Tense, Time, Aspect and the Ancient Greek Verb by Jerome Moran

Home , Aorist, Aorist (Ancient Greek), Imperfect, Indirect speech, Optative (Ancient Greek), Pluperfect

early every – no, every – Greek The questions in the first sentence 3. In Greek the tense of a verb may Ngrammar and course book, even (‘deliberative’ questions, therefore in denote something different from or the most comprehensive (in English, the subjunctive) refer to present (or additional to the time at which the at any rate), gives a very skimpy, perhaps future) time. But one of act, event, occurrence, process, state perfunctory and unhelpful account — the verbs (εἴπωμεν) is in a past denoted by the verb is located. In insofar as it gives any account at all – of tense (aorist). The second sentence particular, it may denote something what ‘aspect’ is and how exactly it is refers to past time, but one of the called ‘aspect’. related to verb tense and time (which verbs (βούλοιτο) is in the present tend to be conflated). Most of the tense. 4. Whether the tense of a Greek verb books and articles on the subject of denotes time or/and aspect depends the aspect of the Greek verb are What is going on? The answer is in the first place on the mood of the accessible only to the professional something called ‘aspect’, and its verb (‘the form which a verb philologist, and can’t therefore be connection with tense and time. Just assumes in order to reflect the easily applied by non-specialists to the note for now a difference in the manner (modus) in which the speaker understanding of the actual usage of kind of things denoted by the verbs conceives the action’ (Woodcock)). Greek writers or to the imitation of in bold. The verb in the aorist tense ‘depends’ here does not mean ‘is their usage when translating into their denotes an action; the verbs in the determined by’. So, it is not the fact language. This article sets out to present tense denote a state, or that a verb is in the subjunctive remedy this situation by giving a clear certainly something that is not an mood that it uses either the present and (within limits) comprehensive action. or aorist tense; it is rather that in the explanation of aspect as it applies to subjunctive mood these tenses the Greek verb. 2. What exactly aspect is, we shall see indicate something other than time, later. As for tense and time, the first viz. aspect. The Greek verb is used 1. Consider these two sentences, in thing to note is that the words in four moods (indicative, particular the verbs in bold: ‘tense’ and ‘time’ are not imperative, subjunctive, optative) synonymous and their meanings and two ‘non-finite’ (as some people î ; (Euripides, εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγ μεν should not be confused, as they so like to think of them) moods Ion 758) often are. Tense is a grammatical (participle and infinitive). (I take a ‘Are we to speak or are we to be (for want of a better word) concept, finite verb to be one that has a silent?’ and is simply a feature of a verb, the definite tense, number and person. most familiar function of which is The infinitive has a tense only; the to locate what it denotes in time. It participle lacks a person.) ἐθήρευεν ἀπο ἵππου, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι is less clear what kind of concept βούλοιτο ἑαυτόν τε αì τοὺϛ ἵππουϛ (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.7) time is, since it is not obvious what 5. In general, the tense of the indicative time is. However, for the purposes and the participle denotes time. ‘He used to hunt on horseback, of this discussion the ordinary, (The aorist and imperfect indicatives whenever he wanted to give himself layperson’s, understanding of time also indicate aspect in past time, as and his horses some exercise.’ will suffice. we shall see.) In general, the tense of

The Journal of Classics Teaching 17 (34) p.58-61 © The Classical Association 2016. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits Downloaded58 from https://www.cambridge.org/corenon-commercial re-use, distribution,. IP address: and170.106.34.90 reproduction, on 30 in Sep any 2021 medium, at 07:46:04 provided, subject the to original the Cambridge work is Core unaltered terms ofand use, is available properly at cited. The written https://www.cambridge.org/core/termspermission of Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S205863101600026X University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. the infinitive and the optative is being viewed differently. It is the features of the Greek verb; it is an denotes aspect. The tense of the difference between seeing once omnipresent feature, you might say. imperative and subjunctive indicates (aorist) and going on seeing Certainly, one cannot hope to write aspect, without reference to time. (present). (A similar distinction can anything like authentic, idiomatic, (For the main exceptions to these be seen in the case of hearing and ancient Greek without knowledge generalisations see the sub-sections listening to.) In the indicative mood, of it and how it works. Also, when of 10 below.) of course, the difference would be reading Greek one cannot denoted by the aorist and imperfect understand the nuances of an 6. Where the difference of tense of tenses. But remember that the already versatile, sophisticated and the verb denotes a difference of imperfect tense exists only in the subtle language without a more or aspect only, in nearly all cases the indicative, so that other moods have less constant awareness of it. tenses concerned are the present to use some other tense (the and the aorist. Strictly speaking, present) to convey the meaning of 10. And now for a more detailed differences of aspect extend to the imperfect in the indicative. (This analysis of tense, time and aspect, other tenses as well (e.g. the is what happens in clauses of taking each of the moods in turn, ‘resultative’ form of the perfect), indirect statement that do not after some preliminary observations. but these will hardly ever concern employ the indicative to represent the student. an imperfect or pluperfect indicative 10.1 The past tenses of the indicative, the in the direct speech: the optative, aorist and the imperfect, not only 7. To help one to understand what infinitive and participle use present indicate past time but also aspect is, let us think about the for imperfect and perfect for differentiate between aspect. This different sorts of things a verb – a pluperfect.)1 does not happen with the present or verb in English – can represent. It future tenses. For example, as we can stand for an action, event, Some verbs by their very meaning have seen, different tenses are used occurrence, process or state. The and the inherent nature of the for ‘he saw’ (aorist) and ‘he watched’ same verb can denote all or most activity they denote will incline to (imperfect). But there are not of these. Consider the verb ‘to one aspect rather than another, as we different present tenses for ‘he sees’ stand’ (or ‘to sit’). This can denote see in the case of ‘catch sight of ’ and and ‘he is watching’, or different an act (‘he stood up’, i.e. he got up), ‘watch’ or ‘hear’ and ‘listen to’. Verbs future tenses for ‘he will see’ and ‘he a process (‘he was standing up’, i.e. that denote a process or a state will watch’ that correspond to the he was getting up), a state (‘he belong to this category. However, in uses of the aorist and imperfect for stood’ or ‘he was standing’). In the case of most verbs the aspect past time. Why not, if the Greeks Greek these would be ἔστη (aorist), and tense used must have depended thought it so important to mark ἵστατο (imperfect), εἱστήει on whether what the verb denotes differences of aspect? What is so (pluperfect). These are all different was viewed as single, uninterrupted, special about past time and past ways of viewing or regarding standing. completed (aorist), or whether it was tenses? Perhaps things only just In other words, standing can be viewed as repeated, continuous or happening in the present or not yet seen from several different aspects. otherwise interrupted and happening in the future seemed incomplete (present, and (indicative) inherently incomplete and 8. We should now be in a better imperfect). This is the case with unfinished (or not even yet begun), position to understand what the conative (‘tried to …’), inchoative/ so that the distinctions marked by aspect of a verb is. It is the way in inceptive (‘began to …’) and iterative the aorist and imperfect did not which what is denoted by the verb is (‘used to …’) verbs, all of which seem to apply. viewed by the speaker/writer. In convey the idea of something begun general, where the tense of the verb but interrupted and not finished and Note that (except for the imperfect indicates a difference of aspect only over and done with. We must also and aorist indicative) in general (and not of time), the present tense remember that the Greeks may not where tense is used to indicate time is used to indicate a process, state, necessarily have viewed actions, it cannot also indicate aspect. But, as ongoing or repeated act/event/ events etc. in the same way that we we shall see, this (outside the occurrence. The aorist tense is used do, and that differences of aspect indicative and participle) is the case to indicate a single, completed might mark distinctions of which we in a small number of instances only, action or occurrence (not a process are completely unaware. as the tense used in most of the or a state). So, in a clause of purpose moods/non-finite moods indicates after a primary main verb, one 9. Why the Greeks thought it aspect, not time. The inability to would expect the aorist subjunctive necessary or useful to make such indicate time here is not a problem to be used for ‘to catch sight of ’ or distinctions of aspect is not clear, either, as there are other markers, ‘to hear’ but the present subjunctive especially as they do not always especially context, to indicate time. for ‘to watch’ or ‘to listen to’. seem to have observed these So, for example, even if the present Catching sight of and watching distinctions. Be that as it may, aspect subjunctive/optative is used in a both involve seeing, but the seeing is one of the most conspicuous purpose clause, we are not in doubt

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.34.90Tense,, on Time, 30 Sep Aspect 2021 and at 07:46:04 the Ancient, subject Greek to the Verb Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 59 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S205863101600026X about the fact that the purpose was ‘if he said that, he would …’ In the (The expressions (ἐπ)ομóσαϛ ἔϕη conceived in the past rather than the last two examples the subjunctive and γελáσαϛ ἔϕη are often cited as present or future. mood is being used actually, so it is equivalent to and posing the same more a case of coincidence with the problem as the two mentioned 10.2 As already noted, the Greeks do not form of the indicative.) above. But there is no difficulty in seem always to have observed the understanding the participles to distinctions they made. So, one 10.4 The tenses of the participle, like indicate anteriority (and can one tense is used where we would expect the indicative, usually denote time laugh and speak at the same time?), another. Sometimes it is not at all rather than aspect, though relative as the aorist participle nearly clear why a particular tense has been (to the time of the main verb) always does.) used. At other times it does not rather than absolute time. seem to matter, when it seems that it However, it is not clear in some It is claimed that the tense of a should matter, which tense is used. cases why the aorist tense has been participle usually denotes aspect This can be a very frustrating used. It does not seem to indicate not time when the participle is experience for someone new to unambiguously anteriority, and the used instead of the protasis of aspect who accepts that it is aorist participle is not normally certain types of conditional important and is struggling to used to indicate aspect rather than sentences. But in most such understand it. One suspects that it is time. (In fact the participle instances the tense of the impossible for us fully to generally, like the indicative in participle could equally well, if not understand the workings of ancient present and future time, seems better, be seen as denoting time, Greek when it comes to nuances of strangely indifferent to differences e.g. in the sentence ‘If he does that aspect. (Who can claim fully to of aspect, so that, for example, the he will be punished’, the aorist understand the workings of Greek present participle must be used (to participle ποιήσαϛ could be particles, even with Denniston as a indicate simultaneity) in instances understood as ‘having done that’. guide?) where the aspect would seem to require the aorist, e.g. ‘while leaving Note (as indicated above) that the 10.3 Although the tenses of the the house …’, or ‘while glancing up tense of the participle in clauses of indicative in general denote time …’. But this happens in clauses of indirect statement introduced by (and in some tenses aspect too), the indirect statement too, of course, verbs of seeing, perceiving, etc. tense used does not always indicate especially ones which employ the indicates time, not aspect. the expected, usual time. So, the participle, infinitive and optative.) present indicative does not always When I say (above) that it is not 10.5 The tenses of the imperative are indicate present time, as is the case clear in some cases why the aorist time-neutral (though logically the with the ‘historic present’ used of tense has been used, I am thinking of imperative has reference to the past narrative. The aorist indicative expressions such as ἀποkρινáμενοϛ future, or at least the present) and does not always indicate past time, ἔϕη and ἔϕη ὑπολαβών. In these denote aspect only. It is probably in as is the case with the ‘gnomic expressions common sense the use of the imperative that one is aorist’ (a real or imagined event in seems to demand that the most aware of an apparent lack of the past serves as a precedent for a participles denote simultaneity consistency in the marking of maxim), the ‘dramatic/silent aorist’, (unless the participles denote aspect, or at least puzzlement as to and the use of the aorist ὤϕελον in something different from what ἔϕη why one tense has been used rather wishes for the present. The denotes), so that they are not being than another. One is not always clear imperfect indicative does not always used to indicate (past) time; but whether it is the inherent nature of indicate past time, as is the case with equally it is not easy to see that the the activity or whether, whatever the present unreal conditions or wishes tense denotes the kind of aspect nature of the activity, it is the for the present, and imperfect that we associate with the aorist difference between single or indicatives of impersonal verbs such tense. The Greek usage may be repeated instances / occasions as (ἐ)χρÁν, ἔδει, ἐξÁν, which refer akin to our ‘he answered and said (perhaps similar to the difference to present time when used with the …’ (i.e. in answer), ‘he replied in between the Latin use of ne with the present infinitive. turn and said …’ (i.e. in reply), perfect and present subjunctive) that rather than ‘having answered, he is being marked. How does Greek (Note that in English too the tense said … ‘and ‘having replied in make clear what is meant by ‘Do not used may refer to a time other than return, he said …’. On the other sleep in class’? If the aorist that normally denoted by the tense. hand, they have the appearance of (subjunctive) is used, is the teacher So, a present tense may refer to formulaic usage, and therein may really intending to make crystal clear future time, e.g. ‘if he says that, he lie the explanation, which, of that his command should apply only will …’ A past tense may refer to course, is no explanation at all to this one class? Or is he giving a present time, e.g. ‘if he said/were unless one knows how they came command not to fall asleep, in this saying this, he would be …’ A past to be formulae that constitute and any other class? What difference tense may refer to future time, e.g. exceptions to the normal usage. would be indicated by the use of the

Downloaded60 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.34.90Tense,, on 30 Time, Sep Aspect2021 at and07:46:04 the Ancient, subject Greek to the VerbCambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S205863101600026X present (imperative)? Sometimes it tense of the optative used in indirect that it did matter, accept that it really does not seem to matter to a statements and indirect questions did, and try to figure out why. Greek writer what tense is used, indicates time, not aspect.2 which is disconcerting for a student trying to get clear differences of 10.8 The tenses of the subjunctive Jerome Moran is a JACT Tutor and tense and aspect. (It is ironic that indicate aspect only. a retired teacher of Classics and students usually encounter aspect Philosophy in the secondary sector. for the first time in the form of the Note that in the indefinite [email protected] imperative and aorist subjunctive construction the difference of time when learning about direct is indicated by the difference in commands and prohibitions. It mood, not tense. The subjunctive is might be better to introduce it with used of present and future time, the 1This is the conventional explanation of the deliberative direct questions rather optative of past time. The difference in aspect of the aorist and the than the imperative, where the same difference of tense indicates a present/imperfect. A different, or additional, problems do not arise.) difference of aspect. explanation is given by E J Bakker, A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language, pp. 161-166 (and in various articles). (The If the tense of the infinitive used in 11. Where the tense of the verb conventional explanation is given in pp. clauses of indirect command is the indicates aspect only and not time 140-141.) Actually, Bakker does not give any same as the tense that would have it is vital to grasp the implications examples in the book of an aorist/present been used in the direct command/ of this. It means, for example, contrast, and the examples he does give are prohibition (a reasonable that the present tense can be used confined to the indicative and concerned assumption, surely), we might, by of past and future time (think of mainly with main clauses. studying the former carefully in the constructions of which this is 2It is not true, as some books state or imply, Greek texts, have more evidence true), and the past tense (aorist) that indirect statement (and the use of the from which to gain a better used of present and future time optative in indirect questions) is the only understanding of the distinction of (again, think of the instance of an optative that denotes time aspect in the latter. constructions). We are so used to rather than aspect. Note that - the tense of a verb indicating 10.6 The tenses of the infinitive nearly time location only that the Greek (a) in clauses of effort or precaution after a always indicate aspect only. But the usage is hard to get our head historic main verb (HMV) the future indicative may be replaced by the future optative, tense of the infinitive used in around. It seems to us at first to denoting time and not aspect; indirect statement, in wishes for the be a systematically perverse and (b) the optative after a HMV in a causal clause present and past expressed by wilful misuse or abuse of the denotes time, not aspect; ὤϕελον with the infinitive, in the tenses, for no obviously (c) the optative replacing the indicative in the use of impersonal verbs such as justifiable reason, and not even protasis of a present and future open (ἐ) χρÁν etc. (see earlier) with consistently but randomly condition in indirect speech after a HMV present or aorist infinitive, indicates applied. One can easily end up denotes time, not aspect. time, not aspect. thinking that it does not really There may be others. matter what tense of the verb is As can be seen above, it is also not true, as is 10.7 The tenses of the optative nearly used. But we should reflect that claimed, that the future optative is used only in always indicate aspect only. But the the Greeks seem to have thought clauses of indirect speech.