareous facies. This chert was likely restricted to the vicinity of a continental slope and rise (Kamata et al., 2009).

Figure 44: The schematic illustration of the hemipelagic chert and other associated rocks in southern Thailand (data from Sashida et al., 2000 and Kamata et al., 2009).

7.2 Siliceous shale Distribution of this siliceous shale is commonly associated with siliceous claystone, silty shale, shale and sandstone. On the Malaysian side, deposition of siliceous shale occurs in the Silurian Devonian Setul and Mahang Formations. However, Burton (1970) and Jones (1970) in their reports referred this rock as chert. The siliceous shale in the Setul Formation occurs in the Lower Detrital Member well-exposed in north western coast of the Langgun Island. The siliceous shale of the Mahang Formation is well-exposed near Aman Jaya township in central Kedah and at Sungai Air Hitam in south Kedah. To date, no radiolarian is discovered in these formations (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). On the Thai side, siliceous shale is distributed in the Saba Yoi and Hat Yai areas, Songkhla Province, southern Thailand (Sashida et al., 2000; Kamata et al. 2009) (Figure 52). Siliceous shale is thin bedded and commonly dark grey or light grey and yellowish brown by weathering. Under microscopic observation, it is composed of abundant radiolarian tests within clay materials. Scattered, angular detrital quartz particles (larger than silt-sized particles) are common. This siliceous shale is Lower Carboniferous, Middle Permian and Lower Triassic in age on the basis of their radiolarian occurrences. Based on the lithology, this radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale is thought to have been accumulated in hemipelagic environment (refer Figures 48 and 49).

Figure 45: The schematic illustration of the radiolarian-bearing siliceous shale and other associated rocks in southern Thailand (data from Sashida and Igo, 1992; Sashida et al., 2000).

7.3 Limestone No occurrence of radiolarians in the limestone has been reported on the Malaysian side up to now. On the Thai side, Early to Middle Triassic radiolarians were recovered from a thin-bedded limestone exposed at Khao Chiak, Phatthalung Province by Sashida and Igo (1992). The limestone from Khao Chiak is characteristically thin bedded, frequently laminated, fine-grained, pale grey to dark grey and partly pinkish to maroon. Dark grey to transparent, cobble-to pebble- size lenticular to nodular cherts are frequently intercalated in the micritic part. Megafossils are rare throughout this limestone, but fragments of small-sized gastropods and bivalves are occasionally seen in several levels. Furthermore, this limestone was proposed as the Chiak Limestone Member which is the middle part of the Chaiburi Formation by Ampornmaha (1995) and she suggested that the Chiak Limestone Member was deposited in off-shore deeper and lower energy conditions (refer Figures 48 and 49).

8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

8.1 DISCUSSION

i. Fifteen radiolarian assemblage zones were identified from the chert-bearing rock formations ranging in age from Carboniferous to Triassic on the Malaysian side of the border area. ii. The oldest radiolarian is Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) in age which is represented by the Albaillella deflandrei and Albaillella indensis Zones. There were no radiolarian siliceous deposits during the Late Carboniferous (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). iii. Seven radiolarian zones were discovered in the Permian siliceous deposits of the Cherty unit. The assemblage zones are Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Zone, Pseudoalbaillella longtanensis Zone, Pseudoalbaillella golobosa Zone, Follicucullus monacanthus Zone, Follicucullus porrectus Zone, Neoalbailella ornithoformis Zone and Neoalbaillella optima Zone (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). However, Spiller (2002) managed to identify Albaillella sinuata zone based on the occurrence of fragmentary specimens of Albaillella sinuata Ishiga and Watase, Pseudoalbaillella scalprata m. rhombothoracata Ishiga and Pseudoalbaillella elongata Ishiga and Imoto. iv. Five biozones were identified in the Triassic chert sequence. The oldest zone is Entactinosphaera chiakensis zone. Other zones are Triassocampe coronata Zone, Triassocampe deweveri Zone, Oertlispongus inaequispinosus Zone and Capnodoce Zone. At the end of Triassic there was a tectonic episode related to uplifting and termination of deep sea deposits of the Peninsular Malaysia. v. Radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area (modified after Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011) is shown in Figure 53. vi. In southern Thailand, six radiolarian assemblage zones were reported from the radiolarian- bearing rocks ranging in age from Early Carboniferous to Middle Triassic.

vii. The Early Carboniferous is represented by the Entractinia variospina Assemblage Zone and Albaillella deflandrei Zone. The Follicuculus scholasticus Assemblage Zone is estimated through the interval of the latest Middle to earliest Late Permian (Capitanian to Wuchiapingian). However, the hiatus took place during the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian as shown by lacking of the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian radiolarian fauna from southern Thialand. viii. Three Triassic radiolarian assemblage zones were assigned from the radiolarian-bearing siliceous rocks and limestone sequences. The Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblage Zone and Entactinia nikorni Assemblages Zone are assigned to same age interval, the late Olenekian to early Anisian (Early to Middle Triassic). Although, these two radiolarian zones contain difference radiolarian fauna. The Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone is assigned to Middle Triassic. However, the radiolarian occurrence is lacking of earliest Triassic radiolarian fauna because the effect of Permian-Triassic (P/Tr) extinction event in the world.

Figure 46: Radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area (modified from Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). ix. The Carboniferous to Triassic radiolarian biostratigraphy of southern Thailand is quite similar to those of the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area. Early Carboniferous, the Albaillella deflandrei Zone of southern Thailand can be correlated to those of Malaysian side by similar radiolarians occurrence, Albaillella deflandrei Gourmelon, Pylentonema antique Deflandre, Astroentactinia biaciculata Nazarov, A. mirousi Gourmelon, and others. Moreover, the radiolarian faunas of this zone are similar to those from phosphatic nodules from Montage Noire and central Pyrenees, France (Gourmelon, 1987), Germany (Braun, 1990 and Braun and Schmit-Effing, 1993), southwestern China (Feng et al., 1997), southern China (Wu et al., 1994), Thailand (Sashida et al., 1998; Sashida et al., 2000), and Istanbul, Turkey (Holdsworth, 1973).

x. Middle Permian, the Follicuculus sholasticus Assemblage Zone of southern Thailand can be correlated to the Follicucullus porrectus Assemblage Zone and Follicucullus scholasticus Assemblage Zone of northern Peninsular Malaysia by the apperence of Follicucullus scholasticus Ormiston and Babcock. This similar radiolarian fauna has been reported from Japan (e.g. Ishiga, 1990), eastern Thailand (Sashida et. al, 1997) and Oregon (Blome and Reed, 1992). xi. Early Triassic, the Entactinia nikorni Assemblages Zone of southern Thailand can be correlated to the Entactinosphaera chiakensis Assemblage Zone from the Malaysian side of the Malaysia-Thailand border area by the occurrence of Entactinosphaera chiakensis Sashida and Igo and others. xii. Middle Triassic, the Triassocampe deweveri Assemblage Zone from both sides of southern Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia is quite similar by the occurrence of Triassocampe deweveri (Nakaseko and Nishimura), Eptingium manfredi Dumitrica and others. Moreover, a similar radiolarian fauna is also known to occur in the Far East of Russia (Bragin, 1991) and cental Japan (Sugiyama, 1997). xiii. Radiolarian biostratigraphy from southern Thailand is shown in Figure 54.

Figure 47: Correlation of the radiolarian fauna in southern Thailand.

8.2 CONCLUSION i. Late Palaeozoic and Early Mesozoic radiolarian bearing chert are quite widespread on the Malaysian side along the Malaysia-Thailand border area. No radiolarians are discovered in the Lower Palaeozoic Setul and the Mahang Formations. ii. Two zones were identified in Early Carboniferous, seven radiolarian assemblage zones were recognized in Permian, and five biozones were identified in the Triassic rocks. To date no Middle and Late Carboniferous radiolarian is discovered in the Malaysia-Thailand border area.

iii. Radiolarian biostratigraphy is the most reliable tool for the stratigraphy of the deep marine sediments of Peninsular Malaysia. The biostratigraphic zones reflect the productivity of the radiolarians, which was very high during Early Carboniferous, through Permian and Triassic (Basir Jasin and Zaiton Harun, 2011). iv. The Carboniferous to Triassic radiolarian-bearing rocks are distributed in several areas of southern Thailand such as the Hat Yai, Chana, Saba Yoi areas in Songkhla Province and Yala Province. These radiolarian -bearing rock sequences belong to the Yaha Formation (Carboniferous), Khao Phra Formation (Permian), Na Thawi Formation and Chaiburi Formation (Triassic). v. Two radiolarian zones were identified in Early Carboniferous, one radiolarian assemblage zones were recognized in Permian, and three biozones were identified in Triassic. The hiatus took place during the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian and Early Triassic. vi. The Palaeozoic to Mesozoic radiolarian-bearing rocks in southern Thailand consist of siliceous and calcareous sedimentary rocks such as chert, siliceous shale and limestone. There are deposited in different oceanic environments such as in depressions of the continental slope/rise, and in shallow and deep oceanic basins. However, the depositional environment of the radiolarian-bearing rock sequences in Thailand and Malaysia are still debatable. The study of lithostratigraphy and radiolarian biostratigraphy of radiolarian-bearing rocks is very important in elucidating the depositional environment and tectonic development of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic in Thailand and Malaysia. Further work is required to resolve this issue.

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APPENDIX

LIST OF THE MALAYSIAN-THAI WORKING GROUP MEMBERS

Malaysian Working Group Members Thai Working Group Members 1. Mr. Ibrahim bin Amnan 1. Mr. Naramase Teerarungsigul 2. Mr. Mohd Badzran bin Mat Taib 2. Dr. Suree Teerarungsigul 3. Mr. Mohamad Hussein bin Jamaluddin 3. Mr. Terapon Wongprayon 4. Mr. Mohamad Sari bin Hasan 4. Mr.Suvapak Imsamut 5. Mr. Mat Niza bin Abdul Rahman 5. Ms. Piya-orn Assavapatchara 6. Mr. Hamid bin Ariffin 6. Mr. Kitti Khaowiset 7. Ms. Nus Susila binti Md. Saaid 7. Mr. Sutee Jongautchariyakul 8. Mr. Muhammad Mustadza bin Mazni 8. Ms. Pachara Sangoen 9. Mr. Mohd Anuar bin Ishak 9. Dr. Doungrutai Saesaengseerung 10. Mr. Amir Mizwan bin Mohd Akhir