ISSN 0258-2244 January/February 2011 Volume 11 No 1
RIETVLEI goes from green to clean 16th SANCIAHS National Hydrology Symposium
1-3 October 2012 University of Pretoria (Main Campus) Pretoria South Africa
Hydrology in a Changing Environment: Science and Policy Interface
First Announcement and Call for Abstracts
The 16th SANCIAHS Symposium, jointly organised and sponsored by the Water Research Commission, the University of Pretoria and the Department of Water Affairs, will be held on 1-3 October 2012 at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.
The Symposium will bring together scientists in the fields of hydrological sciences to share experiences and to exchange ideas on advances in hydrology for the management of finite water resources in the face of potential climate change impacts. Therefore the Symposium calls for abstracts (poster or oral) on the following sub- themes: Advances in hydrological prediction and climate change forecasting Hydrology, climate variability, climate change and water resource management Advances in earth observation, hydrological observation and water resources management Paleohydrology and climate change nexus Water and Energy Hydropedology and hydrology Groundwater and surface water interactions Ecosystems and Hydrology Water Quality and Hydrology Alternative sources of water in a water scarce country Hydrology, uncertainty and decision-making: the interface between science and policy
Guidelines for Abstracts and Papers Abstracts should be a brief summary of the paper’s primary premise and findings, no more than 500 words and should adhere to the example template given below. The deadline for submission of abstracts is 27 April 2012. Participants will be notified of the outcome of the selection process and whether the submission has been accepted for a poster or verbal presentation by 15 June 2012.
Participants whose submissions (posters and verbal presentations) are accepted for presentations will be expected to produce a full written version of the paper (the example template will be provided later), before 15 August 2012 for inclusion in the proceedings which will be available on CD at registration. Conference fees Delegates: R1700.00 Full-time students: R800.00
The conference fees (exclusive of VAT) will cover all teas, lunches, Symposium function (cocktail party and dinner), book of abstracts and the CD of the proceedings. More details about registration will be announced in January 2012. Accommodation All delegates should arrange their own accommodation during the symposium and there is a number of hotels and B&B’s available in Pretoria. However, the University of Pretoria will make available a limited number of student residence accommodation at a reasonable rate (details will be posted on the Conference web page in January 2012).
For general queries please contact Mr Wandile Nomquphu at Tel: +27(0)12 3309069 or [email protected]
CONTENTS
1.FINAL ATLAS COVER F&B_Layout 1 2011/06/27 1:48 PM Page 1
OF FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM PRIORITY AREAS IN SOUTH AFRICA upfront MAPS TO SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES 4 Water quality 10 The changing face of Rietvlei Dam Corporate investment 14 Supporting South Africa’s water factories F reshwater ecosystems 18 SA’s first freshwater priority areas atlas launched Water power nexus 22 Study shows power of energy outages on water sector Water History 26 Palmiet – An environmentally sound example dams 30 SA – A proud history of dam safety w ater kidz 32 Develop a school policy to improve water management L ast Word 34 SA organisations pledge to protect country’s rivers THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly magazine on water and water research published by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in 1971 by Act of Parliament. Subscription is free. Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the mem- bers of the WRC, and may be copied ISSN 0258-2244 January/February 2011 Volume 11 No 1 with acknowledgement of source.
Editorial offices: Cover: Rietvlei Dam outside Pretoria has shown Water Research Commission, Private a remarkable improvement in water quality. Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of RIETVLEI Researchers are now investigating the reasons. South Africa. goes from green to clean See story on page 10. Tel (012) 330-0340. Fax (012) 331-2565. WRC Internet address: http://www.wrc.org.za Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: [email protected]; Editorial Secretary: Mmatsie Masekoa, E-mail: [email protected]; Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: [email protected] The Water Wheel January/February 2012 3 Upfront
SA dependence on coal ‘not worth it’ Letters to the Editor ot only has South Africa’s depend- survive without water,” said Colvin. The consequences of abandoned Nency on coal resulted in the country’s Praise for the Water Wheel greenhouse gas emissions being double mines and resultant acid mine drain- the global average per capita, it is also age in the gold-mining areas of the hank you for your excellent article he latest issue [November/December having devastating effects on our water Witwatersrand as well as the Olifants on groundwater in the latest Water 2011] looks great with many articles resources. River catchment are well known, she T T Wheel (‘Groundwater – From ‘inferior’ to of interest to me. This is according to the latest report, continued. “At a national level, policies ‘superior’, the Water Wheel November/ Dean Impson, CapeNature Coal and Water Futures in South Africa: and strategies to clean up some of the December, 2011) and, in general, the The Case for Protecting Headwaters in pollution from gold-mining have been excellent articles in your magazine. It is t is always a great pleasure for me the Enkangala Grasslands, published by established. However, on the ground, an absolute pleasure and very informative when I receive the Water Wheel WWF-SA in collaboration with CSIR. prospecting rights for coal-mining are I to read through every edition. which gives me the opportunity to “WWF-SA understand the key role that being issued in the headwaters of our Elias Nel, DWA keep in touch with the WRC and the coal and coal-mining plays in the South most precious and sensitive catchments.” water issues in South Africa. Congratu- African economy as well as the country’s The report also examines how love reading the [Water Wheel] maga- lations to everyone for the supplement energy generation,” noted Christine prospecting is unfolding in the relatively zine every month, especially the articles September/October 2011 issue, which Colvin, Senior Manager of the organisa- pristine headwaters of the Upper Vaal, I on the history of the dams. is fantastic. tion’s Freshwater Programme. “However, Thukela and Pongola, where critical Francois Swanepoel, ARC Gerard Dassonville, former we would like to urge government to water source areas are threatened by – Institute for Agricultural senior adviser to DWAF implement better coal-mining practices, new mining. According to Angus Burns of Engineering which entail planning mining activities WWF Enkangala Grasslands Programme, in strategic areas that do not compromise these headwaters are sources from the Correction critical water resources and ultimately, Enkangala area which receives more than he article, ‘World agri award, SA Committee’ three years in a row. The the country’s water security. We therefore twice the average national rainfall and does it again’ (the Water Wheel, award is actually awarded every three call on government to define and declare generates nearly three times the average T November/December 2011) mistakenly years, and this is the first year that South mining sensitive or ‘no-go’ areas.” run-off compared to the rest of South reported that South Africa has won Africa has scooped the award. The Water The report is based on research and Africa. the ICID award for ‘Best National Wheel regrets the error. engagement with the South African As the report notes, between 2005 mining and water sectors, among other and 2010, approximately 13,7% of Mpu- stakeholders. Case studies conducted in malanga was already under prospecting form of mining activity. include weaknesses in the legislative the Olifants River catchment (where coal rights application and 40,3% was under A number of shortcomings around process and cooperative governance; the has been mined for the last 100 years) mining rights applications. This means mining are identified which poses risks application process; enforcing legislation; and Enkangala grasslands detail the cur- that 54% of the province was under some to South Africa’s water security. These the Environmental Management Plans rent costs and impacts of coal- application process; as well as mining on water resources. weaknesses in the decommis- According to the report, sioning process. only 12% of the country’s In conclusion, the report land area generates 50% of stresses that extensive mining, the country’s river flow. This whether in a single area or in highlights the need to plan the many smaller areas, can cause development of our landscapes major local and downstream to protect the country’s most impacts and applications important water, soil and should be assessed with extra biodiversity resources. care. It also recommends that “Our already stressed areas highlighted as conserva- water resources are under tion priorities should preferably threat from coal-mining remain unmined. operations located in To download a copy of important water provision- the report, Visit: http:// ing catchments. While many assets.wwfza.panda.org. South Africans presently wwf-web-1.bluegecko.net/ survive with limited or no downloads/wwf_coal_water_ access to energy, none can report_2011_w
4 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Upfront
WRC first when it comes to agricultural water research
he Water Research Commission (WRC) considered all projects related to irrigated and number of projects. The majority of Tis the foremost funder of water- and rainfed agriculture, woodlands and the funding for these projects is attrib- related agricultural research in South agroforestry, grassland and livestock uted to the WRC and DWA. The University Africa. watering as well as freshwater aquacul- of KwaZulu-Natal conducted a similar This is according to a newly-published ture and inland fisheries. number of projects, but the funding value investigation into project data for all A total of 65 water-related agricultural was nearly half the value of the ARC water-related agriculture in the country research projects were identified valued projects. Other organisations conduct- conducted in 2010. The aim of the at a total of R208-million. Of this, the ing notable agricultural water-related research, undertaken by Frost & Sullivan, WRC contributed around R130-million. research include the CSIR, University of was to develop a database of such The Commission is also funding the high- Pretoria, University of the Free State and research. A key driver behind this project est number of projects. Other significant Stellenbosch University. is the fact that little of this information is funding organisations are the KwaZulu- The high number of projects in the water utilisation for poverty reduction. publicly available. Natal Department of Agriculture, Envi- irrigation agriculture category reflects To order the report, Water-related According to the final report, initia- ronmental Affairs and Rural Development the maturity of South Africa’s irrigated research projects in agriculture undertaken tives of this nature are important as they and the Department of Water Affairs commercial sector, and shows big in South Africa (Report No: TT 503/11) promote coordination, improve collabora- (DWA) (this includes funding for Working investments being made into the sector, and accompanying CD, contact Publica- tion between research organisations, and for Water). which not only uses most of the country’s tions at Tel: (012) 330-0340; Fax: (012) encourage greater transparency, particu- Most of the research was found to be water but contributed significantly to 331-2565; Email: [email protected]; or larly with regards to research funding and conducted by the Agricultural Research food production and employment. Much Visit: www.wrc.org.za to download a dissemination of information. The study Council, both in terms of funding value research funds are also focused towards free copy.
Government to set up fog Water diary harvesting project WATER IN AFRICA WORLD WATER he Department of Rural Development Cape, and Thohoyandou, in Limpopo, are FEBRUARY 20-23 MARCH 12--17 th th Tand Land Reform plans to conduct a already harvesting fog to provide in their The 16 Africa Water and Sanitation The 6 World Water Forum will take pilot project to investigate the viability of basic water needs. Congress will be held in Marrakech, place in Marseille, France, with the fog harvesting along the eastern escarp- The Mpumalanga pilot project aims Morocco, with the theme ‘Collabora- theme ‘Time for Solutions’. The forum, ment of Mpumalanga. to produce 5 000 ℓ/day of water. The tive mechanisms and innovations organised every three years, is consid- “If the pilot project yields positive first fog harvesting nets will either be for sustainable development of ered the largest international event in results, we will consider a large scale erected in Piet Retief, Donkerhoek, the water and sanitation sector in the field of water. Email: secretariat@ roll-out to feed into local water distribu- Madadeni, Shibange or Ntunda. “At this Africa’. Email: [email protected] worldwaterforum.org or Visit: www. tion networks,” reported department point it is difficult to determine where or Visit: http://www.afwa-hq.org/ worldwaterforum6.org spokesperson Eddie Mochoebi. It is hoped exactly the fog will be harvested. The siteweb/index.php?option=com_con the project will alleviate water shortages outcome of the feasibility study will tent&view=article&id=169%3A WATER HISTORY in South Africa. Communities in Cabazane determine the suitable area,” noted marrakech-2012&catid=53%3A- MARCH 22-24 village near Mount Ayliff, in the Eastern Mohoebi. congres&Itemid=111&lang=en The Third IWA International Sym- posium on Water and Wastewater WATER LOSS Technologies in Ancient Civilisations FEBRUARY 26-29 will be held in Istanbul, Turkey. The Water Loss 2012 will be held in symposium is dedicated to themes Manila, Philippines. The conference is relevant to water and wastewater intended to present and discuss latest technologies in ancient civilisations. developments, strategies, techniques The event will bring together research and applications of international scientists, historians, archaeologists, best practices in non-revenue water and engineers from academic to management. The Conference is the industries around the world. Email: sixth event in a series of IWA water loss [email protected] or Visit: www. reduction speciality conferences. Email: iwa-ww2012.org [email protected] or Visit: www.iwa-waterloss.org/2012
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 5 Upfront
Blue Drop ‘not a factor’ when it comes to SA Water by numbers consumers perception about water quality – study • 4,5 million – The number of national Blue Drop certification process, Residents of South Africa’s metro- job opportunities the government most consumers depend on their sense politan areas were found to be more aims to create with Phase 2 of the of sight, taste and smell to determine the confident about the quality of their water Expanded Public Works Programme. quality of their water. supply than residents in other urban cen- Last year Public Works Minister In line with international experience, tres, with eThekwini (94% of respondents Thembelani Nxesi berated local this study found that media reporting has believe the tap water is safe to drink) government for underspending on very little impact on the individual’s risk coming out tops, followed by Cape Town the programme. perception of drinking water safety. Only (93%) in second place and Ekurhuleni • 8,7 million – The total number a small percentage of people questioned (91%) in third place. Regarding survey of species of Earth, according to based their perception that tap water results for smaller towns, urban residents the latest count by North American is safe or unsafe to drink on what they residing in Gauteng were most confident scientists. heard or read in the media. The fact that about their water supply (88% believe • 2,7 mm/year – The observed hen it comes to rating their tap water the Blue Drop status of cities and towns the tap water is safe to drink), followed sea level rise in Durban in the last 33 Wquality, consumers in South Africa’s scored very low on the list of drivers of by KwaZulu-Natal (80%) and the Western years, according to KwaZulu-Natal towns and cities are lead by their eyes, perceptions seems to indicate a general Cape (78%). MEC for Agriculture, Environmental noses and tongues rather than chemical and unawareness of the certification process “There is an increasing awareness Affairs & Rural Development, Lydia microbiological quality reports. among general members of the public. globally that drinking water quality Johnson. This is according to a new study funded Interestingly women are less confident standards should include consumers’ • 81% – The combined average by the Water Research Commission. The about the safety of tap water than men judgement of safety,” the report states. “A level of the six major dams feeding study, conducted last year, involved a dip- and more likely to boil or filter water or better understanding of the underlying the City of Cape Town and surrounds. stick survey which investigated urban South drink bottled water instead. Younger drivers of consumers’ perceptions about After lower than usual rainfall this Africans’ perceptions of their water quality consumers surveyed (16-35 years) were the safety of drinking water will assist the past winter, the municipality has and the variables that influence perceptions. also found to be more positive about regulator and municipalities to improve urged its residents to use water The majority of urban South Africans the safety of drinking water than older water management, consumer services sparingly. (81%) believe that their tap water is safe consumers. Living standards and income and risk communication.” • 364 ℓ – The average per capita to drink. However, rather than relying made no different to how people per- The report will be available later this consumption per day in the United on media reports or the results of the ceived the quality of their water supply. year. Arab Emirates. People here have been dubbed the world’s largest water consumers. New book explores history of IMESA • R69-million – The value of ‘irregular expenditure’ by the n celebration of its 75th anniversary, the country’s most remarkable municipal (Britain) in South Africa in 1905. This Department of Water Affairs in the Institution of Municipal Engineering in engineers, including William Ingham, I marked the official start of the institu- last financial year, according to the Southern Africa (IMESA) has published a David Ernest Lloyd-Davies and Solly tional arrangements that led to the South Auditor General. This department book on its origins and history. Morris. African association as we know it today. has received a qualified audit on the Reflections 2011 – An IMESA Journey In all, the history of IMESA shows that Reflections investigates the factors basis of deficient bookkeeping. through Time is authored by well known the challenges are not so different today influencing municipal engineering over • US$350-million – The value civil engineer Johannes Haarhoff, and than they were at the start of the sanitary time, from the challenges and oppor- of a current project to deconstruct takes the reader to the start of municipal awakening in the early nineteenth tunities experienced by municipal two dams on Washington state’s engineering in South Africa. Throughout century. There were several factors in the engineers to Elwha River. The project is report- the history of the country’s towns and past that were forcefully demonstrated edly one of the world’s largest cities, the municipal engineer has to be prerequisites for timely, efficient dam-removal and river restoration been a vital contributor at the forefront delivery. This includes sound political projects currently being undertaken. of new methods of municipal service leadership and electoral support; • R12-billion – The estimate cost provision. These engineers had the often defined interface between political at completion of the De Hoop Dam, difficult task of integrating scientific leadership and appointed officials; currently being constructed in Lim- advances of the time with practical and respectful relationship between popo. Impoundment was scheduled cost-effective engineering solutions. municipal engineers and elected for November 2011. Many early town engineers were born politicians; as well as young • 50% – The drop in incidence of and educated in the UK, which stems to professional engineers being attracted to some diarrhoea among children under five reason why IMESA has its foundations in the profession. of the landmarks constructed when hands are washed after going the formation of the African District of For more information on the purchase through the decades. The book also to the toilet and before eating. the Association of Municipal Engineers includes information on some of the of Reflections, Visit: www.imesa.org.za
6 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 New reports
New from the WRC INTRINTR
ODUCODUC
TIONTION INTRODUCTION TO
TT INTEGRATED WATER OO INTEGR INTEGR determination of true microbial diversity to as wide a scope of potential users as WRC-funded study which investigated METER MANAGEMENT
EDITION 1 AA EDITION 1 TEDTED in surface waters. possible, as well as to provide the neces- remote sensing as a tool for resource
WW
AA About the author TERTER ME ME sary back-up, otherwise the danger exists assessment. This study showed that due Dr JE (Kobus) van Zyl holds Bachelor and Master’s degrees in Civil Engineering, and a Diploma in Scientific Computing from the Rand Afrikaans University (now University of Johannesburg). He obtained a PhD in Civil Engineering at the University of Exeter in 2001. TERTER MANA MANA He is a registered Professional Engineer, a member of the South African Society of Civil Report No: 1842/1/11; that SAPWAT3 will not be used to its to many uncertainties and limitations Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers and the International Water Association, and a Fellow of the Water Institute of Southern Africa. He was Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering Science at the University of Johannesburg (2005-2007), and held the Rand Water Chair in Water Utilisation at the same institution. In 2008 Dr van Zyl chaired GEMENTGEMENT th Water Distribution System Analysis (WDSA) Conference, held in the Kruger National the 10 1842/2/11 & 1842/3/11 fullest potential and development time with both the input data and methodol- Park. This is one of the two leading international conference series on water distribution systems, and the first WDSA conference held outside the USA.
He has twice been awarded the Best Paper prize in the Journal of the South African Society for Civil Engineering, and is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Water Resources Planning
JEJE v v Towards water resources regulations and funding would have been wasted. ogy it was not possible to determine the and Management.
Dr van Zyl’s research focuses on water distribution systems, and his current interests include anan Z Z hydraulic modelling, stochastic analysis, water losses, metering, and water demand management. TT 490/11 ylyl actual water consumption of individual Van Zyl currently holds an associate professorship at the Civil Engineering Department in South Africa Volume 1: Survey of The next program version will include the Dr of the University of Cape Town. approaches to water resources regulations; expansion of functionality and correction farms or compliance to legislation. In Volume 2: Institutional criteria, functions of errors that have been identified, some this project, the aim was to address the and arrangements & Volume 3: The use of of which is included in this report. uncertainties and limitations and thereby Report No: TT 490/11 regulatory impact assessment in develop- determine the efficacy or efficiency of Introduction to integrated water meter ing approaches and tools for pro-poor Report No: 1759/1/11 the method to highlight water-stressed management: Edition 1 (JE van Zyl) water resources regulation (B Schreiner; Guidelines on freeboard for dams Volume 1 catchments. Currently there is a lack in the proper S Chimuti; A Cupido & V Mbanda) (Literate review and case studies) management of water meters and meter Water resources management provides a (E Bosman & G Basson) Report No: TT 499/11 data, resulting in increased levels of broad suite of activities, of which water This WRC study on freeboard for dams Ferrocement reservoir – A South African water losses and reduced income for resources regulation is one important set of started in 2007 and was carried out over perspective (D Still & A Butler) municipalities. In addition, initiatives activities. It is clear from the current status a period of three years. A literature review Ferrocement is the name given to a of water demand management and of water resources and water resource use was carried out to determine the state-of- composite material from a high strength conservation are hampered by a lack in South Africa, that regulation is failing. the-art knowledge on the quantification mortar cement mix reinforced with steel of good information. This book covers Among others, climate change threatens of the secondary components to be taken mesh and wire. Since the 1990s several all aspects of water meters and water the reliability of water availability in into account in the determination of dam hundred ferrocement reservoirs have metering in municipalities. It covers the already stressed catchments, while raw freeboard. Research carried out in the been built in South Africa. The largest such theoretical principles of meters, legal and and drinking water challenges are costing coastal engineering field of aspects which reservoir to date were two tanks built at metrological requirements, meter types, the country significantly in terms of fore- are relevant and applicable to dams was Osindisweni, some 20 km west of Verulam. best practice guidelines as well as practi- gone exports of crops, waterborne disease, incorporated. One of the objectives of this study was cal aspects of water meter management death and lost productivity. This project to carry out field evaluations of ferroce- (among others). was aimed at assisting in understanding Report No: 1759/2/11 ment reservoirs in practice to see how these issues, including a consideration South African National Committee on Large they had weathered in the field. A total of Report No: 1934/1/11 of institutional arrangements, tools and Dams Volume II: Guidelines on freeboard 41 reservoirs were visited and they were Management of the microbial water approaches. The focus of this project is on for dams (DE Bosman; J Basson; T Tente checked for signs of spalling, cracking or quality in catchments (SN Venter; A Lötter; technical regulation in the water resources & GR Basson) leakage. It was found that the reservoirs LM Burke; WJ le Roux & M du Preez) sector, rather than economic or governance The revision of the original SANCOLD were in general performing well and that Management of the microbio- regulation, although the institutional Interim Guidelines on Freeboard for Dams they had not undergone any discernible logical quality of water requires a good relationships are a critical part of sound coincides aptly with the draft revision of deterioration. understanding of the behaviour of technical regulation. the Dam Safety Regulations in terms of
microorganisms at an ecosystem level. the National Water Act. Only one major FERROCEMENT RESERVOIRS The behaviour, which is linked to the Report No: KV 271/11 change has been advocated which is in – A South African Perspective
David Still & Andrew Butler microbial population structure and Technology transfer of SAPWAT3, verifying respect of wave heights to be used in the Perspective African South A – Reservoirs Ferrocement 499/11 TT diversity, consequently influences correctness of program output and evalu- calculations of freeboard. The revised the effectiveness of catchment level ation of its adoption potential (PS van guidelines also have updated wind, mitigation strategies that contribute to Heerden and CT Crosby) earthquake, and landslide information for sustainable management of our surface SAPWAT3 is the product of 20 years of South Africa. water resources. Managing microbial research related to irrigation, agricultural loads at catchment levels could provide engineering, soil, crops, agricultural Report No: KV 272/11 both financial and health benefits for meteorology and agricultural economics Remote sensing evapotranspiration (SEBS) downstream users. Among others, this funded by the WRC. Development time evaluation using water balance (L Gibson, study investigated the applicability and the cost involved accentuate the need Z Münch, M Carstens & J Conrad) of novel molecular approaches for the to disseminate knowledge of SAPWAT3 This report follows on from a previous
TT 499/11
To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340; fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 7 Global news
Awareness and labelling can UN report outlines investment benefit inland fisheries strategies to reduce water scarcity
n annual investment of US$198- is a cornerstone of a more sustain- Abillion, or 0,16% of global gross able, resource-efficiency society,” domestic product (GDP) in the water noted UNEP Executive Director, Achim sector could reduce water scarcity and Steiner. “The Green Economy Report halve the number of people without sus- shows how accelerated investment in tainable access to safe drinking water and water-dependent ecosystems, water basic sanitation in less than four years. infrastructure and water management, This is according to the water chapter coupled with effective policies, can in the United Nations Environment boost water and food security, improve Programme (UNEP) latest Green Economy human health and promote economic Report. According to UNEP, investing in growth.” sanitation and drinking water, strengthen- With the recommendations outlined in ing local water supply systems, conserving the report, global water use could be kept ecosystems critical for water supply, and within sustainable limits and the Millen developing more effective policies can help nium Development Goals of reducing ustainable seafood initiatives, includ- soon determined there were very few avert the high social and economic costs by half the proportion of the population Sing certification and ecolabelling and such studies. Although freshwater species resulting from inadequate water supplies. without sustainable access to safe drink- awareness schemes, could be extended to and those that live in freshwater during Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines ing water and basic sanitation could be more effectively cover inland, freshwater part of their lifecycle are included in lists and Vietnam, for example, lose an esti- met by 2015. Improving the efficiency fisheries, according to researchers writing intended to guide consumers on sustain- mated US%9-billion a year, or 2% of their and sustainability of water use is also vital in the November issue of BioScience. able diet choices, they constitute a small combined GDP, due to problems caused by if the world’s increasing energy demands The world’s growing dependence on minority, according to a survey of ten poor sanitation, according to the report, are to be met, said UNEP. fish protein and the imperilled state of certification and labelling schemes. which was released during the World Water To access the Green Economy Report, many freshwater fisheries argues for such This imbalance could lead to a Week in Stockholm earlier this year. Visit: http://www.unep.org/greenecon- efforts, the authors conclude, although public misconception that freshwater “Improving access to cleaner omy/GreenEconomyReport/tabid/29846/ because freshwater fisheries tend to be species are generally less at risk drinking water and sanitation services Default.aspx smaller and are more concentrated in than marine species, Cooke and his developing countries than marine and colleagues argue. Grassroots schemes, Australia to share farming coastal fisheries, the efforts would have rather than multimedia marketing- to be modified substantially to target the oriented certification schemes, are the lessons with Africa different consumers. most promising approach to increasing Authors, Steve Cooke of Carleton awareness of the threats to freshwater he Australian government will establish extreme climate, soil infertility and climate University and colleagues, initially set species and what choices consumers Tan international food security centre to change. out to assess the scientific literature on can make to reduce these, the authors offer research and technical expertise to will- Gabrielle Persley, adjunct professor at the ecolabelling and awareness schemes as say, because many freshwater fisheries ing governments and institutions in Africa. Global Change Institute at the University of they related to freshwater species, but are artisanal. The Australia International Centre for Queensland in Australia, said the centre will Food Security will be established in the help African scientists develop drought- second quarter of this year. Australian Prime resilient crop varieties, an area where Minister Julia Gillard announced the estab- Australia has made great strides. “Develop- New snail species lishment of the centre late last year. It will ing the capacity of African scientists and discovered in Greece be set up at a cost of around US$37-million other experts in areas such as developing and be hosted by the Australian Centre for market access for smallholder farmers and new minute freshwater snail species the three currently known species are International Agriculture Research. deploying Australian advanced technology Abelonging to the genus Daphniola categorised as endangered and critically Under the scheme African scientists will in helping farmers cope with impacts of was found by researchers of the University endangered. It is notable that the new be linked to top Australian research bodies climate change will be major facets of this of Athens in a snow-covered spring on species was been found in only one spring and tertiary education institutions to access initiative.” Mount Parnassos, in central Greece. to date, and its population abundance solutions to the challenges of farming in The building of the centre will be The new species, Daphniola eptalophos, seems to be low. tropical and sub-tropical environments. preceded by an international conference has a transparent conical-flat coiled The new species is threatened by habi- Australian researchers will also train African on African food security, in the first of this shell, and a grey-black pigmented soft tat destruction as a result of urbanisation, scientists in the technology the country uses year. The conference will bring together body. Daphniola is endemic to Greece, water pollution, waste accumulation, to cope with many of the environmental Australian and African researchers to identify inhabiting most of the mainland. Two of tourism and agricultural practices. challenges it shares with Africa, such as opportunities for cooperation.
8 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Global news
Climate change downsizing US scientists find evidence of fauna, flora Roman-period megadrought
research was conducted by scientists from new study at the University of Rio Grande River,” explained Routson, the University of Singapore. AArizona’s Laboratory of Tree-Ring primary author of the study, which According to the researchers, for cold- Research has revealed a previously appeared in the journal, Geophysical blooded animals, including insects, reptiles unknown multi-decade drought period in Research Letters. and amphibians, the impact of climate the second century AD. Dendrochronology is a precise science change is direct: experiments suggest Almost 900 years ago, in the mid-12th of using annual growth rings of trees to that an upward tick of 1°C translates into century, the southwestern US was in the understand climate in the past. Because roughly a 10% increase in metabolism. middle of a multi-decadal megadrought. trees add a normally clearly defined That, in turn, results in downsizing. It was the most recent extended period of growth ring around their trunk each year, In turn, overfishing has been blamed severe drought known for this region. But counting the rings backwards from a limate change is reducing the size for decreased body size in both wild and it was not the first. tree’s bark allows scientists to determine Cof many animal and plant species, commercially-harvested aquatic species, The second century AD saw an not only the age of the tree, but which including some which supply vital nutri- threatening the key source of protein of extended dry period of more than 100 years were good for growth and which tion, ABC Science reports. a billion people around the world. But years characterised by a multidecade years were more difficult. From microorganisms to top predators, experiments and observational studies drought lasting nearly 50 years, says a “If it is a wet year, they grow a wide nearly 45% of species for which data have shown that warming waters play a new study from scientists at the Univer- ring, and if it is a dry year, they grow a was reviewed in a recent study grew role as well, especially in rivers and lakes. sity of Arizona. narrow ring,” explained Routson. “If you smaller over multiple generations due Some of the most worrying changes Geoscientists Cody Routson, Connie average that pattern across trees in a to climate change. The impact of rapidly are at the bottom of the food chain, Woodhouse and Jonathan Overpeck con- region you can develop a chronology that climbing temperatures and shifts in especially in the ocean, where tiny phy- ducted a study of the southern San Juan shows what years were drier or wetter for rainfall patterns on body size could toplankton and calcium-building creates Mountains in south-central Colorado. The that particular reigon.” have unpredictable and possible severe are dwindling in size due to acidification region serves as a primary drainage site To develop their chronology, the consequences, according to the research and the reduced capacity of warmer for the Rio Grande and San Juan rivers. researchers looked for indications of which appeared in the 17 October issue water to hold oxygen and nutrients. “These mountains are very important climate in the past in the growth rings of of the journal, Nature Climate Change. The Source: ABC Science for both the San Juan River and the the oldest trees in the southern San Juan region. In particular, the region is known for its bristlecone pine trees, the oldest of which are more than 4 000 years old. Rising air pollution worsens drought, flooding – study Core samples were taken from these trees. The chronology thus created by the ncreases in air pollution and other aerosols on cloud height and thickness, the findings we obtained from an analysis researchers extended back 2 200 years. Iparticulate matter in the atmosphere and the resultant changes in precipitation of NASA’s global satellite products in a The study revealed another period can strongly affect cloud development frequency and intensity,” reported lead separate study. Together, they attest to of increased aridity earlier than the two in ways that reduce precipitation in dry author Zhanqing Li, a professor of atmos- the needs of tackling both climate and major droughts already known – one regions or seasons, while increasing pheric and oceanic science at Maryland. environmental changes that matter so in the middle of the 12th century, and rain, snowfall and the intensity of severe The study found that under very dirty much to our daily life,” concluded Li. the other at the end of the 13th century. storms in wet regions or seasons. conditions, the mean cloud height of “This new record shows that there is also This is according to a new study by US deep convective clouds is more than twice evidence for an earlier megadrought researchers at the University of Maryland. the mean height under crystal clean air during the second century AD,” noted The research provides the first clear conditions. “The probability of heavy rain Rouston. evidence of how aerosols – soot, dust and is virtually doubled from clean to dirty “We are showing that there are other small particles in the atmosphere conditions, while the chance of light rain multiple extreme drought events that – can affect weather and climate. The is reduced by 50%,” said Prof Li. happened during our past in this region. findings have important implications for The scientists obtained additional And the climatic events behind these the available, management and use of support for these findings with matching previous dry periods are really similar to water resources in regions around the results obtained using a cloud-resolving what we are experiencing today.” world, according to the researchers. computer model. The study is published Although natural climate variation has “Using a ten-year dataset of extensive in the November 13 issue of the journal, led to extended dry periods in the south- atmosphere measurements from the Nature Geoscience. western US in the past, there is reason US Southern Plains research facility in “These findings of long-term impacts, to believe that human-driven climate Oklahoma, we have uncovered, for the which we made using regional ground change will increase the frequency of first time, the long-term, net impact of measurements, are also consistent with extreme droughts in the future.
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 9 Water quality
The changing face of Rie tvlei Dam
One of the six water circulation machines situated in Rietvlei Dam. Lani Lani Vuuren van
Visitors to the Rietvlei Dam, in the past for the City of Tshwane. Today, it users of Rietvlei Dam, but can also described as one of the most eutrophic still provides around 6% of the city’s cause bad tastes and odours in drinking water requirement while drinking water. To cope with the dams in South Africa, might be pleasantly also being the centre of one of the water quality hassles associated with surprised by the blue, odour-free water that country’s few urban nature reserves. eutrophic blooms the Rietvlei Water greets them nowadays. And while the jury The 32 m-high wall holds back Treatment Works has had to repeat- around 12-million m3 of water, and edly extend its treatment capabili- is still out as to what exactly is responsible the dam covers a surface area of ties through the years. The original for this incredible turnaround the finger 1,87 km2. processes of flocculation, settling, is increasingly pointing to 16 unassuming Unfortunately, the location of filtration and chlorination have been Rietvlei Dam’s catchment, which augmented with dissolved air flota- pieces of machinery scattered around the extends as far as OR Tambo Inter- tion in the 1980s, followed by granu- dam. Article by Lani van Vuuren. national Airport and the resultant lar activated carbon as a polishing urban, industrial and agricultural step in 2000. Online turbidity units n South Africa, eutrophication pollution, has caused the dam to have also been installed on all filters has been recognised as a water become hypertrophic. Algal blooms and on the incoming and final water quality problem for over 30 were reported as early as 1974, and produced. This has been followed by years.I The country has some of the often comprise mainly of Microcystis, the recent introduction of ozonation. most nutrient enriched water bodies a species of cyanobacteria (blue- Despite the availability of these in the world, with around 35% of our green algae) which produce harmful sophisticated technologies, keep- dams being either eutrophic (very toxins that are neurotoxic and hepa- ing the drinking water quality up to nutrient enriched) or hypertrophic totoxic in nature. standard has been challenging. (extremely nutrient enriched). More prolific during the warmer, “The inconsistency in incoming Constructed between 1932 and summer months, these blooms are water quality has made the water 1934, Rietvlei Dam has been an not only harmful to the animals of from Rietvlei Dam very difficult to important source of drinking water the nature reserve and recreational treat,” explains Leanne Coetzee of
10 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Water quality
the City of Tshwane Scientific Ser- Rietvlei – a city asset vices. “Dosage and types of chemi- cals used have had to change quickly, ituated about 18 km from the Pretoria CBD, the Rietvlei Nature Reserve covers particularly as a result of the blooms’ about 3 800 ha of grassland, extensive vlei areas and the scenic Rietvlei Dam. influence on turbidity. In addition, S we have experienced a significant pH The supply of clean drinking water and the protection of the catchment are the bump with high pH readings during main reasons for the establishment of the reserve. There are three sources of water the day as a result of the cyanobac- on Rietvlei, namely the dam with its purification plant below the wall, five foun- teria’s photosynthesis during the day tains and five boreholes. The reserve supplies about 15% of Pretoria’s drinking water followed by a drop in pH at night (about 40-million ℓ/day). when no photosynthesis occurred.” The reserve is owned and managed by the City of Tshwane, and features some As a result it has not been unusual 1 600 head of game, including blesbuck, black wildebeest, red hartebeest, eland, for Leanne and her team to get Burchell’s zebra, waterbuck, reedbuck, springbuck, mountain reedbuck, steenbuck called to the plant in the middle of and grey duiker. Nocturnal animals such as brown hyena, black-backed jackal, the night to deal with these sudden aardwolf and porcupine, to name a few, can also be found here. Over 270 species of changes in water quality. The algae birds have been identified and confirmed on the reserve. also resulted in filter clogging and increased backwashing, reducing the output of drinking water from the plant while increasing operational costs. Investigating the options
he City of Tshwane investigated Tseveral possible options to con- trol eutrophication and prevent the outbreak of cyanbacterial blooms at Rietvlei Dam. A challenging aspect was that any solution had to be wary of the conservational and recrea- tional importance of the dam. “The management of the Rietvlei Nature “ The water quality in the dam has improved How the solar-powered Reserve were very clear that any tremendously and the occurrence of cyano water circulation solution we implemented was not to bacterial blooms has almost disappeared.” machine works. disturb or be harmful to the fauna and flora of the Reserve. We also had to take cognisance of the importance of Rietvlei for Pretoria’s water sport enthusiasts. This ruled out the use of any chemicals, for example,” says Coetzee. As a result, the City took a very brave decision by implementing a solution previously untested in
South African waters. In 2008, the metro installed the first of a series of SolarBee units – solar-powered water circulation machines developed in the USA. SolarBees are basically upflow pumps with a flexible intake hose that can draw water up from any depth. The specially-designed distribu- tion dish at the surface allows up to
40 000 ℓ/minute direct and induced SolarBee
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 11 Water quality
improvement in the water quality of Rietvlei Dam. “The water quality in the dam has improved tremendously and the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms has almost disappeared,” says Coetzee. “Cyanobacterial growth has decreased allowing the ecosystem to return to a more natural state by enabling the growth of green algae. These green algae are consumed, allowing for the improvement of the entire food chain. “The changes have been gradual but water quality has improved every year since installa- tion,” notes Coetzee. With the raw water quality now more consistent, the water treatment plant is able to run smoother without needing sudden changes in protocol. In addition, operational costs have decreased as less expensive chemicals and backwashing are required since the water contains only low or no Lani Lani Vuuren van cyanobacteria toxins. The SolarBee units are a true ‘green’ technology. Virtually mainte- nance free the only problem experi- enced so far has been that they tend to move out of position during peri- ods of high rainfall or wind. However, they are easily towed back into posi- tion, and the City is now looking into using a different anchoring mecha- nism to improve their spatial stability. The inconspicuous machines have proved a significant attraction to the local water bird population. Luckily the SolarBees have been equipped with bird repellent kits to prevent the birds from using the machines as nesting perches. Yachters and canoe- ists have also expressed their satisfac- tion with improved conditions at the dam. Rietvlei Dam before flow of water to move radially in all Steady improvement In fact, at the time of writing the (2007, top) and after directions up to 200 m away from (2011, bottom) the City of Tshwane was investigating the installation of the the machine. In this way, the upper esearch has shown that when the possible implementation of the units SolarBees. waters where the cyanobacteria grow “Rhabitat of cyanobacterial blooms at other reservoirs, such as Leeukraal are put into a slow but continuous is disturbed it creates a habitat in and Roodeplaat. Security issues and motion. Three 80 Watt solar panels which cyanobacteria are no longer the budget constraints are among the provide enough energy to run the dominant species and there is more factors that will influence whether the sealed, magnetic motor and digital species diversity,” Coetzee tells the machines are deployed there. control box 24 hours a day. One unit Water Wheel. Monitoring and data The implementation of the Solar- can treat around 12 ha of lake or collection since the installation of the Bees is not the only factor that could dam surface area. SolarBees has shown slow but steady have lead to improved water quality
12 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Water quality
conditions at Rietvlei Dam, though. “The SolarBee units are a true ‘green’ technology. Good rainfall over the last couple Virtually maintenance free the only problem of years, as well as improvements experienced so far is that they tend to move out at upstream wastewater treatment plants, could also have played a role. of position during periods of high rainfall or wind.” Working for Wetlands has also done much to restore the reserve’s wetland, which aid in clean the incoming water to the dam. The Water Research Commis- sion has launched a new project that will, among other aims, seek to unlock some of the scientific reasons behind the improvement of the dam’s water quality. The study, lead by North West University, will compare present ecological data with histori- cal data to present a clearer picture of the ecological status of the dam and the influence of the SolarBees. Its primary focus, explains WRC
Research Manager, Dr Kevin Mur- Lani Vuuren van ray, is to test the validity of a model originally developed to forecast the Top right: The clearer occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms water of the Rietvlei Dam has now become a up to three weeks ahead. The project recreational pleasure for has just kicked off and will run until Pretoria’s yachters and 2015. canoeists. Whatever the reason it is clear that after four decades of battling eutroph- Middle right: Rather than deterring wildlife ication and cyanobacterial blooms, the water circulation Rietvlei Dam has turned the corner. machines have become It is hoped that its success will be long a huge attraction term, and that it can be replicated to to Rietvlei Dams’ improve the water quality in other waterbirds. eutrophied dams in South Africa on Below: Every SolarBee which we so much depend for our treats around 12 ha of daily drinking water. dam surface area. Lani Lani Vuuren van Lani Lani Vuuren van
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 13 Corporate investment
Supporting South Africa’s w ater factories
A nationwide project is demonstrating how the opportunity to ‘balance’ the Supply-side corporate water users can plough back amount of freshwater they use with a interventions monetary investment that will result in income from freshwater, for freshwater. the approximate amount of water to be s a start, the WWF is concen- Article by Petro Kotzé. returned to the country’s critical catch- Atrating its efforts on the quan- ments. The high-water yield areas, also tification of water made available t is well known that South Africa known as ‘water factories’, are recog- through the removal of invasive alien is a water scarce country, and one nised as such because they contribute plants. Not only does the National with an almost constant battle significantly to the overall water supply Water Resource Strategy of 2004 beingI waged between the goals of of the country, often supporting the identify the clearing of invasive alien economic development, ecosystem country’s economic hubs with water. plants as one of the most important conservation and mitigation of the Helen Gordon, the WWF Water water supply-side interventions that damage that has already been done Balance Programme Development can be made at a national scale, but to most of our freshwater ecosystems. Manager says that by supporting the the large amount of data available It is also widely accepted that most WB, corporates who are big con- on the topic through the current and of these issues cannot be solved by sumers of water are investing back historic experiences of the Working traditional engineering solutions or into the country’s (and their own) for Water Programme has made this infrastructure development alone. present and future water security. an obvious first choice. Currently, Rather, innovative solutions need The programme started in 2008 with WB is also exploring the possible to be found that call for a balance a two-year limited pilot phase end- expansion of their implementation between these goals of economic ing mid-2010, but the “WWF plans to include restoration in cleared sites development and ecosystem con- to run this programme for many in dire need of active restoration. servation. The Water Balance (WB) years to come,” says Gordon. Since its There are numerous benefits Programme, under the auspices of inception, the programme has already associated with the removal of alien the World Wide Fund for Nature resulted in promising achievements, plants. Environmentally speaking, (WWF) aims to do just that. The both in the areas of corporate partici- it results in better water quality programme literally gives corporates pation and on-the-ground results. and availability by contributing to
14 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Corporate investment
the healthy functioning of riverine River Health Programme’s Within these catchments, says Gor- systems. The removal of invasive State-of-the-Rivers Report. don, the WB programme will clear alien plants also reduces wildfires, • The Umgeni catchment in the tributaries, especially in areas while enabling the re-establishment KwaZulu-Natal: This is the heart where their work overlaps with that of natural vegetation. Economically of the province’s water supply, of Working for Water (WfW), which speaking, decreasing amounts of catering for Durban, Pieter tends to focus on the main stem of a water in a catchment places eco- martizburg and surrounds. river. “However,” she adds, “the WB nomic development at risk. On a • The Mpumalanga Grasslands: sites are on private land within the social level, jobs are created through Water runoff from Mpumalanga’s prioritised nodes where WfW is not the clearing work but, perhaps more southern highland grassland currently clearing.” In such cases the importantly, a contribution is made catchments supplies most of WB focuses on clearing efforts in the to the continued provision of water. the water used for electric- riparian zone and requires landown- The clearing work done through ity production in the Highveld ers to cover the cost of clearing other the WB will be focused on the said power stations and the Secunda terrestrial infestations. This support ‘water factories’. The WWF has petrol-from-coal plant. It also serves as an incentive for landown- identified five nodes in which these supplies water to north central ers to conserve biodiversity through catchments lie, says Gordon. She KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng. stewardship agreements in order to adds that the prioritisation is based on several other factors, including high biodiversity benefits, willing- Water Balance Programme Nodes ness of landowners to enter stew- ardship agreements, other existing WWF initiatives which can be Enkangala in the Grasslands leveraged and any additional social benefits that can be achieved, like using biomass (plant debris after Umgeni clearing) to create secondary mar- kets. “Having a focused effort will have greater results where it counts the most for the entire country,” she Upper Breede/Berg says. The prioritised nodes are: Garden Route/Kouga • Upper reaches of the Berg and Breede catchments: This is the heart of the Western Cape water supply system, catering for the City of Cape Town, urban water users and irrigators along the Berg, Eerste, Lourens, Steenbras and Palmiet rivers, domestic and industrial users on the West Coast, as well as irrigators and urban users in the Rivierson- derend catchment of the Breede water management area. • Garden Route from George to Plettenberg Bay in the Western Cape: A highly water stressed Top left: The water area; it is also one of the coun- balance priority nodes. try’s biggest tourist attractions. • The Kouga River catchment in Bottom left: Mean the Eastern Cape: An important Annual Runoff per water resource for the Nelson quinary expressed as a percantage of the Mandela Metropole, this catch- average of the primary ment has also been identified catchment into which as a priority catchment by the it falls.
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 15 Corporate investment
There are numerous reduce, replenish. They are required benefits associated with to accurately measure and provide the removal of alien their operational water use, includ- plants. Environmentally speaking, it results in ing not only their municipal bills, better water quality but also borehole water or any and availability by water used directly from the river. contributing to the Secondly, participants are required healthy functioning of to develop and implement a water riverine systems. reduction and efficiency strategy. Lastly, they are required to invest in projects that will cause ‘new’ water to be made available into freshwater ecosystems, estimated to be in proportion to their water use. Helen Gordon/WWF Helen When determining the Rand value of the proportionate invest- receive financial assistance to subsi- a memorandum of agreement with ment that a water-user will make, dise their invasive alien plants clear- the Natural Resource Management three principal input values are ing costs while achieving long-term Programme regarding the provision used. Firstly, the water user’s opera- commitment to maintaining their of herbicide to relevant landowners. tional water use is determined. This land free of invasive alien plants. Other implementing agents or part- is then divided by the national aver- The collaboration between WWF, ners include CapeNature, LandCare, age amount of water ‘replenished’ WfW and private landowners is Cape Winelands District Municipal- through the clearing of a hectare of seen as an integral ingredient to the ity and Working for Wetlands. invasive alien plants and maintain- Midmar Dam on the success of the WB. “We recognise In order to work out the amount ing it in a natural infestation-free uMgeni River. The Water that an impact on the landscape can of corporate funds that need to be state. Lastly, this is multiplied by the Balance programme only be made with close collabora- invested, the WWF has collaborated average cost of clearing a hectare of is focused on strategic tion and partnerships,” says Gordon. with scientists to estimate the water catchments that are of invasive alien plants and maintain- significant importance There is a particularly close relation- used by various invasive alien plant ing it in an infestation-free state. to the country’s ship with WfW where clearing areas species and the national norms for The participants, says Gordon, economic hubs. overlap. In addition, the WWF has the costs to clear such species. This enter into a five-year renewable information has been used to calcu- contract with the WWF, during late the proportionate investments to which time the WWF achieves the be made by the water user. Notably, extent of invasive alien plant clear- the WWF sees this private sector ing and restoration considered nec- investment not as a benevolent act, essary to balance the participant’s but rather as “a sound decision to operational water use. contribute towards risk mitigation.” The first retailer to join the programme was Woolworths. The value of Reflecting its annual operational corporate investment water use of just over 350 000 kℓ, the company has committed y investing in the WB Pro- R2,3-million. Under a recently Bgramme, water users are refined programme model, Sonae encouraged to take ownership of Novobord and Nedbank also joined South Africa’s common water chal- the programme in 2010 and 2011 lenge by going beyond reducing respectively. Sonae Novobord has their own water demand to also committed R2,8-million in propor- making an investment back into tion to its annual operational water water provisioning ecosystems. use of 200 000 kℓ, while Nedbank As such, each corporate or is balancing its annual operational participant involved with the WB water use of 550 000 kℓ with a Programme, explains Gordon, is R9-million investment, which may required to commit themselves contribute to achieving additional
Lani Lani Vuuren van to the ‘triple R’ process of review, restoration.
16 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Corporate investment
As the WB sites earmarked for “Sufficient capacity to deal with the Among the highlights of clearing are on private land, these implementation needs,” is one, says the WWF Water Balance Programme to date is funds are also used as a financial Gordon. As the high water yield the rejuvenation of a incentive to support landown- areas in question contribute signifi- stream in Mpumalanga. ers in one of two ways. Either, to cantly to the overall water supply The stream used to only encourage landowners to enter their of the entire country, rehabilita- run in summer but, after land into stewardship agreements, tion work requires a cross-country four months of clearing along its banks, is now which is a longer term commitment implementation programme. “Man- flowing in winter. beyond that of WB and involves agement of on-the-ground-imple- a far greater management plan mentation is also difficult from a for the land, ensuring additional distance.” Furthermore, although biodiversity gains. Or, to support costly and time consuming, regular landowners who have already made site visits are vital to flag potential this impressive commitment, as is problems at an early stage. the case with five farmers in the An additional challenge of work- Luneberg area in Mpumalanga. ing in these areas is that they are
“These farmers are hard workers often mountainous and the inva- Gordon/WWF Helen who have shown commendable sive alien plants are hard to access, commitment to alien plant clear- which makes dealing with the users can invest funds in our com- ing and a few of them are ahead of debris after clearing especially chal- mon water-secure future. So far, schedule with the clearing of the lenging. While the most sustainable the programme has been success- required hectares,” says Gordon. approach to WB roll-out entails the ful in creating a platform that links These five willing landowners, landowner managing the clearing of corporate private funds to respon- some of the first to enter contracts plants with his own staff (especially sible landowners greatly in need of of this nature with the WWF, count since the landowner is required to financial assistance in order to con- among the highlights of the project continue the alien plant control after front the often overwhelming and The Water Balance costly challenge of invasive alien to date. “And,” adds Gordon, “a cou- the five-year contract with WB), Programme focuses on ple of these landowners are prepared managing the clearing methodolo- plant clearing. Even more so, WB the quantification of to over-deliver on their contracts, gies and the environmental impact aims to contribute to the country’s water made available with one farmer exploring active res- thereof is more complicated when future water security by achieving through the removal of toration at his own cost and another executed on private property by the tangible and secured results in the invasive alien plants. Here is an example of landscape, while highlighting the using his own funding to clear land owner of that property. how clearing is taking that he is only leasing.” More high- Regardless of these challenges, importance of the health of catch- place along a river (the lights in this specific area in Mpuma the WB Programme is a practical ments in the continued provisioning area already cleared is langa include the rejuvenation of example of how corporate water of water. in the foreground). a stream which used to only run in summer but, after four months of clearing along its banks, is now flowing in winter. Moreover, a new spring has begun flowing. “In future, the farmer now has the option to use this camp in winter,” says Gordon. In addition, Nedbank is engag- ing with WWF to ensure that the clearing of alien plants on their own land (while not part of WB) is done in a similar manner to that of the programme. Lastly, Gordon adds that the mentioned MoU regarding herbicide provision “shows how partnerships can extend the effec- tiveness of action on the ground, contributing to delivering on both WB’s and government’s goals.” Regardless, the programme is not without its challenges. Helen Gordon/WWF Helen
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 17 Freshwater ecosystems
SA’s first freshwater priority areas atlas launched
The same kind of commitment, passion, and collaboration that went into the identification of South Africa’s priority freshwater ecosystems should be applied to ensure that these areas are indeed protected. This was the main message during the launch of the country’s first Atlas of Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas towards the end of last year. Article compiled by Lani van Vuuren.
espite its reputation as a water scarce country, the South African landscape Dcomprises a diverse range of fresh- water ecosystems: from sub-tropical in the north-eastern part of the country, to semi-arid and arid in the interior, to the cool and temper- ate rivers of the fynbos. Apart from inspiring our communities with their beauty, these rivers, wetlands, lakes and estuaries have also long provided for many of our fundamental needs. It is no secret that South Africa’s freshwater ecosystems are under The uThukela water increasing pressure from socio- management area has the highest density of economic development. Urbanisa- freshwater ecosystem tion, population growth, pollution, priority areas. Deterioration in the and a naturally variable climate with health of freshwater a low average annual rainfall are but ecosystems negatively affects their ability some of the threats to the health of water, but also impact on our fresh- of organisations, from the national to continue providing our water systems. These do not only water fauna – at least one third of and provincial departments of water important services. influence the quality and quantity of freshwater fish indigenous to South and environmental affairs, to the Africa is reported as threatened. CSIR, WRC, South African National Three years ago a need was Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), World identified to conserve some natural Wildlife Fund (WWF), to the South examples of the different ecosystems African Institute for Aquatic Biodi- that make up the natural heritage of versity (SAIAB) and South African the country for present and future National Parks. generations. Out of this need came In addition to the project team the National Freshwater Ecosystems and reference group, the project also Priority Areas (NFEPA) project, relied on the participation of some which aimed to answer the questions 150 stakeholders, representing about around which freshwater ecosystems 1 000 person years of collective and how many to protect. In what experience in either aquatic science can be described as arguably the or biodiversity planning. “One of most extensive collaboration between the biggest success factors of this water-related organisations since the project has been the collaborative drawing up of the National Water spirit of the freshwater scientific Act (NWA), the NFEPA project has community in South Africa,” says
Drinie van Rensburg Drinie van drawn together an incredible number SANBI Director: Biodiversity Policy,
18 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Freshwater ecosystems
SA’s first freshwater priority areas atlas launched
of our freshwater ecosystems. The Key findings of the priority areas have been summarised as a series of maps contained in the freshwater priority Atlas of Freshwater Ecosystem Prior areas project ity Areas in South Africa. “In the context of water resources • Only 35% of the length of South management, catchments can be Africa’s mainstem rivers is in a designed to support multiple lev- good condition, compared to 57% els of use, with natural rivers and of the tributaries. wetlands that are minimally used • Around 57% of river ecosystems supporting the sustainability of and 65% of wetland ecosystems hard-working rivers that often form are threatened. the economic hub of the catchment,” • Only 22% of South Africa’s river explains project leader Dr Jeanne length has been identified as fresh- Nel of the CSIR. “This concept is water ecosystem priority areas. firmly embedded in the National • South Africa has only 62 free Water Act and forms the foundation flowing rivers remaining, mostly of the water resources classification tributaries. system.” • The priority areas identified National freshwater priority areas protect over 50 fish species that need not be fenced off entirely from are on the brink of extinction. human use, but rather they should Source: Atlas of Freshwater Ecosys- be supported by good planning, tem Priority Areas in South Africa decision-making, and management to ensure that human use does not impact on the condition of these included: areas where populations of ecosystems. threatened or near-threatened fresh- The criteria for identifying fresh- water fish occurred; areas that are
www.sxc.hu water priority areas were based on considered high water yield or high earlier work in which government groundwater recharge areas; free departments agreed on a vision for flowing rivers and connectedness, Mandy Driver. “Freshwater ecolo- managing and conserving freshwa- as ecosystems that are connected are gists from around the country spent ter ecosystems. These criteria were most likely to support biodiversity. days in workshops, studying maps, reviewed during the regional expert After much investigation, delibera- contributing their data and exper- review workshops. Other criteria tion, debate and refinement, tise. The freshwater ecologists who have tramped around our rivers over many years have an enormous wealth of knowledge. What we have managed to do through NFEPA, is to capture some of that and to ensure that the collective knowledge from around the country is consolidated.” First in SA
The result is South Africa’s first comprehensive assessment of its By protecting a small freshwater ecosystems priority areas proportion of South or those areas of the country that Africa’s rivers, it is hoped that the extinction of are most important for ensuring the threatened freshwater
integrity and continued functioning Lani Vuuren van species can be avoided.
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 19 Freshwater ecosystems
proving the value of free-flowing rivers: The elands river example he Eland River rises on the grassland plateau of the Drakensberg mountains Tnear Machadodorp, then flows downstream until it reaches the Crocodile River in Mpumalanga, which links with the Incomati River that flows across the Mozam- bican border where it eventually meets the Indian Ocean. The Crocodile River is a major supplier of drinking water to Nelspruit, as well as an important source of water for irrigation farmers and the animals of the Kruger National Park. The good water quality and quantity of the Elands River helps to dilute pollutants in the more heavily utilised Crocodile River. Source: Atlas of Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas in South Africa
19 freshwater priority maps – one for North West was found to be the only each water management area in the free flowing river representative of country – were produced. the entire north-western region of the In addition to the Atlas, there is country, with no other free flowing a DVD with data and GIS viewer; rivers in Gauteng. (A free-flowing an implementation manual, and a river is a river which flows undis- look-up table listing ecosystem types, turbed - i.e. without dams or other species and special features recorded structures – from its source to the in priority areas. A technical report confluence with another large river or describing the scientific approach to to the sea) The Upper Groot Marico identify priority areas was also created. River, which plays an enormously important role in the cultural and Last river standing spiritual lives of the communities liv- ing beside it, is currently threatened he project has triggered alarm by several mining applications. Tbells in some areas. For example, The Eastern Cape and KwaZulu- the Upper Groot Marico River in the Natal were found to have the highest number of free-flowing rivers in the Left from top to bottom: country. Many of these rivers will undoubtedly lose their free flowing Map 1 – Remaining free flowing rivers of South status as these provinces urgently Africa. require development of water Map 2 – Fish sanctuaries for threatened and near threatened freshwater fish species indigenous to resources to improve water supply to South Africa. households and agriculture. Map 3 – High water yield areas in South Africa. Of South Africa’s last remaining Map 4 – River condition in South Africa, with blue free flowing rivers, only 25 are longer indicating unmodified, natural rivers and red and than 100 km. This constitutes only purple indicating largely and seriously modified rivers respectively. 4% of the length of the entire river
20 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Freshwater ecosystems
The main threats to South African river systems network in the country. Nineteen Flow alteration – Flows can be of these rivers have been selected altered either by removing water as flagship free flowing rivers based from a freshwater ecosystem or add- on their representativeness of free ing more water through return flows flowing rivers across the country as or water transfer schemes. In South well as their importance for ecosys- Africa most large rivers are heavily tem processes and biodiversity value. utilised and regulated to improve These flagship rivers should receive water security, and large dams can top priority for retaining their free flowing character. store up to two thirds of the country’s For the first time, threatened total annual runoff. freshwater fish species and their sur- Water pollution – This is a very viving populations have been priori- serious and growing problem in tised on a national scale. “The maps South Africa, especially as failing are a benchmark for future conserva- water treatment infrastructure battles tion planning and represent a sig- to treat the increasing domestic and nificant step towards prioritising our industrial effluent from towns and efforts to prevent extinction of our cities. unique freshwater fish fauna,” notes Destruction and degradation SAIAB senior scientist, Dr Ernst of natural habitat – This includes Swartz. The Olifants/Doorn and direct impacts, such as bulldozing Inkomati water management areas, in particular, have been identified as and planting of crops in wetlands or www.sxc.hu fish biodiversity hotspot areas. river channels, and indirect impacts, According to Wilma Lutch, Direc- such as clearing natural vegetation project maintains its momentum and Opportunities for tor of Biodiversity Conservation at in the surrounding catchment, which that the products emanating from conserving the country’s the Department of Environmental last remaining free results in increased sediment loads the NFEPA initiative do not end up Affairs, the timing of the project is flowing rivers are fast and erosion. gathering dust on a shelf. “Imple- opportune. “We are in the process disappearing with the Invasive alien species – Invasive menting and sharing the knowledge of implementing various pieces of growing demand for emanating from this project is now development of water alien plants have a substantial impact legislation. This includes the listing of important,” says WRC CEO Dhesigen resources. on riverine habitat and water yield, threatened ecosystems in terms of the Naidoo. “For this we need to continue consuming an estimated 7% of South Biodiversity Act, as well as the imple- to build on the partnerships created Africa’s total annual runoff. mentation of the national protected by this project.” Climate change – Predicted areas expansion strategy, to which this project will contribute hugely.” changes in rainfall and temperature • To order the Atlas of Fresh will impact on water resources. These Ensuring water Ecosystem Priority Areas changes are likely to have a dispro- implementation in South Africa (Report No: TT portionately large impact on runoff 500/11) and related reports, and river flow, with implications for contact Publications at Tel: (012) future planning and management of he NFEPA maps are already 330-0340; Fax: (012) 331-2565 water resources, especially around Tinfluencing integrated water or Email: [email protected] resource management plans and extremes such as floods and droughts. 1.FINAL ATLAS COVER F&B_Layout 1 2011/06/27 1:48 PM Page 1 decisions in several water manage- Source: Atlas of Freshwater Ecosys- ment areas. Among other, they tem Priority Areas in South Africa are being used for water resource classification, ecological reserve determination and the issuing of water licences. Organisations such as OF FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM CapeNature, for example, are using PRIORITY AREAS the maps to determine the priorities IN SOUTH AFRICA MAPS TO SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE around invasive alien plant clearing DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES and deciding on where alien fish may be stocked. One of the greatest challenges going forward is to ensure that the
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 21 Water power nexus S tudy shows power of energy outages on water sector
influence the amount of energy used in the water supply chain. The power outage impact assessment phase of this project firstly focused on analysing the potential impact of power outage events on each stage of the water supply chain, defined as “We thought our findings may water abstraction, water treatment, reveal that there is a national prob- end-users, water and wastewater lem that needs to be addressed,” says reticulation and water distribution David Winter, Business Unit Leader and wastewater treatment: from Frost & Sullivan, the interna- tional growth consultancy company • Abstraction: Energy usage tasked with executing the study. In within the abstraction phase of order to address this research prob- ithout water, energy the water value chain is limited lem, the research team looked at, cannot be produced and to pumping activities. Water among others, the potential impact A newly- without energy water abstraction schemes use gravity of power outages across the entire cannotW be transported or treated. to move water, but when there published water supply chain and conducted Water and energy have a crucial are topographical limitations, a regional water demand impact study by dependence on each other and, if high lift and booster pumps analysis. the Water the one fails, the other is severely are used to lift water to a point Research affected. In light of this interdepend- where gravity can be used. ence between energy and water, and Energy usage in South Commission South Africa’s electricity capacity Africa’s water and • Water treatment: The significant (WRC) shortfalls, the question begs to be wastewater sectors variation in the levels of water explores asked: If the one does fail, what treatment between water boards exactly will happen to the other? ven though raw water resources and water service authorities the effects This was answered during a Ein South Africa are of a high directly influence the amount of of power recent study commissioned by the quality, especially in comparison energy consumed at each plant. outages on WRC on the impact that energy to more developed nations, our For example, the country’s largest supply challenges are having on challenges lie in water distribution. supplier of potable water, Rand South Africa’s South Africa’s water and wastewater Gauteng’s water supply, for example, Water consumes approximately water and services. Funded jointly by the WRC is supplemented by a complex water 662 kWh per Megalitre of water wastewater and the South African Local Govern- transfer scheme from Lesotho. Still, treated for its approximately 20 ment Association, the project aimed South Africa has one of the most million water users. In compari- services. to provide stakeholders within the advanced water and wastewater son, Sedibeng Water (supplying Article by South African water and wastewater sectors on the continent and accord- the Free State and Northern Petro Kotzé. treatment sectors with an objective ing to the report, understanding our Cape) uses approximately 1154 and logical evaluation of the current water supply chain is a critical com- kWh per Megalitre of water and expected impact and conse- ponent of analysing the impact of treated. The latter’s energy fig- quences of power outages on water power outages in this sector. ures includes other operational and wastewater treatment services. There are numerous factors that costs, but the significantly
22 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Water power nexus
higher cost is because they do where gravity is utilised signifi- the availability of back-up power. not use gravitational feeds. cantly less energy is consumed. While pumping is the most vulner- able activity in the water supply • Water end users: Water is utilised • Wastewater treatment: In total, chain, the use of gravity feeds can in varying quantities by differ- wastewater from the urban and reduce the severity in many cases. ent end-users. By far the largest commercial sectors, industry and While water security for end users is consumer, the bulk of irrigation mining equates to about 7 600 directly influenced by power outages water utilised is untreated and Mℓ of wastewater per day. In the on abstraction, distribution or water bypasses the traditional water entire water supply chain, waste- treatment points of the supply chain, supply chain (thus, largely left water treatment is by far the larg- water services authorities and water out of this study). On the other est consumer of energy, but the boards generally have sufficient hand, limitations in water sup- amount of energy consumed dif- back-up water supply to mitigate ply due to power outages could fers significantly between differ- power outages. result in significant negative ent treatment plants. In general, Wastewater treatment is also very impacts on the mining and the bulk of the energy consumed energy intensive, and hence vulner- bulk industry, for power giant results from the aeration process. able to power outage events. Again, Eskom itself and for some However, in the event of a power plant characteristics dictate impact urban commercial activities. outage the treatment monitor- levels. Plants with back-up power ing systems are also important supply and overflow dams are gener- • Water and wastewater reticu- to ensure that wastewater does ally not impacted by power outages, lation: Energy usage for the not pollute the surrounding but less prepared facilities can expe- reticulation of water and environment. The study found rience significant environmental, wastewater is very similar that both water and wastewater economic, health and social impacts. to that of water distribution. treatment processes utilise ‘sig- Overall, the amount of energy con- Pumping is the largest energy nificant’ amounts of energy. sumed in these treatment processes consuming component, with are influenced by a variety of factors, telemetry control systems also In general, it was concluded that like the location of the treatment requiring consistent power. the water supply chain is impacted plant (and the resulting use of grav- The quantity of energy used to varying degrees in the event of ity or pumping feeds), the treatment is determined by the level of a power outage, depending on the technology used and the quality of pumping required; in areas characteristics of the plant and water being treated.
In the entire water supply chain, wastewater treatment is by far the largest
Lani Lani Vuuren van consumer of energy.
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 23 Water power nexus
specifically on economic and social Water Supply Chain Water Supply Chain water requirements. Gauteng was
Distribution identified as the highest risk area Reticulation Reticulation in terms of the potential impact of EndEnd DisposeDispose a lack of water services resulting Users Users from a power outage event. The WaterWater WastewaterWastewater AbstractionAbstraction EndEnd high concentration of high water TreatmentTreatment UsersUsers TreatmentTreatment consumption economic activities
EndEnd and a large concentration of South UsersUsers Africa’s population afforded it this Above: South Africa’s Recycle water supply chain: status, while the Western Cape This figure provides and KwaZulu-Natal were afforded a relative energy What is the impact of power outages on: medium level economic and social consumption breakdown Water abstraction Water distribution risks. More key areas that cannot across the water value Water treatment afford energy and water shortages chain. Wastewater Reticulation include manufacturing and mining treatment is by far the Wastewater Treatment largest consumer of industries. energy with a range of The analysis found that power 200 – 1800 kWh/Mℓ Contributing factors that could design capacity, which will impact outages have, without any doubt, a treated. Water treatment aggravate load shedding include old heavily on the possible consequences direct impact on water and wastewa- typically reflects lower energy consumption and badly maintained water treat- of power outages. It is estimated ter delivery in South Africa, across a figures at 150 – 650 ment plants (including the pipes that 40% of these do not monitor range of economic, environmental, kWh/Mℓ treated. used to distribute water to towns and their volume of discharge and do social and health areas and several Abstraction, distribution cities), poor management and lack not adhere to licence agreements, examples of power outages event and reticulation vary of skills among municipal staff, lack while the majority of plants are 30 impacting the South African water depending on whether gravitational feeds are of funding and emergency prepar- to 50 years old and many are poorly supply chain were identified. The utilised or not. edness, limited technical support managed. Cedarberg Municipality, for example, and lack of monitoring equipment. A second tier of the analysis has been plagued with power outage Right: Energy Recent research by the Department entailed a regional comparative events, which indirectly impact water and water – the of Water Affairs also revealed that impact analysis. This part of the and wastewater service delivery. inextricable link: Without water, Eskom the majority of wastewater treatment study looked at water demand lev- Besides the impact on the local would not be able to works do not operate within their els across the region, and focused community there is a real financial produce the country’s power supply, necessary, among others, to provide water to users through the entire country. Eskom uses approximately 325 million cubic meters of water per annum to produce this energy, mostly by using coal to heat water, convert it into steam and release it to turn large turbines to create power. The majority of power stations were built in water catchment areas, but some need water to be transferred via pipelines, pumping systems and various other components between inter-basin transfers – all of which require energy to operate. Source: American Water (2008)
24 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Water power nexus
cost to provide back-up services. Energy Produced versus Water Consumed Top left: Energy A case in the Ugu district revealed produced vs. water consumed – The graph a direct impact on a commercial 270 shows the relationship business, which resulted in a loss 250 between the water of revenue and salaries for casual 230 consumed and the labour. Other cases include health Energy Produced : TWh energy produced by 210 impacts in Howick, KwaZulu-Natal, Water Consumed: m3 Eskom from 1994 to 190 2005. Regardless of environmental impacts at Zandvlei 170 the various measures in the Western Cape and economic Consumption Water to conserve the use of Energy Production and Production Energy impacts for the City of Cape Town 150 water implemented, the 4 6 8 0 2 4 who has had to install back-up 9 0 0 graph clearly depicts 99 power supplies. All of these examples 19 1 199 200 20 20 the co-dependency Years that exists between can be attributed to power outage water and electricity events that have impacted the water production. supply chain. Mining & Bulk Source: Eskom Power Generation In order to ensure that the Industrial impacts highlighted in the report 2% Bottom left: South 6% African end user are eliminated or at least reduced, Urban water consumption the study results indicate that water 25% breakdown – Water decision makers and managers must is used in varying take appropriate mitigatory steps or quantities by different there will be costly consequences. end-users. By far the largest consumer is “However,” adds Winter, “an impor- Irrigation 59% Rural agriculture, followed by tant finding was also that each loca- 4% urban areas, mining and tion and treatment plant has unique bulk industrial, and then characteristics that may or may not Afforestation rural and afforestation. make it vulnerable to a power out- 4% age event.” He adds that one cannot generalise about all treatment plants measure will successfully account for managers and operational staff know as many of them are unique and are every eventuality that may arise in what to do in the event of a power in unique situations that may render terms of a power outage. outage. This initiative should be them either vulnerable or not. The key areas that should be managed and driven by the Depart- In general though, smaller addressed include improved com- ment of Water Affairs and rolled out providers who don’t have back-up munication between the water sector across all water services authorities. generators or sufficient plans to and the energy sector. If load shed- According to Winter, “the value manage a power outage event, would ding is required, critical processes of the findings lies therein that we be hardest hit by power outages, says along the water supply chain need know that load-shedding will not Winter. For these service providers, to be prioritised. While large con- cause a national-level crisis, impact- challenges will arise when energy- sumers of water like Eskom and ing all treatment plants.” Treatment intensive activities (like pumping Sasol work closely with water and plants and their vulnerability to or treatment) cannot function and energy service providers to secure power outages are location and either water cannot be delivered levels of supply, this needs to be plant specific. “In addition,” he says, to end users or, there is a risk that extended to smaller water services “most load shedding events are wastewater will pass through a treat- authorities. location specific and not typically ment plant without being treated A second key recommendation at a national level, which further and contaminate the receiving is on-site power generation capacity, reduces the impact of a nation-wide environment. seen as the best solution to ensure r i s k .” that critical processes continue to • To order the report, Power Out- Lowering the impact function in the event that power out- ages and their Impact on South of power outages ages cannot be avoided. Additionally, Africa’s Water and Wastewater it is imperative that personnel are Sectors (Report No: KV 267/11) n conclusion, the analysis found adequately trained and know what contact Publications at Tel: Ithat tackling power supply chal- mitigatory measures need to be (012) 330-0340; Fax: (012) 331- lenges in the water and wastewater implemented in the event of a power 2565; Email: [email protected]. sectors will require a multifaceted outage. Lastly, contingency plans za or download an electronic approach. No individual mitigatory need to be put in place so that water copy at www.wrc.org.za
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 25 , Water History
The inlet/outlet works in Rockview Dam comprise a reinforced/pre-stressed concrete tower, 68 m high. To ensure the tower’s stability in the event of an earthquake it was necessary to provide 32 anchors, each of 3 000 kN capacity, anchored 20 m into the rock. DWA/eWISA Palmiet – An environmentally sound example
Long before the passing of formal The river had actually been at that stage completely put off the environmental management legislation, the identified as a possible water source municipality (it would have to be as far back as the 1900s. A Mr pumped 130 km – quite a task at that Palmiet Pumped Storage Scheme proved St V Erskine, learning that the Town time). Erskine then offered to build that infrastructure development can be Council of Cape Town was inves- the infrastructure himself, selling the sensitive to the needs of the environment. tigating potential water supplies, water to the municipality at 7½ d per looked to purchase land around one 1 000 gallons (4 546 ℓ), but even that Article by Lani van Vuuren. such a possible river and acquiring did not persuade them. Instead Cape the water rights. (His plan was to Town chose to develop the Steenbras umerous large water engi- sell the land and water rights back scheme. neering projects in the to the municipality for a profit). We do not know what hap- 1950s, such as the raising He passed by the Steenbras River ‘a pened to Erskine, but 70 years later Nof the Steenbras Dam and the com- mere dribble he could jump over’ the Department of Water Affairs pletion of the Wemmershoek Dam, and settled on the Palmiet River, (DWA) conducted investigations proved to be inadequate to meet Cape which he had to cross by using a to survey possible dam sites in the Town’s insatiable demand for water. punt and wire rope. Palmiet River to further augment All eyes turned to the Palmiet, a short With financial backing of a Lon- Cape Town’s water supply. Initially river (only about 74 km) which rises don firm and some local investors it was assumed that a long tunnel in the Hottentots-Holland mountains Erskine started acquiring land in the would be needed to convey the water and winds south-west to its estuary catchment. However, the distance from such a dam north-westwards near Kleinmond. of the Palmiet River to Cape Town under the Kogelberg and Hottentots
26 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 , Water History
surveys and the examination of bore- far outweighed the pumping capacity Engineering features hole longs. A complex geology was required for the transfer of the avail- of the rockview Dam uncovered, and it was realised that able water. As a result, the project • Type: Rockfill with clay core (main embankment), much more geological data would took the form of a major hydroelec- and earthfill and rockfill with clay core (northern be required in critical areas before a tric pumped storage facility, with embankment) final feasibility study and cost esti- provision for the water transfer • Height above lowest foundation: 48 m (main embank- mate could be undertaken. facility to be brought into use when ment), 33 m (northern embankment) Thus, a second geological study required. • Gross storage capacity: 16,8 million m3 was undertaken between 1979 and The final proposed scheme • Crest length: 1 300 (main embankment), 670 m (north- 1980. Together these two studies comprised two new dams with an ern embankment) produced 47 boreholes recovering active storage capacity of 15 mil- 3 • Material content of dam wall: 3,1 million m3 (main 2 452 m of core material upon which lion m each and a level difference embankment), 450 000 m3 (northern embankment) the final feasibility study and cost of 285 m to be linked by a 2 km • Type of spillway: None estimate were based. As the scheme tunnel and 400 MW hydropower • Surface area at full supply level: 77 ha developed, it was found that Eskom’s station. During the night and over need for peak power generating weekends water would be pumped capacity was more urgent than Cape from the lower reservoir (Kogelberg) Town’s need for additional water and on the Palmiet River, to the upper Engineering features that the required generating capacity reservoir (Rockview) situated on the of the Kogelberg Dam • Type: Mass arch gravity concrete with separate earth embankment • Height above lowest foundation: 54 m • Gross storage capacity: 17,3 million m3 • Crest length: 182,5 m • Material content of wall: 72 000 m3 (concrete) • Earth embankment: 202 000 m3 • Type of spillway: Ogee (uncontrolled) • Surface area of reservoir at full supply level: 142,6 ha
Mountain ranges towards the city (both economically and envi- ronmentally unsound), however, the construction of the Steenbras Pumped Storage Scheme in 1978 opened up a new avenue. By incorporating this scheme to convey Palmiet water towards Cape Town the length of the conduit could be shortened. If the new scheme could be developed as another pumped storage scheme this would even make it more economical as pumping cost would be reduced by using the cheaper off-peak power. So the idea of the Palmiet pPumped Storage Scheme was born. Eskom undertook the initial feasibility study into the viability of Kogelberg Dam nearing such a scheme, which was completed completion as part of in 1979. Between 1978 and 1979 the Palmiet Pumped initial geological investigations were Storage Scheme. The dam features a two- also conducted. Among others, this level spillway that is a involved mapping of the geology 45 m-long uncontrolled from aerial photographs, ground crest in the river section. DWA/eWISA
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 27 , Water History
the project were Ninham Shand and control system. In addition, all pol- VKE along with Elektroconsult Engi- luted and sediment-carrying water neering Services of Switzerland. The had to be controlled and directed to main civil works contractors were special ponds before being released, Clifford Harris-Marti Tunnelling while all disturbed areas had to be and Philipp Holtzmann of Germany, rehabilitated by replacing the topsoil although the dams were constructed that had been removed and stored internally by DWA, with Peter Hume (restoration was done concurrently and Niel van Wyk of the department with construction). acting as resident engineers. Even access roads were routed Most of the workforce on the to avoid scenic outcrops of rock of dams were transferred from the sensitive plant growth areas and fol- Jonkershoek tunnel project and, at lowed natural contours thus blending Eskom the height of construction close to in with the landscape. The Palmiet 800 people worked on the dam sites. power station – as well as the water- No housing could be established way linking the Rockview and Kogel- on site, and so everyone had to be berg dams – was placed underground. accommodated in nearby Grabouw. The recommendations were accepted The environment was always going and a resident environmental control to be an important consideration of officer was appointed to see that they the project. The Palmiet runs through were carried out. The main approach the Kogelberg Nature Reserve – a of the environmental programme was particularly sensitive area endowed to prevent pollution. Interestingly, with a wealth of fynbos species, and this preventative approach ended up the pumped storage scheme was to saving as much as 1,5% of the antici- be situated close by. DWA carried pated project cost. out environmental studies during the
Eskom planning stages of the project, and Rockview Dam it was during this time that a special Above and top: The watershed between the Palmiet and environmental ministerial commit- ituated 285 m above Kogelberg Palmiet hydropower Steenbras rivers. tee was found under the chairman- SDam, Rockview Dam being situ- plant during During hours of peak electric- ship of Dr Paul Roberts to investigate ated on a watershed virtually has no construction. The plant the potential environmental impacts catchment area and is solely depend- has a total power ity demand, electricity would be generating capacity of generated by releasing water from of the scheme. The committee ent on pumping to fill it. The dam 400 MW and can be Rockview through the same water- included wide representation from basin consists of two natural depres- brought on stream in way system to the power station and key institutions and individuals sions, with the larger one located on less than 3 minutes, returning it to Kogelberg. Additional using water in the catchment. the southern side. These depressions compared to coal-fired Various alternatives were investi- are linked by an excavated chan- stations which require water over and above that required around eight hours to for generation would be pumped to gated while the committee identified nel. The main embankment, which start generating power the upper reservoir and released into pertinent issues requiring attention. is about 1 300 m long and has a from cold start-up. the Upper Steenbras Dam. In this A ‘construction plan’ was eventually maximum height of 48 m, was con- way, Cape Town’s water would be aug- drawn up with 54 recommenda- structed mainly along the southern mented by about 25 million m3 a year. tions on reducing the anticipated perimeter of the basin. This main A close working relationship was negative environmental effects of the wall was constructed of rockfill with forged between members of Eskom project. This included demarcating a central clay core, and has a material and DWA involved in the scheme. work areas prior to the start of any content of 3,1 million m3. Eskom became responsible for the construction activities; delineat- The secondary (or northern) design and construction of the power ing specific eating areas in order to embankment is about 670 m in station and the waterways. In turn, the contain the spread of exotic Argen- length, and has a maximum height two dams together with the connect- tinean ants; inspecting construction of 33 m. The natural topography ing canal and pipeline between the materials to eliminate the possible borders the remainder of the basin. Rockview and Upper Steenbras dams introduction of non-indigenous The northern embankment also has became the responsibility of DWA. plants; providing adequate toi- a clay core and rockfill outer zones The scheme was approved in let facilities for workers (largely but, in order to make use of the 1982 and construction started soon unheard of on construction sites sandy overburden material within after. The consulting engineers on at the time); and devising a refuse the dam basin, relatively large sandy
28 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 , Water History
and, when completed, Rockview an electrically-driven trolley. The sources dam was the largest rockfill dam (by cableway was able to reach 18 m to • Anon (1982) ‘Fase 1 van die volume) in the country. By con- each side of its centreline, and was Palmietrivier-staatswaterskema structing a rockfill dam DWA was able to cover most of the dam wall. neem ‘n aanvang. Die omgewings ensured of a larger capacity structure Concrete for the apron was placed by debat oor verdere ontwikkeling created by the removal of material mobile crane. duur egter voort’. The Civil Engineer for the embankment from the dam Work in the riverbed was executed 3 in South Africa 24 (6), p233-237 basin. An estimated 2,5 million m during the summer months when the • Terblanche NC & Pyzikowski WZ additional capacity was created by flows were low and easily diverted. (1989) ‘Overview of the Palmiet excavation of rockfill from the basin. To stop the dam from impounding Pumped Storage Scheme’ in The At full supply capacity the water area and thereby flooding the power sta- Civil Engineer in South Africa 31 within the dam basin is about 77 ha tion works in the basin, a temporary (11), p369-370 and the live storage capacity is 15 opening of 6 m by 6 m was left in the 3 Below: Work is • Elges HFWK, Hollingworth F, Hume million m . Construction of Rockfill dam at a low level. This opening was Dam kicked off in 1983 and was successfully closed in April 1987 by undertaken on the PK and Druyts FHWM (1989) bottom of the Kogelberg constructing a 2,4 m-thick reinforced ‘Rockview and Kogelberg dams’ in completed in November 1986. Dam, the lower storage The Civil Engineer in South Africa 31 concrete wall at the upstream end. unit of the Palmiet (11), p389-396 K ogelberg Dam The dam was completed in July 1987, pumped storage scheme. • Anon (1988) ‘The Palmiet Pumped and overspilled for the first time on 10 July that year. The entire project Bottom: Rockview Dam Storage Scheme wins the Institu- he lower storage unit, Kogelberg during construction. was officially inaugurated on 14 tion’s top award’. The Civil Engineer TDam, is situated on the Palmiet At the time, Rockview in South Africa 30 (8), p361-369 River some 2 km downstream of the October 1988 and in that year won a was the largest rockfill • Cape of Good Hope (1904) The power station. It consists of a concrete SAICE Award for ‘Most Outstanding dam in the country by volume. future water supply of Cape town arch/gravity wall in the river section Civil Engineering Achievement’. and the Cape Peninsula. Cape Times: with a separate earth embankment Cape Town on a saddle on the eastern flank. The • Republic of South Africa (1982) Direc- concrete wall has a total length of tor General of Environmental Affairs 182,5 m with a maximum height of report on the proposed first phase 54 m above its lowest foundation level of the Palmiet River Government and contains 72 000 m3 of concrete. Water Scheme. Government Printer: The earth embankment is 850 m Pretoria. Report No: WP K-‘82 long, with a maximum height of • SANCOLD (1994) Large Dams and 17 m, containing about 202 000 m3 of Water Systems in SA. JP van der Walt earth. A 45 m-long ogee crest spillway and Son: Pretoria permits passage of a 1 360 m3/s flood, • www.eskom.co.za the energy generated being dissipated • Thanks to eWISA for photographs by a splitter-and-step system that aerates the nappe. A concrete apron protects the riverbed from erosion. transition zones were also incorpo- River outlets were provided to permit DWA/eWISA rated. This embankment also houses the passage of compensation water the outlet system which comprises to downstream riparian owners. All two pipes each able to discharge the material for the construction was required flow of 6 m3/s at the lowest obtained from the Rockview reservoir drawdown level. Each outlet pipe is basin. of 1 500 mm internal diameter, and Initially, access to the dam site is provided with a hydraulically con- was difficult, and a 5 km permanent trolled slide gate for isolating pur- road had to be constructed before poses at its inlet and is terminated construction could start. Eventu- by a 1 400 mm sleeve valve. The ally building started in May 1983. outlet pipes are encased in concrete A 6 t luffing cableway was used to over the full length and the concrete construct the main concrete wall. encasement is founded on rock. The cableway towers were 263 m The quarry needed to provide apart and 60 m high. Concrete was the rockfill was the biggest ever transported from the mixer to the established by DWA at that time cableway in two 2,25 m3 buckets on DWA/eWISA
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 29 Dams
A proud history of dam safety Trisa Hugo Trisa
Continuous work by the Department of Last year one incident was compliance with legislation. “We Water Affair’s (DWA’s) Dam Safety Office reported, namely Hogsett Dam, a are fortunate that so few medium 15 m high, 125 200 m3 capacity or large dams have failed in South is required to ensure that South Africa earthen dam near Dordrecht, in the Africa to date. However, we can- maintains its imposing dam safety record. Eastern Cape, which failed in Feb- not rest on our laurels. Dam safety Article by Lani van Vuuren. ruary after heavy rain. Originally depends on regular monitoring and constructed in 1932 the dam was maintenance, and dam safety evalua- he first significant storage never registered or inspected and thus tions, including inspections, need to dams in South Africa were missed out on the benefits of dam be undertaken constantly.” already constructed during the safety legislation. Particular attention is paid to the Tsecond half of the nineteenth century, “The objective of dam safety safety of dams with a high hazard but it was not until 1987 that the coun- legislation is to improve the safety of potential, and the upgrading and try passed its first dam safety legisla- new and existing dams with a safety monitoring of existing Category II tion. Nevertheless, the country’s dam risk so as to reduce the potential for and III dams remains a priority. Of safety record compares favourably with harm to the public, damage to prop- the 1 926 category II and III dams that of developed countries. Loss of life erty or to resource quality,” explains registered with the Dam Safety during dam failures has been relatively Jan Nortje, Chief Engineer of the Office, 1 422 have been inspected low through the decades, and in the DWA Dam Safety Office. Dam own- at least once. As an owner of many last 25 years not a single Category II or ers are wholly responsible for ensur- of these dams, DWA itself has also III (high risk) dam for which there had ing the safety of their dams, with started with a comprehensive reha- been a licence to construct has failed in the Dam Safety Office responsible bilitation programme to improve the South Africa. for administering and monitoring safety of its dams.
30 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 Dams
Some concern has been expressed National Water Act of 1998. The When does a dam over the safety of municipal dams, biggest change has been that in addi- many of which are in excess of 50 tion to protecting human lives and carry a safety risk? years old. “There are so many other property against unsafe conditions at dam is defined in legislation as any structure capable pressing priorities at municipal level, dams, the draft new Regulations have of diverting or storing water. So a storage reservoir for such as the provision of basic ser- been expanded to also protect water A vices, that the safety issues of dams resources by assigning a high priority municipal water supply is a dam, and so is a tailings dump at are often neglected,” reports Nortje. to e.g. pollution control dams, which a mine or power station that may or could contain water as “In many municipalities there is have an impact on groundwater and well as a refuse dump that contains water. At present any dam also a lack of technical capacity to surface water resources. These dams with a storage capacity in excess of 50 000 m3 and a vertical appreciate and address the shortcom- occur mostly in the mining, indus- height higher than 5 m is considered as having a safety risk. ings in structural safety and day-to- trial and municipal sectors. Every dam with a safety risk must be classified as a Category day operation and maintenance of “The draft new Regulations I, II, or III dam (with I being relatively low risk and III being municipal dams.” will also streamline the process of relatively high risk). This is done on the basis of the dam’s size Unfortunately, the Dam Safety approval of professional persons and its hazard potential rating. In South Africa, about 56% Office has limited technical capacity, for dam safety tasks in terms of the of dams are classified as Category I. No person who intends consisting of only two engineers and Regulations by providing for a Regis- to construct a new dam with a safety risk, or enlarge, alter or one technician, and there are limits to ter of Approved Professional Persons, repair an existing dam with a safety risk, may begin construc- the technical assistance the office can to be compiled in consultation with provide local authorities. Municipali- the Engineering Council of South tion work before he or she is in possession of a dam license ties – as other dam owners – must Africa,” explains Nortje. “The old to do so, which is issued by the Department of Water Affairs. procure technical expertise from Regulations required that a person For more information Visit: www.dwa.gov.za and click on the the private sector to conduct regular had to apply for approval every time ‘Dam Safety Office’ button under the ‘Sites’ banner. compulsory dam safety evaluations he/she undertook a dam safety task, of their dams, and carry out any for example, new approval had to be recommendations stemming from sought even if the same person was these evaluations. The Dam Safety requested to perform a second five- Office has recently focused on better yearly dam safety inspection.” communications with municipalities Under the draft new Regula- regarding the requirements of dam tions a person on the Register will be safety legislation. allowed to perform dam safety tasks The 1987 Dam Safety Regulations, as specified in the Register without originally drawn up under the Water having to re-apply. This is expected Act of 1956, have now been revised to greatly reduce the administrative to bring them in line with the current burden on the Dam Safety Office. In addition, the new draft Regula- tions will provide for a self-sustaining Distribution of registered dams inspection programme by requiring according to size class that Category II and III dams must S ize class Number % be inspected by an approved profes- Small (5 m-12 m) 3 465 74% sional person every five years. This than 12 m high, with 86% having a Medium (12 m-30 m) 1 061 22% will relieve the Dam Safety Office storage capacity of less than a million 3 Large (30 m and higher) 183 4% from the administrative burden of m . “In the old regulations, require- having to send instructions every five Total 4 709 100 ments for small Category I dams years. “This will mean that scarce Source: DWA were very superficial, making them human resources can now be focused almost meaningless,” notes Nortje. Category classification of on other important tasks, such as “More pertinent information is now existing dams monitoring that inspections are done required by the new regulations for and that the recommendations to the various actions (when applying C ategory Number of % upgrade the safety of dams are imple- to construct a new dam or when classification dams mented,” notes Nortje. inspecting an existing dam). This Category 1 2 456 56% When dam failures do occur in should help improve the safety of Category 2 1 622 37% South Africa, they usually involve Category I dams.” Category 3 288 7% small, farm dams. Around 74% of At the time of writing the draft Total 4 366 100 the dams currently registered with new Regulations were awaiting final Source: DWA DWA’s Dam Safety Office are less Ministerial approval.
The Water Wheel January/February 2012 31 Develop a school policy to improve water management
e all need to work towards are. A policy then attempts to address what managing our water resources has been discovered in the audit. more wisely, whether it is on T op ten tips to save anW individual, group, class, grade or school water at school Undertaking water audits level. Schools uses many thousands of litres as a class of water every day. Water has many uses in 1. Bring a water bottle to school to schools, including drinking, flushing the ivide the class into five groups. Every toilet, cleaning equipment, washing hands avoid using a drinking fountain that learner needs a copy of the water audit and watering the garden and sports fields. can use more water than a person D worksheet provided. All learners need to Generally, schools in South Africa that drinks. check the water meter (if your school has have piped water have water meters and so 2. Repair leaky taps and toilets one) each day. Each group needs to do the they pay for the water they use. The school throughout the school audit on a different day of the week (one has to pay the water bill itself. The more 3. Install low flow or water-reducing group of learners will do it on Monday, the water the school uses, the more it has to devices on faucets and toilets. next group on Tuesday and so on) and report pay! If that money was not spent on water 4. Never allow water to run unneces- any leaking taps or toilets to the teacher. it could be used for something else! sarily, and avoid using the toilet as a Once the audits are complete, learners One way of ensuring water is not wasted (individually or in small groups) need to at school is to have a water management trash can. brainstorm ideas around how the water man- policy. A school water policy is a statement 5. Encourage maintenance staff to agement in their school can be improved, of intentions and principles for improving avoid using hoses or pressure wash- based on what they discovered during a school’s educational and environmental ers to clean sidewalks and other their audits. Water management actions performance. The policy development pro- paved areas. can include individual learner and teacher cess involves learners, teachers and other 6. Make sure spring systems are water- actions and whole class/grade/school actions. stakeholders and encourages schools to ing plants and not spraying water Learners then need to write down all the audit existing practices, activities and other onto sidewalks or other paved areas. ideas on paper. Teachers can elements of the curriculum and to select, 7. Develop a poster campaign to help then go round the class, evaluate and review environmental educa- asking individuals (or tion goals and management plans. educate the school community on groups) for their con- Minimising water wastage and using water conserving behaviours, such tributions and ideas. water more wisely usually forms an impor- as repairing leaks, turning off These ideas are tant part of such a policy. To improve water the water while washing hands, then listed on the management at your school you need to landscaping with indigenous board. The class start with an audit of current performance. plants, etc. then decides which An audit is a careful look at the way things 8. Install rainwater harvesting ideas (between five tanks on school grounds. and ten) are the 9. Place ice-cream containers under most likely that the school water fountains and pour school will be able to excess water on the garden. implement. Eliminate 10. Wash paint brushes the rest. etc in a bucket or ice cream con-
www.sxc.hu tainer, rather than under a running tap.
Conserving water will save your school both a precious resource and some Rands and cents.
32 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 www.sxc.hu More water conservation learning ideas for teachers
• Poster contest: Have students make posters showing water conservation ideas. • Research project: Have students develop their research skills by looking into water issues in your local area. Have them learn and write about where public water supplies come from, how much water their local community uses
and existing or future problems that Online www.sxc.hu threaten the security of local water resources supply. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/sc4.html Once everyone is happy with the policy, This website of the US Geological Survey features an write or type it up neatly and present it to Working together we online drip calculator, which calculates how much can all help to save the school governing body or headmaster. water at school. water a leaking tap wastes. The school may already have an environ- mental policy so the water management http://www.waterwise.co.za/site/home.html policy can become part of that. Rand Water’s Water Wise website contains stacks • The information from this article has been taken from the Lessons Plans for of information on how to save water at school learners Grades R to 12, developed by the WRC and Share-Net. To access and at home. the lesson plans electronically, Visit: http://wrcwww/Pages/Learning.aspx or Email: [email protected] for a hard copy. ------Name: ...... Date of audit: ...... Time of audit: ...... WATER YES NO 1 Does the school have access to water on tap? 2 Is the drinking water clean and safe for consumption? 3 Does the school have tanks to collect rainwater? 4 Are teachers and learners aware of ways to save water? 5 Is water management recognised and promoted at your school? 6 Who among teachers, school governing body members, learners and other staff members know how to change a tap washer? 7 How many taps are dripping? 8 How many taps (including baths and showers) are in the school and school grounds? 9 How many flush toilets are in the school? 10 How many toilets are leaking? If the school has access to municipal water, find and read the water meter in the school grounds. Record the daily use in the table below: DAY DATE TIME METER READING Litres used Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Total for the school week Last word
SA organisations pledge to protect country’s rivers n 14 November, Deputy Minis- than three years ago to answer the ques- Research Commission. This is the first ter of Water & Environmental tion as to how many and which rivers and time such a project has been undertaken Affairs, Rejoice Mabudafhasi, wetlands the country needs to maintain in South Africa. Following the launch, all launchedO a new atlas containing mapped in a natural condition to sustain eco- the project partners signed a copy of the river, wetland and estuary priorities for nomic and social development, while Atlas, symbolic of their pledge to take the South Africa. The Atlas of Freshwater still conserving freshwater biodiversity. project forward to ensure the protection of Ecosystem Priority Areas in South Africa The project partners included a host South Africa’s critical freshwater systems. is the result of a project that started more of organisations, including the Water Also see the article on page 18.
All photographs by Lani van Vuuren
The national freshwater priority areas project partners pose following the launch of the Atlas.
WRC CEO Dhesigen Naidoo with SANBI CEO Dr Tanya Abrahamse.
Deputy Minister of Water & Environmental Affairs, Rejoice Mabudafhasi, officially launching the Atlas. Project leader Dr Jeanne Nel of the CSIR.
WRC CEO Dhesigen Naidoo watches Department of Water Affairs Acting Director WRC CEO Dhesigen Naidoo; Deputy Minister of Water & Environmental Affairs Rejoice General Trevor Balzer apply his signature to the Atlas. Mabudafhasi; and SANBI CEO Dr Tanya Abrahamse view the signed Atlas.
34 The Water Wheel January/February 2012 July/August 2011 Volume 10 No 4
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