1 He finished And after the media And after the

2

I would like to thank H.W. von der Dunk, Rienk Vermij, and the editors for their thoughtful comments, and Vermij, von der Dunk, Rienk I would like to thank H.W. Sarkozy ‘Nicolas Piquart, Paris (29.4.2007): in Palace Bercy Sport the at campaign election on Sarkozy of the Sixties is the role ascribed to in both periods. A closer look at look closer A periods. both in philosophy to ascribed role the is Sixties the of ideas of of the importance picture should lead to a more balanced this difference in history. thought. These schools are juxtaposed with the two main scholarly traditions of the with the two main scholarly traditions These schools are juxtaposed thought. of mentalities. which are generation research and the history history of the Sixties, of the history of which are crucial for the understanding Furthermore, two issues, role of history. are discussed: the history of nature and the change in both periods, and of the Enlightenment the historiography between The most striking difference In this essay, the historiographies of the Enlightenment and of the Sixties are of the Enlightenment the historiographies In this essay, of eighteenth-century The two main schools of research other. with each compared history of ideas) and the history of history (or the social history are: the new cultural thank Dick Smakman for correcting my English; all mistakes are mine. veut “tourner la page de mai 1968”’.

with the speeches of Martin Luther King, Obama himself asserted during his during asserted himself Obama King, Luther Martin of speeches the with 1 2 Sixties played a crucial role in mobilizing support. In 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy support. In 2007, Nicolas role in mobilizing a crucial played Sixties speech – while running for in a famous campaign the Sixties associated and relativism, ethical and moral with loss of authority, – with the president with cynical citizens, who knew just their rights, not their duties. 68.” de mai page „Je veux tourner la with: his indictment and his speeches Kennedy, Barack Obama with John F. linked frequently contending arguments sound rather similar. While advocates of the ideas of ideas of the advocates While similar. sound rather arguments contending in the moments decisive commemorate Sixties and of the Enlightenment the adversaries often deplore equal rights, and democracy, history of emancipation, eroding standards, and the dwindling the beginnings of moral deterioration, the campaigns, election presidential in recent Even power of discernment. They represent more than just a movement or a generation, more than just an more than or a generation, just a movement than more represent They refer to modern Sixties and the Enlightenment Both the or a decade. epoch debates, and evoke ambiguous feelings values, call on contemporary political message have and their of both movements legacies The in our own times. the Remarkably, adversaries. and advocates by both debated vividly been The histories of the Enlightenment and of the Sixties have much in common. The histories of the Enlightenment of western civilisation. history the in seminal considered are periods Both Hanco Jürgens HANCO JÜRGENS of change? study the history How to and the Sixties The Enlightenment

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 88 two main research schoolsofdix-huitièmistes today: The new cultural history the lastutopia. birthplace of , the Sixties are generally portrayed more critically as changed in various ways: Whereas the Enlightenment is often depicted as the considerably. Inthepastdecade,cultural memory ofbothperiodshas well. Despitethesecrossovers,theresearchtraditionsof both periodsdiffer the age and thedecade – differ inmany aspects, buthavemuchincommon as – periods two the course, Of here. comparability or periodisation, definition, The complexity ofthe subject does not allow me to discuss questions of write about way formative periods, whichare so important for ourself-understanding today. the on reflects It Sixties. the of historiography our owntimes(whateverthesetopicalquestionsmaybe). the period inquestionandhowtorelate our research to the topical questions in on theother could go hand in hand. The important issue ishowtodojustice to on an island. Doing justice on the one hand and an awareness of topical issues through in historical writings and affect historiography. Historians donot live topical questions aswell. Sooner orlater, main topics of thesedebates seep by influenced is justice historical of idea their that realise should historians of historical justice’. There isnothingwrongwithhisempirical stance. But longing fortheprimitive. Instead, helegitimated his ownstudiesas‘anact against studies of the eighteenth century which are motivated by a romantic endlessly readsaloudpapersentitled ‘What is Enlightenment’. the Dutch literary P.J. Buijnsters, hell consists ofaplace where one broader topics of not having visited an archive for a long period. According to Also, many historians easily accuse those colleagues who like to discussthese react tothesedebateswithadenial:ourspecialism is noneoftheirbusiness. inthe giveinsights relevance of ourresearchtomodernsociety. debates Manyhistoriansautomatically these since them, on reflect should historians periods discussed,butall the more withtopical questions ofmodernsociety, battles ofthe1960sagain. campaign that he comes from another generation and does not want to fight the 4 3 two withthemaintraditions ofhistoricalresearch oftheSixties,which (or thesocial history ofideas),andthe history ofthought.Iwilljuxtapose these To compare the different traditions of research, I will distinguish between the This essaycompares the historiography of the Enlightenment with the Although thesesocial debates oftenhavealmost nothing todowiththe Morgan, Buijnsters,‘Hetheilsperspectief vande Verlichting’. What Really Happened tothe1960s 3

HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES , 2. 4 Hewarned

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 89

7 . .

. , Enemies of the Enlightenment The object of study is the ‘meeting place’, be it place’, of study is the ‘meeting The object 6 ; McMahon The Modernity of the Eighteenth century The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe The Rise of the Public Pietismus und Aufklärung ). While many Enlightenment scholars perceive modernity as a positive modernity scholars perceive many Enlightenment While ). 5 See for example Milic (ed.), See for example Milic Horn Melton, Van Overall, I see three serious topical approaches to Enlightenment’s modernity. modernity. to Enlightenment’s Overall, I see three serious topical approaches Gierl, as a whole, including its contradictions, interactions, and antagonisms. 5 6 7 The first is the Enlightenment as an emerging public sphere, made possible the salon, the Masonic house, coffee by a new set of institutions, such as the lodge, and the learned society. This of journals, books and encyclopaedias. the salon, or the growing market approach was broadened by historians like Martin Gierl, who not only focussed process communication on the but criticism, of enlightened sociability on the to the Holocaust. Since I question whether this approach is meant to clarify the to clarify is meant whether this approach I question Since to the Holocaust. as a form of social be considered or can better century, history of the eighteenth I am happy to leave the discussion about this line of our own times, criticism of thought to others. case an all- of effects the negative criticise impulse, others, such as John Gray, of the approaches and progress. In postmodernist in humanity faith embracing of dialectics evils is found in the modern for all cause main the Enlightenment, program from the execution progress, and in the technology of terror, Enlightenment’s Modernity Enlightenment’s Not only since polemicists ever. than is more alive the Enlightenment Today, Western in the position of the Ali brought the Enlightenment Hirsi Ayaan like the locate intellectuals also since nowadays many of the Islam, but antipode (this has not always been the in the Enlightenment foundations of modernity just one of the many utopian voices crying needlessly in a social wilderness. a social utopian voices crying needlessly in just one of the many for I plead yet, is undecided history in of philosophy role the about truth Since literary, philosophical, cultural, study of both periods, in which an integrated but in separately, history is not studied and political social, economic mental, other. connection to each will discuss the concept of nature and the role of history in both periods, which in both periods, of history role the and of nature concept discuss the will the Interestingly, change. of history of the understanding for the crucial are Sixties the and Enlightenment of the historiography the in differences main in the but particularly concepts of modernity, different not only lie in the the one side, On of philosophy in history. visions of the importance different modern thought, on the other as of a powerful generator philosophy is seen as HANCO JÜRGENS done this, I After having of mentalities. and the history research are generation

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 90 modest butstillambitiousparadigm intheintellectual historiography ofthe camps. ‘moderate’ ‘radical’ and into thinkers of classification oversimplified an with would befundamentally unhistorical, resultinginapresentistinterpretation the FrenchRevolution,andbeyond. philosophical tradition and ateleology of radical philosophy, fromSpinozato homogeneous artificial an constructing by other the for doxa one substituting critical reviews ofIsrael’s workhaveappeared, in whichhewasaccused of interventions in polemical debates, but alsopopularprotest. Yet, some of ‘argument’, Israel includesnotjustpolitical, legal, and ecclesiastical severe theological and philosophical polemics. By broadeningtheconcept particularly for the Early Modern period, with its pamphlet wars, and its oftheworked- out theoriesofmajorthinkers. instead The controversialist approach makessense, ofthinking, the process on and theories, finished if ‘controversialist approach’ which focuses onarguments and debates, instead correct progressives’ and‘reactionaryfundamentalists’ inthe1980sand90s. war ofitsown,comparable with the US wars between‘politically Enlightenment’s adversaries,considerstheFrenchEnlightenment as aculture as suchareconstitutive of modernity. real Enlightenment istheradical Enlightenment, for McMahonthedialectics proceeded from the early modern period until today. But whereas for Israel the sees adialectics of theEnlightenment and theCounterEnlightenment, which McMahon Darrin Israel, with line author. In founding and first its as Spinoza Enlightenment. of modernity: the radical, the moderate mainstream, and thecounter down tothepresentbetween three main intellectual blocs onthethreshold century seventeenth the of end the from conflict triangular continuous a sees religious toleration, sexual emancipation, and freedom of expression. Israel denial of all miracles and of revelation), democracy, racial equality, feminism, of basic concepts and values, such as the primacy of reason (and hence the package a as modernity defines example, for Israel, Jonathan ways. various 11 10 9 8 Enlightenment. According to John Robertson, the intellectual coherence of McMahon

Nevertheless, after the debates initiated by Israel, one cantrace a more Jonathan Israel follows the Dutch historian Siep Stuurman, developing a A secondapproachstudiesthemodernity of enlightened La Vopa, ‘A NewIntellectualHistory?’,esp. 717,719,722. Lilti, ‘Commentécrit-on l’histoireintellectuelle desLumières?’,esp.206 Israel, ‘Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?’, esp.542-543. 11

, EnemiesoftheEnlightenment 8 The Enlightenment Israel speaksofisradical, with Baruchde HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES ,

VIII, 200-203. 10 Inotherwords,Israel’s modusoperandi 9 McMahon,whothoroughlystudiedthe thought in

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 91

John Pocock, who proposes not to speak John Pocock, who , 28-29, 43-44, see also: Pocock, ‘Historiography and the and ‘Historiography Pocock, also: see 43-44, 28-29, , 12 This turning point in history is in a way comparable to Israel’s to Israel’s This turning point in history is in a way comparable The Case for the Enlightenment the for Case The 13 Cornelis Troost, Regenten van het Aalmoezeniersweeshuis te Amsterdam, te Aalmoezeniersweeshuis van het Regenten Troost, Cornelis voorstudie (trustees of the almoner orphanage, preliminary study), Rijksmuseum of the almoner orphanage, preliminary voorstudie (trustees Amsterdam.

Enlightenment anymore but of multiple Enlightenments, calls this process calls Enlightenments, anymore but of multiple Enlightenment Pocock, ‘Historiography and the Enlightenment’, 96. Pocock, ‘Historiography and the Enlightenment’, Enlightenment’, esp. 84. the Robertson, 12 13 Fig. 1. Fig. secularity’. package of values. of and in a more society, of civil ‘philosophy’ the growth of a non-theocentric According history. into the conversion of theology wide ranging perspective, civilisation Euro-American which through narrative grand the Pocock, to to through monotheism its history is ‘the journey from polytheism relates advancing the causes and conditions of human betterment in this world. He in of human betterment and conditions the causes advancing betterment material nature, human enquiry: of lines three between distinguishes world’ modern ‘the to contribution Enlightenment’s The economy. political and may be judged on the intellectual importance of its reflections of the societies of for the improvement of its recommendations cogency it observed and on the as it found it. the human condition HANCO JÜRGENS and to understanding the commitment may be found in the Enlightenment

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 92 of processes, totalitarianism,andotheratrocitiesofmodernsociety. two World Wars, economic crises, a Cold War, convulsive decolonisation and democracy, in the Sixties the concept became contested, associated with modernity was closely linked to thepost-warreconstruction, to modernism Fifties the in modernity. While of concept the redefining for period crucial a study mainlysocialandcultural change. Modernity does not seem to be a big issue forhistorians of the Sixties who Being modernintheSixties Robertson. sense, hisconceptoftheEnlightenment is surprisinglysimilar to thatofJohn researchers, who tried to find answers to questions we still have today. of the Enlightenment Reill describes is to be found in a group of open minded actuality the Instead, processes. efficiency and rationalisation by strengthened environmental pollution, eurocentrism,racism,andtotalitarianism, all enlightened thought isoftenseenasaprincipal cause forsocialdeprivation, the Enlightenment could be equated with the philosophy ofabsolute reason, deficient and dangerous, since it serves postmodernist criticism. Assuming that against the idea of an ‘Enlightenment Project’, which he considers both from absolute solutions withoutsurrendering to total scepticism. Reill warns provide amodelofknowledgethataddressescontemporary efforts toescape their modest knowledge claims, and their interest in language and meanings life sciences. According toReill, the vitalists’ logicofcomplementarities, others whostudiedanearly modern variant of whatiscurrently called the views oftheEnlightenment vitalists, a group ofbiologists,chemists,and usually conceived. Enlightenment might bemuchmoreintunewithourownconcernsthanis century reaction tomechanical thought, PeterReill concludes that the Cassirer, asanopenprocessofinquiry. After havingstudiedtheeighteenth Ernst with line in more but, principles of set fixed a with movement, uniform ambitious initsclaims. It doesnotnecessarilyseetheEnlightenment as a 16 15 14 sound ofthe Sixties, its pop music, was considered innovative. Seen from a Reill, looking Generally, historians studying the Sixties are more concerned with questions less definitely is thought Enlightenment of interpretation Another Enlightenment See forthedifferent meaningsofmodernity: Gumbrecht, ‘Modern,Modernität,Moderne’. Reill, ‘Rethinking theEnlightenment’. Vitalizing Nature intheEnlightenment different, ofbeingmodern,trendy, anduptodate. Particularly the . 14 Heevennotescharacteristics of Postmodernisminthe HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES , 251-256,seealso:BakerandReill(eds.), 16 Yet, asIwillargue, theSixtieswere What’sLeft ofthe 15 Inthis

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 93 The 17 , 118-134. Due to a 21

20 Eine Welt zu gewinnen! Eine Welt , may have been right by , may have been right On average, even the sex lives 19 Postwar , 804-805, see also 679-724. , 390. , 396. , 405-408, 447-449. , the British historian Arthur Marwick wondered whether women Arthur Marwick wondered whether historian British , the The Sixties In hindsight, this ‘silent revolution’ may have been as important as have been as important may In hindsight, this ‘silent revolution’ 18 Postwar Postwar Postwar Bachmann, ‘Wertewandel und Generationskonflikte’, in: Jürgens (a.o.), in: Jürgens und Generationskonflikte’, Bachmann, ‘Wertewandel According to Judt, what changed in the Sixties were the working conditions were the Sixties in the to Judt, what changed According , author of the famous book Tony Judt, Marwick, Judt, Judt, 17 18 19 20 21 liberation was anyway more a Seventies phenomenon). liberation was anyway more a Seventies relations. labour very hierarchical still and the in the industry, shortage of labour, workers could effectively demand for more influence on the shop-floor. Seemingly, the old working class gradually industry service new jobs in the the Certainly, society. merged‘classless’ ostensible into an profited from the freedom,new He concluded fantasies. own their to exploit of men to the freedom particularly or, whether the liberation sexual related had its positive consequences in providing a stimulus to chauvinism that male movement. liberation the nascent women’s of earlier generations (sexual from those of students were not very different the boisterous, high-flown rhetoric in the streets of Paris. From point today’s the student protests, with their sit-ins, teach-ins, and bed-ins, and its of view, belong to the rich folklore of history. appearance, masculine predominantly Particularly the idea of sexual liberation is Inmodified his today. voluminous The Sixties important developments did not always happen in the best-known places. important developments did not always influence of the Beatles in Eastern Europe was in the long run probably even were West Whereas many university students in the West. bigger than in the their counterparts in the East, who had to face lured by neo-Marxist theory, private withdrew into their and aloof from politics kept socialism, existing real spheres. the new styles, instruments, sound recording techniques, and video editing, editing, and video techniques, recording sound styles, instruments, new the are too century at large, in the second half of the twentieth which developed to the Golden Sixties. often solely ascribed most the that is misleading, Sixties of the geography political the that stating really was groundbreaking. Jazz, Blues and Rock & Roll paved the ways and ways paved the Roll & Rock and Blues Jazz, was groundbreaking. really was not Beatles of the do’ me ‘Love like hit A revolutionary. equally were for a constitutive for the Fab Four was the massive attention innovative, that rapidly growing, classless youth culture, which became a profitable market Of for commercial enterprise. had at the end of the decade, the Beatles course, but impressively, appearance music, and their their themselves, transformed HANCO JÜRGENS Sixties the music in pop whether question however may one perspective, wider

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 94 rights movement, which represented the interests of the blacks, of women and women, provincials. What changed was the development of astrongcivil What changed was the visibility of all sections of society: workers, blacks, to Marwick,themain issue wasthat so manythingshappened simultaneously. were neither an economic, nor apolitical but acultural revolution. According of political institutions or eventhehistoryof Third World. The Sixties particular importance in termsofeconomic and diplomatic history, thehistory change or ofnovelty in theSixties.Inthisperiod,hedidnotdiscernanything of was still aMember of Parliament. At the end ofthe decade, they were all dead. Eisenhower, Adenauer andDeGaullewereheadofgovernment;Churchill the generationchanged aswellwasinpower. At thebeginningofdecade, brought a different type of employment, and different employees. What 2. Fig. 22 and the States supported the ideas ofCastro,Hô,Che,andevenMao,who gays. Marwick, Also, Arthur Marwick asserted that we should not exaggerate the extent of It is hardly imaginable nowadays that so many clever youngsters in Europe 22

unknown) Holland Pop Festival Kralingen 1970,Schielandshuis, Rotterdam (photographer The Sixties , 801-806. HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 95 In a way, way, In a 26 In the Sixties, institutional In the Sixties, institutional 23 Structural Transformation of the Structural Transformation On the other, Michel Foucault developed On the other, , 6. 25 The hat was replaced by a wide, some would replaced The hat was 27 24 . , published in 1962. , 400. , 397. What Really Happened to the Sixties Happened What Really French Intellectuals French Postwar Postwar Jürgens, ‘Habermas for Historians’. Jürgens, Since the 1980s, the dominant school in Enlightenment research has research the 1980s, the dominant school in Enlightenment Since The question of how to relate the Sixties to modernity is complex, since is complex, the Sixties to modernity to relate The question of how Wolin, Wolin, Morgan, Judt, Judt, 23 24 25 26 27 Enlightenment period, one of the ultimate forms of self expression, the wig, expression, the forms of self ultimate one of the period, Enlightenment similar something Sixties, the In haircut. regular ‘normal’, by a was replaced of indicator important an decade this was until which headgear, with happened heritage. class or regional social say a wild variety of hair styles. influence of the structuralists on historiography and literary theory. Even their influence of thestructuralists on historiography and literary theory. this. most convinced opponents could not deny Diffusion of ideas, mentalities and techniques In the similarities. across some particular I came working on this article While most important works disapproval of the French in the Sixties. Judt expresses his was ‘the structuralists by explaining that their theory even representational: not people particular any to not related described it that “signs”, or codes social system.’ a closed signs, in to other or events but merely or places overall he is not doing justice to the Judt may have been close to the mark, but of modernity itself. On the one hand, Jürgen Habermas began to reformulate Habermas On the one hand, Jürgen itself. of modernity in his the Modern Project, for example Sphere Public relations in modern society since the of power-knowledge his criticism sources of primary of the one became analysis His discourse Enlightenment. Derrida, and Roland Barthes published their thought. Foucault, postmodernist movement, and for simultaneously downgrading one of the defining qualities for search the memory: public in disappeared almost which Sixties, the of democratic empowerment. discourse great importance to the changing philosophical the Sixties were of as the American intellectual historian Richard Wolin argues, French students French argues, Wolin Richard historian intellectual American as the and movements grassroots social incite to Mao appropriated intellectuals and life at home. and cultural to reinvigorate civic had things realm and judicial social the in seriously; was questioned injustice blames Edward Morgan scientist political American The changed indeed. protest of the features anthropological the for aggrandising media mass the HANCO JÜRGENS Yet, revolution’. and bloody ‘cultural a brutal was proclaiming at that time

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 96 28 material culture plays an important role, for example, the mass introduction of development of a post-material, or post-industrial culture. mentalities, manners, fashion,music,leisure,consumerism,inshort:the in alldirections. was limited to thosetwo groups–studentsandworkersratherthanspreading historiography, the In importance. of Sixties were the floor of shop protest the for attention; particularly the massivestrikesagainstbadcircumstances on the towns in Western EuropeandtheUnitedStates. Also theworking classcalled of studentsatuniversities, and tothewell-educated social circles inthebigger historians realise that the massiveprotestwas oftenlimited to particular groups idea prevailed that onegeneration changed the Western world.Nowadays, in theoppositedirection of Enlightenment research: Until the1990s, vividly registeredthenewvibes. assertiveness contributed to a new political culture, in which the mass media such ascivilsociety, which came underdiscussionintheSixties,whencitizen as well,historiansofthepostwarperiodareinclined to useotherconcepts, and incompetition with journalists who are interested in contemporary history within the discipline of contemporary history. Dueto an overload of sources, or ‘egodocuments’,ofchildren,craftsmensailors. self-testimonies, the or booksellers of figures sales the censors, of reports the lodges, and salons.Simultaneously, historians explored new sources, such as meeting in clubs, coffee houses, fraternities, learned societies, freemason of Enlightenment researchwasbroadenedtourbanculturesofmostlymen, underground, finding its voice in the press, in pamphlets and books. The focus five twenty some of group small a from the ‘diffusionists’, theimage of ‘theEnlightenment movement’ haschanged sphere, whicheventuallyculminated intoarevolutionaryera. Mijnhardt has been on the dissemination of knowledge, on the rise of a public huitiémistes like RogerChartier, RobertDarnton,Margaret Jacob,and Wijnand been thenewculturalhistory, orthesocialhistoryofideas. The focusofdix- 31 30 29

Undoubtedly, thedominantschoolofresearch oftheSixtiesstudieschanging Remarkably, the image of thewider movement of the Sixties has changed The methodological approach ofthe‘diffusionists’ deservesmoreattention 1968, TheYear thatRockedtheWorld Jacob, the History ofBooks’;also: Kraus, ‘Appropriation et pratiques de lalecture’; and ofcourse:Margaret See thediscussionbetweenDarnton,‘Discourse andDiffusion’, andSkinner, ‘OnIntellectual History and Referring toInglehart, James Kennedy, inaugurallecture, inpress. Baggerman andDekker, The Radical Enlightenment The Silent Revolution Child oftheEnlightenment , andMijnhardt and Kloek, HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES ; Fink,Gassert,andJunker(eds.), 30

. Seeamongstmanyothers:Marwick, ; VanGelder, philosophes 1800 –Blueprints for anational community. Das ostindische Abenteuer Das 29 intoapopulousliterary 1968: TheWorld Transformed

31 In the background The Sixties 28 Thanks to Thanks . ; Kurlansky, .

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The Political Economy The Political ; Shovlin, . Luxury and Pleasure This democratisation of consumption of consumption This democratisation 33 They see these trends as part of the long the of trends as part see these They 32 Cold War Kitchen Cold War . The rapid developments in the world of electricity and world of electricity in the developments rapid The 34 The Age of Wonder The . For example: Oldenziel and Zachmann, For example: Oldenziel to Global History’; ibid., ‘From Globalisation Berg, See also: Holmes, of Virtue The enormous technological advancements of the eighteenth century eighteenth of the advancements The enormous technological Particularly the role of the fashion industry is of importance, not only fashion industry is of importance, the role of the Particularly The connections made between the introduction of new techniques, a of new techniques, made between the introduction The connections

the steam engine (1763-1775), would prove to be of great value for humanity. great value for humanity. (1763-1775), would prove to be of engine the steam 32 33 34 deserve more attention. more deserve not as renewing point of view perhaps steam engines seems from today’s but they probably had a bigger of universal gravitation, law as Newton’s the affected impact on contemporaries, since the improvements directly jar, Leyden of the discovery the run, In the long of ordinary people. lives (1752), and (1744-46), the lightning conductor designed to store electricity coach network, made it much easier to travel in these countries. Possibly, the travel in these countries. Possibly, coach network, made it much easier to of improvement technical the from poorly relatively benefited Republic Dutch waterway extended an developed already had it since coaches, mail and stage system. clothing became – more than before – a political topic, as for example the topic, as for example – more than before – a political became clothing An emerging banning orange dresses and symbols. showed by Dutch patriots which provided culture, material access to a more complex gained society civil The improvement of road people. new paths, choices and horizons of ordinary mail extended an of and Britain, Great and Germany France, in networks techniques, a globalising economy, and products from the colonies, which and products from the colonies, which techniques, a globalising economy, urban elites. for the accessible became house styles, were laid down in interior which social distinctions, blurred stiff dress codes, and even eating habits. but also since and set new dress codes, old cloth replaced silk and cotton since continuing into the beginning of the Eighties (the longer Sixties). beginning of the Eighties (the longer Sixties). continuing into the values, social and changing ways of life, changing economy, rising rapidly many are There century. eighteenth of the to historians of interest be could due to new patterns, new consumption on to do research possibilities traffic, and the mechanisation of households through central heating, automatic heating, central through households of mechanisation the and traffic, became which and vacuum-cleaners, refrigerators machines, washing of the introduction the through of course and class, for the middle available to downtune the importance who study these trends often tend Historians pill. history. in point turning of 1968 as a or in the Fifties, and Twenties, starting in the term process of modernisation, HANCO JÜRGENS car of growth the television, and radio transistor the record, playing long the

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 98 are acrucial period. Traditional intellectual history wascriticised by several For the history of thought, the late Nineteen Sixties and the early Seventies Intellectual heritage in classicalmusicwithinthehistoryof in the eighteenth century, it appeared to be difficult to integrate the revolutions revolutions inclassical music. EventhoughBach,MozartandBeethovenlived the fortepiano, which developed further into a modern piano in the 1780s, led to instruments. improvements of the century is the enormous improvement ofmusical lengthened nightlife at homecomfortably. PierreAmi François 1783, year, same the Argand In designed a lamp with a circular wick and a glass chimney, which air balloon. ahot in flight a Revolution broke out, Étienne Montgolfier was the first human who undertook French the before years six immediately. Only practice in used were fire and which wassetfree,butinreaction with nearbyoxygen.Hisconcept of air materials within matter substance a ‘phlogiston’, by created not was fire that discovered he 1777-1783, years the In water. and fire air, earth, of concept Aristotelian the of disavowal final the to led revolution chemical Lavoisier’s Fig.3. 36 35 his Les Mots etles Choses), the German conceptual historians (particularly new schools,suchastheFrench structuralists (particularly by Foucault in Blanning, Schivelbusch, 1783, paintingbydeClaude-LouisDesrais. One of the first tethered flights by humans in a hot air balloon, Paris, 19 October The Triumph ofMusic 36 Particularly the invention of the Lichtblicke; Schrøder, . HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES The ArgandBurnder the 35 Enlightenment. Onelastexample of thetechnical . gravicembalo colpianoeforte ,

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 99 ; It is remarkable 37 Politics, Language, and Time Language, Politics, of Spinoza and of the ideas . While social historians locate the While social historians is often presented as a new approach 38 , 70-86. He criticises Israel for relying too much in his He criticises Israel for relying too much 40 auctor intellectualis of the radical Enlightenment, of the radical intellectualis auctor , 865. The March of the Libertines The March the Radical Enlightenment Radical Enlightenment De Nederlandse Republiek And probably they were right in the sense that one may after all still And probably they were right in the sense that one may 39 Enlightenment Contested Enlightenment Skinner, ‘Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas’; Pocock, ‘Meaning and Understanding in the History of Skinner, Wielema, Bunge; see also: Van Bunge, Van Darnton, ‘In Search of the Enlightenment’. Also, Siep Stuurman both praises and criticises Israel. From another Israel. From Also, Siep Stuurman both praises and criticises Though Israel’s Though Israel’s Recently, Jonathan Israel gave a new impetus to the traditionally strong traditionally to the a new impetus gave Israel Jonathan Recently, Israel, 37 38 39 40 analysis on Spinoza as the social and cultural thought was broadly embedded in whereas Spinoza’s views of Israel’s Bunge criticises Van Also, of the . context Spinoza was secularisation. indeed the author of a secular moral philosophy, but that does not necessarily mean he was an atheist. of the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century, or, if this torch should be should if this torch or, century, seventeenth in the Dutch Republic of the twenty than for more Netherlands the in who lived Descartes, to passed over but achievements, for his wide-ranging van Bunge praises Israel Wiep years. was as big century long eighteenth impact in the he doubts whether Spinoza’s as Israel wants us to believe. to the history of the Enlightenment, one might claim that the author is the most is the author the that claim might one Enlightenment, the history of the to of an already existing group of Spinoza scholars, who, representative important contrary to Israel, were not prepared to present their findings as a new grand narrative. philosopher as the most important ask whether Spinoza could be considered between aristocracy, high bourgeoisie and the common man: ‘arguably, the and the common man: ‘arguably, high bourgeoisie between aristocracy, less said about Freemasonry the better.’ press, for printing of the spin-off Houses or in the Coffee in the Enlightenment in the subversive is crystallised Israel modernity Spinozists. historical discipline. That his approach, the ‘new intellectual history’, differs differs history’, ‘new intellectual That his approach, the discipline. historical the denial of shown convincingly by Israel’s is history’ from the ‘new cultural is freemasonry While lodges for the Enlightenment. of freemason’s importance books in Israel’s ideas, of enlightened disseminator usually seen as an important distinctions to erase tried ever hardly it since phenomenon, is a peripheral it political thought (particularly by Quinten Skinner and John Pocock in their in their John Pocock and Skinner by Quinten (particularly thought political history social and the history), and understanding on meaning essays important Robert Darnton already wrote in 1971. of ideas, about which short period of 1966-1972 by history is rethought in the how intellectual of philosophy and social historians. philosophers, historians HANCO JÜRGENS school of the Cambridge Grundbegriffe), in his Geschichtliche by Koseleck

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 100 Hume, , , and Rousseau, one hardly finds historians who historians finds hardly Voltaire,Montesquieu, one Hume, Rousseau, and movement by predominantly analysing the works ofphilosopherslike Locke, many historians of the eighteenth century eagerly explain the Enlightenment French intellectual (the the today since subject, the in interest renewed a is definitely there France in Remarkably, attitude towardsthesevulgarbookletsproducedintheSixties andbeyond. which hadnothingtodowithloftythoughts. for sexualliberation,developedintoaharshcommercial but itsoonenterprise, of field study. Itislinked to a cultural, often radical left-wing avant-garde, whostrived open an still is Seventies Nineteen the particularly in pornography urges, andthe organisation of society. booklets, one finds hidden debates about moral standards, the power of human of social criticism, linked to cartesianism and spinozism. In these clandestine centuries, which areconsidered a partofthe literary underground andasource of thisisthestudypornographiesinseventeenth and eighteenth diffusion ofideas, whosesubject matter of studyiscriticism. A goodillustration a powertochange the world. This isalsothe case for thosewhostudythe debates make clear how, for the Enlightenment period, ideas are still seen as to new lines of thought. Compared to the historiography of the Sixties, these period, towriteaboutitfromanoutsiderpointofview. this from ourselves distance to difficult remains it thought, of mode own our important barrier forequality. Since the Enlightenment canon isstill part of biological racism, andwhichremainedupuntil the twentieth century themost the Enlightenment is strengthened byanewtaxonomy, whichgaveriseto over those whohad not yet seen the light is expressed. The Janus face of a newcanonofthought,inwhichtheglobal authority of the‘enlightened’ Stuurman alsostressestheothersideof coin. The Enlightenment brought the necessityofclassdifferences, aswellthedifferences insexorrace. epistemological reasons, others, such as François Poulain de la Barre, doubted Descartes, particularly ofhis point ofdeparture than Van Bunge,Stuurman emphasisestheimportance of 44 43 42 41 Brillant, Leemans, Stuurman, The many debates, reviews, and conferences on Israel’s work contribute Linke’. New Left For example:Osterweil, ‘Andy Warhol’s Les clercs de68; ; forGermany, see:Müller, Het woord isaandeonderkant De uitvinding vandemensheid the intellectual history oftheSixtiesisnotyetwritten. Only Bourg (ed.), philosophe HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES Another Country cogito After the deluge , 301. Blow job , 249-315,366-370. ) seemstohave passed hisprime. . After Descartesdoubtedeverythingfor ’. 42 Comparably, the rapid expansion of ; Audier, , andGilcherHoltey, ‘Kritische Theorie und Neue 43 The resultisamoreenchanted La pensée anti-68 ; andHirsch, 44 Whereas The French 41 But

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 101

47 ; see also: , artificially , this process could , this De eindeloze jaren zestig jaren De eindeloze Sattelzeit Sturm und Drang ; Righart, 46 is not translated to generation research. is not translated to generation research.

, 117-136, also, he wrote about the Sixties of the eighteenth of the Sixties the about wrote he also, , 117-136, 45 The Other Alliance Power and the Idealists. Sattelzeit ; Berman, Utopia and Reform and Utopia 1968 als Mythos Koselleck, ‘Einleitung’, xv. Koselleck, ‘Einleitung’, Indeed, Franco Venture touched briefly on the problem of the chronology and geography of the Thinking in terms of generations became so dominant that historians even distinguish three generations of that historians even distinguish three generations so dominant became Thinking in terms of generations violent activities already in ’68, Klimke, already activities violent Kraushaar, Enlightenment Venturi, in century in: ibid., ‘Church and Reform in Enlightenment Italy’. the German left wing terror group the Armee Rote Fraction, of which the first generation developed their Interestingly, this idea of a Interestingly, Twentieth century generation research is about the formative experiences experiences research is about the formative century generation Twentieth

46 47 groups, but social of networks, circles, in terms to think tend Dix-huitièmistes Classicism). for (except of generations in terms not so much Weimar and Enlightenment between literature German in classified 45 late eighteenth century made a severe impression on people, who experienced who people, on impression severe a made century eighteenth late was that social concepts, The result a break with the past and an unsure future. dynamic expressed and citizen, democracy such as state, nation, monarchy, instead of a static future perspective, processes, with a recent history and a state of being, often referring to antiquity. of generations, usually in their adolescence, often studied along the lines of lines the along studied often adolescence, their in usually of generations, general strike of May ’68 in Paris. Behind key events, such as the wildcat plays an and of the sequence of generations of time the acceleration this idea, of a idea Koselleck’s Following role. important in the upheaval The political to the period of 1750 to 1850. be applied equally An important historiographic tradition of the Sixties is the research of research is the of the Sixties tradition historiographic An important the of ideas the with who sympathise historians those Often, generations. which young generation of an upcoming importance stress the to tend Sixties ‘68 is For them critique. social and with protest establishment the combated often a real turning point in history. Luxemburg are light-years away from our present-day worries about how to about worries present-day our from away light-years are Luxemburg to how to react Euro crisis, and or the crunch, credit the change, solve climate both at home and abroad. the challenges of globalisation Generations Michel Foucault, Noam Chomsky and Alasdair MacIntyre. Contrary to the MacIntyre. Contrary Alasdair and Noam Chomsky Michel Foucault, is century twentieth of the philosophy century, eighteenth of the philosophy Sixties of the philosophical portrait A to change politics. not ascribed the power since not all philosophers want of this era, also picture might provide a vivid among Marxist quarrels The then. back held views they of the to be reminded Mao, or Rosa Trotski, young Marx, works of the valuable the about students HANCO JÜRGENS Habermas, the works of Jürgen in the Sixties through the developments explain

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 102 parts of the world)? Some historians think of churches as monolithic Molochs, many so (in disappearance their of influence the was what 1773, in ban papal the to led finally which onwards, 1753 from suppression its after Order Jesuit And iftheywerenotabletorenewthemselvesanymore,which happenedtothe themselves to facethe socialcritique, which came from so manyangles? in thecourseofeighteenth century? How didtheseoldinstitutions renew seventeenth century, andwhichdeveloped further and received strong support the aristocracy react to these new ideas, which had come up already in the transformation of old institutions. How didthechurches,guilds,and of the century, oneshouldnotonlyfocus on newthought,butalsothe in somecases Declaration of HumanRightsin1948.Buttounderstandthegreatchanges era new this although just dawned morethan a century later, forexample with the Universal era, anew for significant been had emerging knowledgenetworks.Ofcourse,thesenewideasandinstitutions century: there hasbeenastrongfocusonnewideas,infrastructures and reform. the younger generation to convince their fathers of the necessity of political not use BobDylan’s wordsto express this feeling). It was not at all hard for since eventheyadmitted that ‘thetimestheyarea-changin’ (although theydid who were willing to give in and to accept the challenges of the young generation, widely shared elite. Dutch the of flexibility, resilience the and on eye his the eighteenth century. The American-Dutch historian James Kennedyturned way, acontested concept, could shed more light on parallel issues concerning these newwaysofthinkingestablished? which circumstances –whichsocial,political and economicdynamics–were century bedatedinthe1670s,1720sand1760s1770s?Ifso,under Subsequently, couldtheimportant cultural changes inthelong eighteenth around the1680s? could weconsidertheencyclopaedists And as ageneration? follow-up generation of Christian Wolff, Voltaire and Montesquieu, born in or customs, habits,style,language,andideas? was theresomethinglikea And Is it fruitful to consider the circle of Spinozists as a generation, with their own 48 within thechurches, guilds andwithin the aristocracy could give which always represent the vested interests of the aristocracy. But the dynamics

This bringsmetoanimportant topic regarding the historyofeighteenth the by is, which conflict, generation a as Sixties the of historiography The Kennedy, Building NewBabylon consensus among the postwar political elites in the Netherlands, . HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES 48 Hepointedtothe

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 103

49 deus sive It successfully 51 , which functioned of God, the bible, and of God, the bible, . rights, often obtained in the in obtained often rights, word

Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Anticlericalism

The Culture of Power The Culture , Vorrede, A A 6. , Vorrede, ; Blanning, ; Blanning, philosophia aristotelio-scholastica Idol Temples and Crafty Priests. Idol Temples ; Barnett, The eighteenth century was not only the century of criticism, century the only was not century eighteenth The Kritik der reinen Vernunft Kritik der reinen 50 The Religious Enlightenment The Religious ), or a form of ‘natural religion’. Enlightenment criticism was mostly not was mostly criticism Enlightenment religion’. ), or a form of ‘natural See also Kant, so is interpreted of anticlericalism tradition longstanding European the curious that It may be called differently in different periods: Dykema and Oberman (eds.), in different differently Modern Europe The clue to understanding the changing discourses of the Enlightenment the changing to understanding The clue Sorkin, 49 50 51 connotations. views of concept of nature, from the changing lies in the eighteenth-century and religion, natural history, of natural concepts changing to nature human to do nothing had history of natural concept modern early The law. natural general Heads for a Boyle published ‘A In 1666, Robert with modernity. directed against Christianity as such, but against clerical epistemology, based epistemology, clerical against but as such, Christianity against directed religious intuition. on dogmas and formularies, instead of the current criticised as the metaphysical, logical and scientificfree of political all were not at Of course, these debates churches. Christian underpinning of the prevailing the foundations of knowledge: a controversial debate between those who debate a controversial the foundations of knowledge: through the solely knowledge their legitimated works of God, through the through knowledge their who legitimated those as nature ( is translated modern period early which in the creation, natura Historicizing nature helpful be could it century, eighteenth of the debates important the understand To to historicise them first, instead of studying them as beginnings of modernity. Perhaps the give better intellectual Eighteenth-century our own times. than about talking were people clues to find out what Enlightened but about versus secularisation Christianisation were mostly not about debates government could survive by just claiming their claiming just by survive could government ages. middle give up would have to this quality Those who lacked but also of self-criticism. or later. their positions sooner Israel’s partition of the eighteenth century history into a radical, moderate and moderate into a radical, century history the eighteenth of partition Israel’s on light sheds it since illuminating, one hand is on the enlightenment counter since is misleading, hand it other but on the century, of the controversies the of ideas, crossovers, and a multiplicity connections, unexpected dismisses it progressed, all century As the century. eighteenth of the which are so typical no church or As Kant asserted, criticism. faced institutions established HANCO JÜRGENS well. as milieus various enlightened to the rise of the clues interesting

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 104 what the origin of inequality among men was, and whether this inequality 1753, the Academy of Dijonannounced an essaycontest on thequestion quarrelling, totheexpulsionof Wolff outofHalleanderSaale. the bible,immediately led toavehementpamphletwarand,aftertwoyears according to the principals of natural religion without having knowledge of comparable with his own Christianviews. The idea thatasocietycouldlive natural religion, based onnatural law; their basic principles of wisdomwere practical philosophy on nature.For Wolff, theChineselivedaccordingto philosophy the Chinese, Christian Wolff claimed that the Chinese based their knowledge ofthebible.Inhis1721controversial lecture on thepractical thought itwaspossibletocoexistinavirtuoussociety without having natural religion was vehemently debated, particularly since some philosophers history ofthebiblicalfloraandfaunatoprovehistoricitybible. was historicised in theeighteenth century. EvenwithinChristianthought,theconceptofnature strength ofanimal magnetism, which represent thechangingmodesofthought the and fire, of character the life, of origins the about questions new brought initial stage intheformulation of theevolution theory. The vitalizing of nature histories ofspeciesandthegeographyitsappearances,turnedouttobean specific the in itself, reproduced matter organic way the in interest Buffon’s the eighteenth century eventually became the age of biology and chemistry. nature. was acompletely different world, whencompared to ourcurrentconcept of This concept of nature changed vehemently after Linnaeus and Buffon, and their hardoreasylabour, andingeneraldiseasesmethodsofagriculture. educations.” it), Complexations, Hair, Dyet, Inclinations and Customs that seems not due to “Their Stature,Shape,Colour, Features,Strength, Agility, Beauty(orwantof the section earth, Boyle was primarily interested in the external features, in: categories: heaven, air, water, andearth.Indescribinghumanbeings,partof Natural HistoryofaCountry, greatorsmall’ inwhichhedistinguishedfour 52 Rousseau.Inhis is authorisedbynatural law. Oneofthe answers came from Jean-Jacques

Yet, evenmoreexplosiveweretheevolvingideasaboutnatural law. Not surprisingly, withthe changingviewsofnaturalhistory, theconceptof While the seventeenth century was the age of mathematics and mechanics, Boyle, ‘GeneralHeads foraNaturalHistory ofaCountry, GreatorSmall’. 52 Furthermore, he showed an interest in the fertility of women, in , forexample by German neologists, who studied the natural Disourse onInequality HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES , the author praised the natural state of

In

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, who lives freely in the , who lives l’homme naturelle . With his idea of the idea his With Discours sur l’origine 53 After withdrawing from their own roots, the rewriting of both history and of both history rewriting own roots, the their from withdrawing After Remarkably, nature, history, and law, were also important fieldsand oflaw, change nature, history, Remarkably, Rousseau, The power of thought and the thought of power The power of the historiography of the a comparison have shown that I hope to a lot from and the Sixties is fruitful. Historians can learn Enlightenment 53 overlooked the lawless and ‘the people without history’. Easy as it is to debunk is without history’. Easy as it people ‘the the lawless and overlooked the underestimate not should one criticism, neo-Marxist dominant then the Whatever law. on and historiography on theory Marxist of influence enormous one may think of it, it broadened our scope people. towards new fields and other memory of many, also of those who were born after the war. Due to notorious also of those who were born after the war. memory of many, the and Jerusalem, in process Eichmann the Nazis, former against trials media of lot a attracted which Main, am Frankfurt processes in Auschwitz and history Both Sixties. the in issue topical a became terror Nazi attention, which interests, vested the underpinned which disciplines were considered law The world of dreams, drugs, or Indian wisdom was deemed more pure than theThe world of dreams, drugs, or Indian wisdom students themselves grew up in.crowded, polluted towns and regions the The decolonisation issues movements. law became important for the student the was fresh in War World and the Second in progress process was still of the life sciences focussing on the level of molecules and cells. Stimulated byof the life sciences focussing on the level rapidly. arms race, computer science and astrophysics developed War the Cold a renewed interest in the inner nature ofPerhaps as a reaction, in western society to withdraw from their parents rootshumankind evolved. Many students wanted or to the wisdom of , whichby entrusting themselves to natural healings World. Western than the depraved were considered more in tune with nature would be open to social change. would be open to social After the discovery the sciences were path-breaking. in the Sixties. Particularly Francis Crick in and Watson by James structure of DNA of the double-helix a totally new formand molecular biology developed into 1953, biochemistry of society. the origin of cultures, his search for With rewrote history. woods, Rousseau of both ‘natural’ The new meaning ideas. on Rousseau’s Herder elaborated of history within direct consequences for the social role history had and ‘civil’ revolutionary history enclosed harmony, of restoring social instead societies: people historicised, were nature and society world, the After matter. subject HANCO JÜRGENS stages early very the in evolved how inequality explained and beings, human

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 106 Enlightenment are rewritten repeatedly. Second,the current strong position of protest ofthesedays. will contextualise their philosophy, and connect their ideas with the social Derrida, and Habermas as such figures, key of biographies the but predict, to the need to disclaim their own former utopian social engagement. It is difficult those philosopherswithwhomonedisagrees.Manycontemporaries have felt in topicality: after twoorthreecenturies, it iseasiertovaluethecontribution of are severalexplanationsforthisdissimilarity. Firstofall,therearedifferences generation’, or marginalised within the history of academic philosophy. There is either fullyhistoricised as oneofthemanypeculiarities of a‘wide-eyed many considered formative in shapingmodernity, thephilosophyofSixties is the role ascribed to thought. While the philosophy of the Enlightenment is by of generations. century changing mentalities, related to technical progress or to the succession underground orofitspublicsphere,toknowmoreabouttheeighteenth differently. It would be tempting to read a history of the Sixties’ literary their colleagues who areoftenworkingright nextdoor, butaredoingthings Fig. 4. 54 science do not easily go together with an interest in history, let alone in the (continental) philosophy: logical positivism,languageanalysisandcognitive Anglo-American analytic philosophy doesnotencourage aneyeforthepastof Specter, The most striking difference between the historiographies of both periods 5903. moon. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), ID: AS11-40- the on walking humans first the were They 1969. in moonwalk 11the Apollo Astronaut Neil Armstrong takesapictureofhiscolleague Buzz Aldrin during Habermas, anIntellectual Biography 54 The biographiesoftheimportant HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES ,

and Baring, The Young Derrida . philosophes

ofthe

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 107 The 55 History of is a product of the Sixties. is a product of the Sixties. (Cambridge 1971), see also James Schmidt, (Cambridge philosophe To get a more balanced picture of the role of the picture a more balanced get To 56 , 252. Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment , 37, 1, 43-52. Vitalizing Nature Vitalizing Franco Venturi, Franco Venturi, ‘Misunderstanding the Question: ‘What is Enlightenment?’, Venturi, Habermas, and Foucault’, Habermas, and Foucault’, Venturi, is Enlightenment?’, Question: ‘What ‘Misunderstanding the Ideas European Already in 1971, Franco Venturi warned against the dominant philosophical warned against the dominant Venturi Already in 1971, Franco Then, why is philosophy seen as an important actor of Enlightenment? seen as an important Then, why is philosophy Reill, 55 56 remain the same, these specific policy areas could make the difference. remain the same, these specific policy an integrated study is necessary: cultural, philosophical, literary, mental, literary, philosophical, study is necessary: cultural, an integrated but history should not be studied separately and political social, economic how ideas are embedded forget One should not in connection to each other. in cultures, and how these ideas work in specific fieldsgovernments Also when law. criminal or welfare, social economy, political of politics, such as history of the Sixties. of origins, instead its to back ideas follow the to which tends viewpoint, in history. its function examining and the Sixties, the Enlightenment of philosophy as an actor of change in both answer lies in the renewed topicality of the Enlightenment today. Since today. Enlightenment of the topicality renewed the in answer lies the need is felt to (9/11), attacked and even values are contested, Western words of Pocock, the in for, civilisation, Western of foundations for the search While into a secular culture. to monotheism from polytheism the development as the sole force for social or thought, is made too important philosophy, the concerning revalued be urgently should it Enlightenment, the in change postmodern criticism, philosophers were not seen anymore as secular priests philosophers were not postmodern criticism, future problems. or reliable solvers of representative symbolic chosen as the is the thinker of Reill, words in the Why, or Spinoza? Rousseau, Kant, Bayle, Voltaire, be it of the movement, for the future). But the most important reason for the downscaling of the downscaling the for reason most important the But future). for the of the criticism be found in the contemporaneous of the Sixties may philosophy of the The disenchantment Sixties itself. out philosophy get to wanted movement Society and Science new then The remained What and pragmatic. useful, applied to become of its ivory towers Encouraged by within society. view of the role of philosophy is the critical HANCO JÜRGENS eye have a better even often philosophers (analytic discipline the history of

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 108 Robert Boyle,‘GeneralHeadsfor aNaturalHistoryofCountry, GreatorSmall’, Julian Bourg (ed.), Tim Blanning, Tim Blanning, Paul Berman, Maxine Berg, ‘FromGlobalisation to GlobalHistory’, S.J. Barnett, Edward Baring, Keith BakerandPeterReill (eds.), Arianne Baggerman and RudolfDekker, Serge Audier, Literature Bernard Brillant, History ofPostwarFrance 1660-1789 (London 2008). Aftermath (Oxford 2005). (2007), 335-340.MaxineBerg, Philosophical Transactions About theauthor Anticlericalism 2011). Question Europe reflected inaBoyhoodDiary (Paris 2008). in Easternand Western Europe.E-mail:[email protected]. Angela Merkel. Together with some colleagues, he edited a volume on the Sixties history oftheDutchborder, Habermasforhistorians,andthelifepoliticsof of theEnlightenment, the roleofmissionariesinglobalisation process, the in Germany and the Netherlands. His publications include studies of the concepts European integration onthesocial, economic, constitutional and political relations of influence the researches he Currently centuries. twentieth the and eighteenth the German StudiesattheUniversityof Amsterdam. Hespecializes in thehistoryof Hanco Jürgens isaresearcher, teacherandmemberofstaff attheInstitute for IdolTemples andCraftyPriests:TheOriginsofEnlightenment (Stanford 2001). La pensée anti-68, Essai sur les originsed’unerestaurationLa penséeanti-68,Essaisur intellectuelle (New York2005). (Oxford,2002). The Triumph ofMusic,TheRiseComposers,Musicians,andtheir Art Power andtheIdealists,Or, thePassion ofJoschkaFischerandits The Culture ofPowerandtheCulture, Old Regime Europe The Young Derrida andFrench Philosophy,1945-1968 Les clercs de68 After theDeluge:NewPerspectives on theIntellectual andCultural

(Houndmills 1999). HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES 1 (London1666),186-189. (Oxford 2004). (Paris 2003). Luxury andPleasure inEighteenth-Century Britain What’s LeftoftheEnlightenment: A Postmodern (Leiden 2009). Child of the Enlightenment, Revolutionary History Workshop Journal (Cambridge , 64

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, 1968, Vom Vom 1968, (Cambridge (Göttingen 1997). (Hamburg 2004). (Hamburg 26 2 (1994), 121-139. Journal of the History of Journal of the , 4 (Stuttgart 1978), 93-131. (Göttingen 1998), 168-187. 1968: The World Transformed 1968: The World (London 2005), 43, 1 (1971) 113-132. Contributions to the History of Concepts History to the Contributions Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Late Medieval in Anticlericalism De Achttiende Eeuw Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe, Historisches Grundbegriffe, Geschichtliche (London 2008). The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe Europe Enlightenment in Public the of The Rise

Journal of Modern History Journal of Modern History (Princeton 1977). (Leiden 1993). Das ostindische Abenteuer, Deutsche in Diensten der Vereinigten Vereinigten der Diensten in Deutsche Abenteuer, Das ostindische

De Nederlandse Republiek, Spinoza en de Radicale Verlichting en de Radicale Spinoza Republiek, De Nederlandse

The Silent Revolution, Changing Values and Political Styles among and Political Changing Values The Silent Revolution, The Age of Wonder, How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Discovered Generation Romantic How the Wonder, of Age The Enlightenment Contested, Modernity and the Emancipation of Man Contested, Modernity and the Emancipation Enlightenment The Radical Enlightenment, Pantheists, Freemasons and Republicans Freemasons Pantheists, Enlightenment, Radical The The French New Left: An Intellectual History from Sartre to Gorz to Gorz Sartre History from An Intellectual New Left: The French (Oxford 2006), Pietismus und Aufklärung, Theologische Polemik und die Kommuni- die und Polemik Aufklärung, Theologische und Pietismus Postwar, The History of Europe since 1945 The History of Europe Postwar, , 67 (2006), 3, 523-545. (London 1981). Western Publics Western Ideas 1670-1752 Beauty and Terror of Science Beauty and Terror 2001). Conze and Reinhart Koselleck (eds.), Koselleck and Reinhart Conze Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland (Boston 1981). (Cambridge 1998). am Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts der Wissenschaft kationsreform zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft Ereignis 1 (2005), 21-28. Modern Europe 1600 - 1800 der Niederlande (VOC) Ostindischen Kompanie (Amsterdam 2010). (Amsterdam 18e Eeuw’, Werkgroep bestaan van de History of Ideas’, Tony Judt, Tony Work’, ‘Habermas for Historians: Four approaches to his Hanco Jürgens. Jonathan Israel, ‘Enlightenment! Which Enlightenment?’, Which ‘Enlightenment! Israel, Jonathan Jonathan Israel, Jacob, Margaret Richard Holmes, Richard van Horn Melton, James Ronald Inglehart, Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, ‘Modern, Modernität, Moderne’, in: Otto Bruner, Werner Werner Moderne’, in: Otto Bruner, ‘Modern, Modernität, Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Arthur Hirsch, Carole Fink, Philipp Gassert, and Detlef Junker (eds.), Detlef Fink, Philipp Gassert, and Carole Gierl, Martin (ed.), ibid. in: Linke’, Neue und Theorie ‘Kritische Holtey, Gilcher Ingrid Peter Dykema and (eds.), Oberman and Heiko Dykema Peter Gelder, van Roelof P.J. Buijnsters, P.J. ‘Het heilsperspectief van Een de reflectieVerlichting. bij het 25-jarig Social a Create to Attempts Recent Enlightenment: of the ‘In Search Darnton, Robert Darnton, ‘Discourse and Diffusion’, Robert HANCO JÜRGENS Bunge, van Wiep

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 110 Wijnand MijnhardtandJoost Kloek, Jan-Werner Müller, Edward P. Morgan, L.T. Milic(ed.), Arthur Marwick, Darrin McMahon Antoine Lilti, ‘Comment écrit-on l’histoire intellectuelle des Lumières? Inger Leemans, Anthony La Vopa, ‘A NewIntellectual History?JonathanIsrael’s Enlightenment’, Mark Kurlansky, 1 Wolfgang Kraushaar, Dorothea Kraus,‘Appropriationetpratiquesdelalecture, Les fondements Reinhart Koselleck (ed.), Reinhart Koselleck,‘Einleitung’, in: OttoBrunner, Werner Conze,ReinhartKoselleck Martin Klimke, James Kennedy, Immanuel Kant, Hanco Jürgens, JaccoPekelder, FalkBretschneiderandKlausBachmann (eds.), Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann, Forschungsberichte ausdem and European Users Dutch Culture inaEuropean Perspective Identity Democracy Failed American United States,c.1958-c.1974 and theMakingofModernity radicalisme, pornografische romans, 1670-1700 Historical Journal Chartier’, méthodologiques et théoriquesdel’approchel’histoireculturelle de Roger politisch-sozialen SpracheinDeutschland (ed.), States intheGlobalSixties 1960s (Leipzig 2009). Welt zugewinnen!FormenundFolgender68erBewegunginOst-Westeuropa Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe (Ann (NewHaven2000). Labyrinthe Arbor 1995). The Other Alliance, Student Protest in West Germany andthe United Building NewBabylon,CulturalChangeintheNetherlands duringthe The ModernityoftheEighteenthCentury philosophie’, Het woord isaandeonderkant,Radicale ideeën in deNederlandse Kritik derreinen Vernunft , Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment The Sixties, Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, andthe 968, TheYear thatRockedtheWorld Another Country: German Intellectuals, Unification, and National and Unification, Intellectuals, German Country: Another What ReallyMediaCultureHappened tothe1960s,HowMass 1968 alsMythos.Chiffre undZäsur , 52(2009),717-738. (Cambridge Ma2009). 3 (1999),13-25. Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches Lexikon zur Annales HSS HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES (Princeton 2010). (New York 2001). Duitsland Instituut AmsterdamDuitsland (Oxford 1998). (Kansas 2010). Cold War Kitchen: Americanization, Technology, 1800 –BlueprintsforaNational Community: , 1(Stuttgart1972). (Nijmegen 2002). (Riga 1781). , 1,janvier–février2009,171-206. (Basingstoke 2004). , 4(Stuttgart1978),93-131. (London2004). (Cleveland1971). (Hamburg 2000). , 5(2009),158-170. Spinozisme, Eine The

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, Le Monde History and

Contributions to Contributions 1 (Utrecht 2008). (Cambridge 1971). (Durham NC 2004), 431-460. 2004), NC (Durham 37 (2011), 1, 43-52. 37 (2011), (Cambridge 2010). (Berkeley 2005), 251-256. (May 2000), 147-166.

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39 (Amsterdam 2009). (New York 1971). York (New Porn Studies Studies Porn , toward a Recognition of a Pornographic of a Pornographic Recognition , toward a Blow job Blow , 5 (2008), 1, 83-96. History of European Ideas History of European 1 (2005) 29-36. (Ithaca 2006). , History and Theory Lichtblicke. Zur Geschichte der Künstlichen Helligkeit im 19. Helligkeit Zur Geschichte der Künstlichen Lichtblicke. Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi Discours et les fondements de l’inégalité sur l’origine (Odense 1969). (Princeton 2008). Reeks Burgerhartlezingen The Argand Burnder: Its Origin and Development in France and Burnder: Its Origin and Development Argand The The Case for the Enlightenmen: Scotland and Naples 1680-1760 and Naples 1680-1760 Scotland The Case for the Enlightenmen: Habermas, an Intellectual Biography De uitvinding van de mensheid. Korte wereldgeschiedenis van het van wereldgeschiedenis Korte mensheid. van de uitvinding De (Frankfurt/Main 1986). (Amsterdam 1755). Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment De eindeloze jaren zestig, Geschiedenis van een generatieconflict Politics, Language, and Time Politics, Language, and

The Religious Enlightenment, Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from from Jews, and Catholics Protestants, Enlightenment, The Religious The Political Economy of Virtue: Luxury, Patriotism and the Origins of Patriotism and the Origins Luxury, Economy of Virtue: The Political Vitalizing Nature in the Enlightenment in the Enlightenment Nature Vitalizing 8 (1969), 1, 3-53. proposed Alternative’ London to Vienna denken over gelijkheid en cultuurverschil the the French Theory the History of Concepts Habermas, and Foucault’, England 1780-1800 (Amsterdam 1995). les hommes Jahrhundert (Cambridge 2005). Enlightenment’, Avant-garde’, in: Linda Williams (ed.), (ed.), Williams Linda in: Avant-garde’, 29-4-2007. Modern Intellectual History Franco Venturi, Franco Venturi, of the Sixties The Italy: and Reform in Enlightenment ‘Church Venturi, Franco David Sorkin, Mathew Specter, Stuurman, Siep and a its Critique Thought: Siep Stuurman, ‘The Canon of the History of Political , ‘Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas’, History of in the and Understanding ‘Meaning Skinner, Quentin the History of Books’, History and ‘On Intellectual Skinner, Quentin James Schmidt, ‘Misunderstanding the Question: ‘What is Enlightenment?’: Venturi, Venturi, is Enlightenment?’: ‘What Question: the ‘Misunderstanding James Schmidt, Michael Schrøder, John Shovlin, Hans Righart, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Schivelbusch, Wolfgang Peter Reill, John Robertson, Late the High and in and Culture Nature Enlightenment: the ‘Rethinking Reill, Peter Alexandre Piquart, ‘Nicolas Sarkozy veut “tourner la page de mai 1968”’, veut “tourner la Piquart, ‘Nicolas Sarkozy Alexandre J.G.A. Pocock, of their History’, View A J.G.A. Enlightenment: Pocock, ‘Historiography and the HANCO JÜRGENS Warhol’s ‘Andy Ara Osterweil,

DE ACHTTIENDE EEUW 43 (2011) 1 112 Richard Wolin, Michiel Wielema, Eighteenth Century’, and theLegacyof1960s Church (1660-1750) The Wind from theEast:French Intellectuals: The CulturalRevolution The March of the Libertines: Spinozists and the Dutch Reformed (Hilversum2004). Journal ofModernHistory HOW TO STUDY THE HISTORY OFCHANGE? THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE SIXTIES (Princeton 2010). 48(June1976),215-232.

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