Report No. 28064- KE Report No. 28064-KE Kenya Strengthening the Foundation of Education and Training in Kenya Public Disclosure Authorized Authorized Disclosure Disclosure Public Public Opportunities and Challenges in Primary and General Secondary Education

March 3, 2004 Human Development I Country Department: AFC05 Africa Region FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

ey Strengthening the Foundation of Education and Kenya Public Disclosure Authorized Authorized Disclosure Disclosure Public Public Public Disclosure Authorized Authorized Disclosure Disclosure Public Public

Training in Kenya

Document of the World Bank Public Disclosure Authorized Authorized Disclosure Disclosure Public Public

This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. GOVERNMENT FISCAL YEAR

July 1 -June 30

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

Currency Unit: Kenya Shillings (KSh) Official Rate: US$ 1.00 = 75 KSh. (July 29,2003)

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Ksh Kenyan Shilling CBE Curriculum-Based Establishment MDGs Millennium Development Goals CBS Central Bureau of Statistics MoEST Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology CHE Commission for Higher Education MTEF Medium-Tern Expenditure Framework DEO District Education Officer NFE Nonfonnal Education EMIS Education Management Information System NGO Nongovernmental Organizations ERAP Economic Recovery Action Plan OC Other Charges FPE Free Primary Education PDE Provincial Director of Education GDP Gross Domestic Product PE Personal Emolument GER Gross Enrollment Ratio PER Public Expenditure Review GoK Government of Kenya PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper HELB Higher Education Loans Board PTA Parent Teacher Association HIViAIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired PTR Pupil-Teacher Ratio Immunodeficiency Syndrome SACMEQ Southem Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality KCPE Kenya Certificate of Primary Education TAC Teacher Advisory Center KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study KIE Kenya Institute of Education TVEC Technical and Vocational Education and Training KNEC Kenya National Examination Council TSC Teachers Service Commission

This report was prepared by a team comprising Dandan Chen (Economist, AFTHI, Task Team Leader), Donald Hamilton (Senior Education Planner, AFTHl), and James Kamunge (Education Specialist, Consultant). The team worked closely with the Technical Working Group (TWG) of Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST), and participated the TWG’s retreats for the technical discussions during 2002. The report benefited from comments by its peer reviewers Manny Jimenez (Sector Director, EASHD), Peter Moock (Consultant, AFTHl), and Harry Patrinos (Senior Education Economist, LCSHE), and all the participants of the review meeting. All the education colleagues at AFTHl have also provided comments on an early draft. Technical guidance from Birger Fredriksen (Senior Education Advisor, AFTHD) is much appreciated. Makhtar Diop (Country Director), Dzingai Mutumbuka (Sector Manager), and Paud Murphy (Lead Education Specialist, AFTHI) provided overall guidance. Financial assistance from Norwegian Education Trust Fund is gratefully acknowledged. FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Table of Contents Executive Summary ...... i Introduction ...... i Main Sector Issues and Critical Challenges ...... ii Policy Recommendations ...... vi11 Sector Planning: Projections of Costs and Financing ...... xii Chapter 1 Macroeconomic Context and Demographic Trends ...... 1 Evolution ofGross Domestic Products...... 1 FiscalResources and Performance ...... 2 Population and Labor Force ...... 4 Evolution of the Population ...... Labor force and employment Impact ofHIV/AIDS ...... Economic Development Perspectives...... 6 Macroeconomic Prospects ...... 7 Education Sector Development ...... 7 Conclusions ...... 8 Chapter 2 Education Coverage and Attainment ...... 9 Historical Overview ...... 9 Preprimary Education ...... 10 Primary Education ...... 11 General Secondary Education ...... 13 Determinants for Low Enrollment at Primary and Secondary Level...... 15 Postsecondary Education and Training ...... 16 University ...... 16 Tertiary-Level Technical Education ...... 17 Teacher Education and Training ...... 17 Other Education and Training ...... Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Nonformal Education (NFE) Adult Education ...... 19 ...... 20

Conclusions ...... Chapter 3 Internal Efficiency and Student Flows ...... 24 Late School Entry ...... 24 Dropout Rate at Primary Level ...... 25 Grade Repetition at Primary Level ...... 26 Cohort Flows and Completion at Primary Level ...... 27 Dropout at Secondary Level ...... 28 Repetition Rate at Secondary Level ...... 28 Completion Rate and Cohort Flow at Secondary Level ...... 29 Primary to Secondary Transition Rates ...... : ...... 30 ...... 31 Chapter 4 Education Quality...... 32 Educational Inputs ...... 32 Curriculum ...... 32 Teachers...... 33 ing materials ...... 41 ...... 43 rmance...... 44 lThis document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in lthe performance of their official duties. Its contents may not be otherwise disclosed 1 lwithout World Bank authorization. I Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) ...... Kenya Certijicate of Secondary Education (KCSE) ...... 45 Conclusions ...... Chapter 5 Education Cost and Finance ...... 48 Overall Public Finance ...... 48 Recurrent Government Expenditure on Education ...... -49 Allocation across subsectors ...... Allocation across functions and Unit Cost Composition Development Expenditure and Donor Finance ...... Efficiency ofPublic Spending ...... 59 Equity ofPublic Spending: Benefit Incidence...... 61 Household Expenditure on Education ...... 61 Conclusions ...... 64 Chapter 6 Institutional Arrangement and Management of Education Service Delivery ...... 65 Overall Institutional Arrangement for Service Delivery ...... 65 Management and Capacity ofMoEST ...... 69

Funds Flow ...... 74

Decentralization of Educational Management ...... Provincial Level Management ...... District Level Management

Management of Inspection of Services ...... 80 Conclusions ...... 81 Chapter 7 Policy Directions and Sector Development Projections ...... 82 Critical Challenges ...... 82 Equitable Expansion of Enrollment ...... 82 Internal efjciency ...... 83 Quality of Education ...... 83 Costs and Financing ...... 84 Sector Strategies ...... 84 Expand Enrollment ...... 84 Improve Quality ...... Enhance Eflciency of Resource A Strengthen Institutional Arrange ...... 91 Sector Development Projections..... Primary Level ...... Secondary Level ...... Issues of Special Attention for Further Sector Planning ...... 107 Conclusions ...... 108 Annex I Additional Tables...... 110 Annex I1 Kenya at A Glance...... 124 Bibliography ...... 126

11 List of Tables Table 1.1: Real GDP Growth 1980-2001 ...... 1 Table 1.2: Current GDP Per Capita and Population ...... 1 Table 1.3: Government Revenue and Expenditure As Percentage of GDP, 199711998 - 200212003 ...... 2 Table 1.4: Expenditure Category and As Percentage ofGDP, 199711998 - 2002l2003 ...... 2 Table 1.5: Share of Public Expenditures By Sector ...... 3 Table 1.6: Population by Gender and Age Structure in 1999 (in 1000s) ...... 4 Table 1.7: School Age Population Estimates ...... 5 Table 1.8: Total Employment And Shares by Sector 1997 - 2001 (in 1000s) ...... 5 Table 2.1 : Evolution of Gross Enrollment Ratio of Preprimary Education (in Percentage) ...... 11 Table 2.2: Primary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989 - 2000 ...... 12 Table 2.3: Primary Schools Gross Enrollment Rate by Province and Sex, 2000 ...... 12 Table 2.4: Enrollment Increase by Region between 2000 and 2003 ...... 13 Table 2.5: Secondary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989-2000 ...... 14 Table 2.6: Secondary School Gross Enrollment by Sex and Province, 2000 ...... 14 Table 2.7: Reasons for Non-School Attendance (by percentage) ...... 15 Table 2.8: Enrollment in Universities 1995-2001 ...... 16 Table 2.9: Enrollment in Technical Education 2000-2001 ...... 17 Table 2.10: Enrollment in Public Primary Teacher Training Colleges 1991-2001 ...... 18 Table 2.1 1: Enrollment in Adult Literacy Programs ...... 19 Table 2.12: Enrollment in Special Education at Primary Level by Sex 1986-99 ...... 20 Table 2.13: Enrolment in Special Schools at Secondary Level by Sex 1990-99 ...... 20 Table 3.1: Primary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999 ...... 25 Table 3.2: Primary School Drop-out Rates by Sex and Grade ...... 25 Table 3.3: Primary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999 ...... 26 Table 3.4: Primary School Repetition Rate by Sex and Grade, 1999 ...... - ...... 26 Table 3.5: Primary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Grade 1 and Grade 8 during Eight Year Cycle, 1989 - 200027 Table 3.6: Cohort Flow at Primary Level ...... 27 Table 3.7: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999 ...... 28 Table 3.8: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Sex and Grade ...... 28 Table 3.9: Secondary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999 ...... 29 Table 3.10: Secondary Repetition Rates by Grade and Sex ...... 29 Table 3.11: Secondary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Form Iand Form IV during Four Year Cycle, 1989 - 2000 ...... 29 Table 3.12: Secondary School Cohort Flow...... 30 Table 3.13: Primary to Secondary School Transition Rates by Sex, 1991-2000 ...... 30 Table 3.14: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and Province, 2000 ...... 31 Table 4.1: 2001 KCPE Candidates by Subject ...... 32 Table 4.2: Numbers of Primary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2003 ...... 34 Table 4.3: Pupil-Teacher Ratio by District and Province 2003 ...... 35 Table 4.4: Number of Secondary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2001 ...... :...... 38 Table 4.5: Distribution of Secondary School Teachers across Provinces and Districts, 2000 ...... 38 Table 4.6: Reasons for Teachers Leaving Service (%) ...... 40 Table 4.7: Availability of Textbooks ...... 41 Table 4.8: Availability ofClassroom and School Libraries ...... 42 Table 4.9: Availability ofOther Learning Materials ...... 42 Table 4.10: Availability ofClassroom Furniture ...... 43 Table 4.1 1: Indicators ofOther School Facility Status ...... 43 Table 4.12: Examination Performance in English, Maths, Physics, Biology and Chemistry at KCSE 1992-2001 .....45 Table 4.13: Performance by Gender, 2001 ...... 45 Table 5.1 : Share ofGovernment Revenue and Expenditure as Percentage of GDP ...... 48 Table 5.2: Government Expenditure on Social Services and Education (by percentage) ...... 49 Table 5.3: MoEST Recurrent Expenditure by level, 1996197-2002 in Ksh Millions ...... 50 Table 5.4: Proportion of Subsector Public Recurrent Expenditure ...... 50

... 111 Table 5.5: Unit Cost Evolution (Kshs. Per pupil. Per year): 1996197 -2002103 ...... 52 Table 5.6: Number ofTeachers and Pupils at Primary Level 1993-2003 ...... 53 Table 5.7: Numbers ofPrimary and Secondary School Teachers by Category ...... 55 Table 5.8: Average Annual Salary of Teachers by Category (Kshs) ...... 56 Table 5.9: Average Monthly Earnings in Public Sector by Function ...... 57 Table 5.10: Development Expenditure Per Subsector, 1997-2002 (million Ksh) ...... 59 Table 5.1 1: Public spending on education and indicators of education achievement in selected African countries ...60 Table 5.12: Benefit Incidence ofPublic Expenditure ...... 61 Table 5.13: Components ofHousehold Education Expenditures (Ksh, per child annually) ...... 62 Table 5.14: Household Education Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education...... 63 Table 6.1 : Functional Assignments for Education Services in Kenya...... 65 Table 7.1: Primary Level Enrollment Projection...... 95 Table 7.2: Projection of Recurrent Costs for Teachers Compensation and School Grants at Primary Level: Lower- Bound ...... 96 Table 7.3: Projection of Development Costs for Classroom Construction at Primary Level: Lower-Bound ...... 97 Table 7.4: Projection ofRecurrent Costs for Teachers Compensation and School Grants at Primary Level: Upper- Bound ...... 98 Table 7.5: Projection ofDevelopment Costs for Classroom Construction at Primary Level: Upper-Bound ...... 99 Table 7.6: Summary of Recurrent Costs (USD million) ...... 99 Table 7.7: Baseline Case Enrollment Projection at Secondary Level...... 102 Table 7.8: Recurrent Costs with Base Case Secondary Enrollment and No Efficiency Improvement : Baseline Scenario ...... 103 Table 7.9: Constant Transition Rate with Efficient Utilization ofTeachers: Scenario 1 ...... 104 Table 7.10: Enrollment Expansion at Secondary Level ...... 105 Table 7.1 1: Recurrent Costs with Secondary Enrollment Expansion and Efficiency Improvement : Scenario 2 ..... 106

Table A . 1: Primary GER by District. 2003 ...... 110 Table A . 2: Classroom-Pupil Ratio at Primary Level by District. 2003 ...... 112 Table A . 3: Public Finance: Recurrent Expenditure for MoEST, 2001102-2003/04 ...... 114 Table A . 4: Public Finance: Teacher Salaries: 2002103-2003104 ...... 116 Table A . 5: Public Finance: Development Expenditure: 2001lO2-2003/04 ...... 117 Table A . 6: Public Finance: Summary 2001/02-2003104 ...... 117 Table A . 7: Secondary School Enrollment by Sex and District, 2000 ...... 118 Table A . 8: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and District, 2000 ...... 120 Table A . 9: Composition of Standard Instructional Materials ...... 122 Table A . 10: Estimation of Unit Cost ofInstructional Materials ...... 123

List of Figures Figure 1.1 : Fiscal Deficit as Percent of GDP ...... 3 Figure 2.1: Structure ofEducation and Training in Kenya...... 10 Figure 2.2: Grade Attainment Profile by RuralNrban ...... 21 Figure 2.3: Grade Attainment Profile by Province ...... 21 Figure 2.4: Grade Attainment Profile by Gender ...... 22 Figure 2.5: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth ...... 23 Figure 2.6: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth (Age 10-14 cohort) ...... 23 Figure 3.1: Girl’s Age Composition in Standard 1...... 24 Figure 3.2: Boy’s Age Composition in Standard 1...... 24 Figure 4.1 : School Level Teacher Distribution In Relation to Number ofPupils at Primary Level...... 37 Figure 4.2: Comparison of Candidates Mean Performance in the Year 2001 and 2000 KCPE Examinations ...... 44 Figure 4.3: SACMEQ Reading Scores, 2000 ...... 46 Figure 4.4: SACMEQ Maths Scores, 2000 ...... 46 Figure 5.1 : Growth of Pupils and Teachers at Primary Level, 1993-2003 ...... 54 Figure 5.2: Primary School KCPE Ranking and PTR ...... 55 Figure 5.3: Civil Servant’s Salary Increase ...... 57 Figure 5.4: Public Sector Monthly Eamings by Industry: 1996-2000 ...... 58

iv Figure 5.5: Public Sector Average Salary Growth Rate. 1996-2000 (1996=100) ...... 58 Figure 5.6: Education Spending as Percentage of GDP vs . GDP Per Capita ...... 60 Figure 5.7: Household Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education ...... 62 Figure 5.8: Primary and Secondary Education Expenditure as Percentage of Household Total and Non-Food Expenditure...... 63 Figure 5.9: Public vs . Household (Private) Spending Per Pupil ...... 64 Figure 6.1 : Institutional Arrangement of Education Service Delivery ...... 66 Figure 6.2: Organization Chart of Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology ...... 70 Figure 7.1: Upper- and Lower-Bound of Recurrent Costs at Primary Level...... 100 Figure 7.2: Upper- and Lower-Bound of Classroom Construction Costs at Primary Level...... 100 Figure 7.3: Recurrent Cost Projections at Secondary Level...... 107

V

Executive Summary

Introduction 1. Kenya is currently going through an important political and economic transition period. On December 27, 2002, Kenyan voters elected their first new president in 24 years, ending the political domination of the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. Facing the tremendous challenge of revitalizing economic performance, the new Govemment is quickly moving forward to strengthen its poverty reduction efforts, and to address the governance and economic management issues. The Govemment has put the highest priority on education, recognizing the close links between poverty alleviation, economic growth, and human development.

2. The new Govemment has instituted immediate policy changes in the education sector to jump- start the system. Under the “Free Primary Education (FPE)” policy started this year, school fees and levies are abolished at primary level, thereby greatly relieving the household burden of financing primary education. Households immediately responded. Including both public and non-public schools, the primary education gross enrollment rate jumped to over 100 percent, with close to 1 million enrollment increase from the previous year. Enrollment in primary schools has reached 7.2 million this year from 6.3 million in 2002. Quality improvement measures have also taken place at this level, with nationwide provision of funding directly to primary schools through a capitation grant of 1,020 Kenyan Shillings per pupil to finance the purchase oftextbooks and other teaching and leaming materials, as well as to support other school operation activities.

3. The expansion of school enrollment and the improvement of education quality at primary level will continue during the subsequent years. The development at this level has increased pressure on as well as provided opportunities to the other subsectors. A wider sector reform agenda needs to be put in place immediately. The Kenya National Education Conference held in November 2003 provided an opportunity for the discussions of a sector strategic plan with all the stakeholders. A sector-wide program with wider coverage will be developed based on the sector strategic plan.

4. The World Bank is providing a great deal of support to the education and training sector in Kenya. The “Free Primary Education Support Project” became effective in July, 2003, providing US$50 million grant to finance the provision of instructional materials to the primary schools nationwide, together with essential capacity building activities in the sector for better service delivery. This sector review has also been a result of the close collaboration between the technical working group in the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST), and the Bank education team. The review provides an analytical base with identified sector issues, and focused sector development directions, which will form a solid foundation for the sector strategic planning and preparation of the sector reform program. The Bank is also envisaged to play an important role in supporting the sector-wide program.

5. This sector review has emphasized the primary and secondary subsectors, although the postsecondary levels are covered in the discussions of the system coverage, management, and resource allocation. This is mainly owing to the fact that a labor market study is planned to be conducted jointly by the Bank and the Govemment. The information from that study will be crucial to the analysis of the extemal efficiency of the sector, particularly with close linkages with postsecondary level education and training.

i Main Sector Issues and Critical Fig. 1: Primary and Secondary Enrollment Challenges Enrollment 6. Kenya has made great strides in 0 8 6,000 expanding the total number of students v- enrolled in primary and secondary education. 8 4,000 -E Since Independence in 1963, the total g 2,000 enrollment at primary level has grown from a W 0 mere 891,533 to over 7 million in 2003, and from 30,000 to over 800,000 at the secondary level currently. However, during the 90s the 71 enrollment increase slowed down significantly and did not keep pace with the school-age Source Ministry of Educunon, Sciency and Technology (MoEST) population growth. After peaking at 105 and 30 percent respectively, both the primary and secondary gross enrollment ratios have Fig. 2: Primary and Secondary GER declined through the 1990s. At the beginning of 2000, including both public and registered private schools, the GER at both the primary and secondary level has fallen to 88 and 22 percent respectively (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).

7. In 2003, following the implementation of “Free Primary Education” policy, a massive 30 increase in primary enrollment took place. 10 Including both public and non-public primary 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 schools, the enrollment at the primary level has exceeded 7 million, representing a GER of +primary -secondary nearly 104 percent, which is much higher than Source: MoEST. the average of 79 percent among all Sub- Sahara African (SSA) countries (African Development Indicators, 2003). Fig. 3: Regional Disparities in Primary and Secondary 8. At the secondary level, about 660,000 GER (%) students were enrolled in 2000. Current enrollment is estimated at 700,000. Given an 8-year primary cycle, the secondary education in Kenya is largely equivalent to upper secondary level in other SSA countries. Although the gross enrollment ratio at this level is comparable with the regional average, its lag behind the primary GER is more distinctive now (Fig. 2).

9. Regional disparities in enrollment still 1 Ourimarv Msecondarv 1 exist at both primary and secondary level. The magnitude of the responses to the FPE policy Source: MoEST 2000. 2003. also varies across the regions. Currently,_. the Northeastern Province has the lowest primary and secondary gross enrollment’ratios (at 23.2 and 4.5 percent respectively), with Nairobi the next lowest (Fig. 3).

11 Internal Efficiency 10. The education system in Kenya has also been characterized by low internal Fig. 4: Cohort Survival During Primary Cycle efficiency, as indicated by the high grade repetition and dropout rate. standard 8 11. At the primary level, although the "standard 7 .----I standard 6 dropout rate in each grade averages 5 percent, -standard 5 the cumulative effect is quite large. By the -standard 4 end of the gth year, only an average of 63 'standard3 percent of the entrants are still in the system. -standard 2 In the meantime, the grade repetition rate is -standard I alarmingly high, and averages about 14 - percent annually between Standards 1 and 7. Source: MoES7: 2000 It is estimated that among the 63 percent.who are still in the system by the 8" year, only about a third of them are in grade eight. The rest are still in the lower grades owing to Fig. 5: Cohort Survival During Secondary Cycle grade repetition at some point. Out of an average of 52 percent of the entrants who i eventually complete the 8" grade, only 40 100 - -Form IV percent exit the primary cycle on time (Fig. 4). 80 -- L_IForm 111

60 -- -Form 12. The survival at the secondary level is I1 relatively better. By the end ofthe 4th year, an 40 -- -Form I average of 84 percent of the entry cohort is 20 -- still in the system. On average, 81 percent of 0 -- the entry cohort complete the secondary cycle 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th eventually, with over 90 percent of the year graduates graduating on time (Fig. 5). Source: MoEST, 2000. Quality 13. The national examinations to obtain the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education Fig. 6: 2001 KCPE Examination Results (%) (KCPE) at the end of primary cycle and the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) at the end of secondary cycle are designed to evaluate the extent to which the primary and secondary graduates master the curriculum content. The results from the KCPE examinations in 2001 show that the overall score is low. English, Kiswahili, and mathematics subjects are among those with the lowest scores. Test scores from the KCSE examination results are even worse, with the scores below 40 percent in all the subjects tested in 2001. In addition, the trend does not seem to have improved over the years. In the Source: Kenyu Nurionul Exuminution Council. (KNEC), 2001. KCSE examination, girls do better than boys in English, Swahili, and chemistry, but boys-are far better in mathematics and other science subjects (Fig 6. and Fig. 7).

... 111 14. Although the KCPE and KCSE examination outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students seem to do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results show that Kenyan 6th-graders performed well on reading Fig. 7: 2001 KCSE Examination Results and mathematics tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and mathematics, respectively (Fig. 8).

15. The differentials of the results of the public examinations such as KCPE and KCSE, and the standard learning assessment such as SACMEQ are arguably due to the bias of public examinations in measuring learning English Maths Physics Biology Chemistry outcome as they also serve the purpose of selecting students for the next cycle of Source: KNEC, 2001 education. The selection requires certain degree of difficulty of the testing items so as to differentiate the top students. In the Fig. 8: SACMEQ Scores, 2001 meantime, to emphasize the accountability of schools and teachers in the quality of I I education service delivery, the public examinations also bear the objective of differentiating schools with various performance. This also requires certain level of difficulty ofthe examinations.

16. Although Kenyan students are doing relatively better than other SACMEQ countries, there is general concerns among education officers, teachers and parents that the education quality is not satisfactory by international standards. For example, Source Southern Africu Consortiumfor Monitoring Educution Quulity (SACMEQJ, 2001 although Kenya has not participated in the I “Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)”, the participating South Africa could provide a useful benchmark. The low performance of South African students is particularly alarming as South Africa is generally considered the highest performer in Sub-Sahara Africa.

17. Due to the introduction of the diversified and costly curriculum in the 80s, public resources could basically only finance teachers’ salaries, leaving other teaching and learning inputs to be financed by parents, who were also under tight financial constraint during the same period of time due to declining economy and increased poverty. It is arguable that shortage and inappropriateness of educational inputs has shown negative impacts on the learning outcomes. The most important inputs include teachers, curriculum, instructional materials, and learning environment.

18. Overall teacher availability is adequate at the primary level. However, there are huge variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across individual schools, zones, and districts. The nationwide pupil-teacher ratio is estimated at 39: 1 at this level, with variations from 21: 1 (Baringo District in Rift Valley Province) to 57:l (Mandera District in North Eastern Province). The overall pupil-teacher ratio at the secondary level is 16:1, which is quite low by regional standards. As teachers teach by subject at this level, the demand for teachers is mainly determined by the curriculum. Therefore many factors, such as the number

iv of subjects offered and the school size all affect the level of pupil-teacher ratio at secondary level. However, the current low secondary pupil-teacher ratio is a good indicator showing the low efficiency levels ofteacher utilization in secondary schools.

19. The diversified curriculum was introduced together with the 8-4-4 system (8 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education, and at least 4 years of university education) which started in the mid-1980s. This diversified curriculum includes 13 teaching subjects and seven examinable subjects for KCPE at primary level, and 32 teaching subjects and eight examinable subjects for KCSE at secondary level. Although many of the elective courses are taken by very few students, supporting the system requires a large amount of resources to provide specialized teachers, school facilities, and equipment, and extra teaching and learning materials. In the meantime, whether such a curriculum is relevant with regard to the objectives of general education is arguable. After detailed evaluation by MoEST and other agencies in Kenya, the curriculum reform has already started with the reduction of the number of subjects examined in KCPE from seven to five, and KCSE from eight to seven. Broad guidelines have also been developed to encourage the adaptation of the curricula to the local environment, with strengthened support for effective teaching-learning to ensure that learners gain relevant knowledge and skills. The reformed curriculum is being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5 at primary level, Form Iat secondary level in 2003; Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1in 2004; Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006.

20. Lack of teaching and learning materials has also been identified as an issue negatively affecting education quality. In 2001, more than three quarters of the students surveyed by SACMEQ study reported lack of textbooks. The study also found that the availability of exercise books and notebooks was only 25 and 18 percent of what is required. The Government is fully aware of the importance of the instructional materials in education quality. Following the implementation of the FPE policy in 2003, primary schools have received capitation grants from MoEST for teaching and learning materials including textbooks, teaching guides, supplementary reading materials, as well as exercise books and stationary packages. The textbook-pupil ratio is expected to reach 1:3 at lower primary, and 1:2 at upper primary level. The impact on learning outcome of the great improvement in the availability of textbooks and other instructional materials at primary level will be seen in the coming years.

21. The learning environment including classrooms and other school facilities also has an impact on learning outcomes. Based on the school level information collected in 2003, the total number of classrooms nationwide is quite adequate at primary level, with an average pupil-classroom ratio of 36: 1. However, the classroom distribution is quite uneven in relation to the enrollments in the districts, with pupil-classroom ratio ranging from 7 1: 1 (Kisumu Municipality), to as low as 22: 1 (Turkana District in Rift Valley Province). The findings of the SACMEQ 2001 survey shows that school sitting and writing places are adequate. However, much of the school furniture is not in good condition. Schools also tend to be overcrowded with regard to small average classroom space per pupil and extremely crowded sanitary facilities shared by too many pupils.

22. Although educational inputs are closely linked to learning outcome, the other crucial factor is the process that mobilizes inputs to produce the results. It explains why schools with comparable inputs produce different results. The process factors include effective school management, leadership, and culture; classroom time and successful students’ grouping with special attention to some individual students; effective utilization of teaching resources including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, peer support on pedagogy; and close monitoring student achievement and sharing with parents and staff for further development. These are all the areas that need further investigation.

V 23. Total education spending as a percentage of GDP has reached Over 6 percent Fig. 9: Public Education Spending vS. Education Index for many years in Kenya. However, Kenya I does not get the value of these allocated public 0.9 resources as compared to other Sub-Sahara 08 ...... *.... 4 x African countries (Fig. 9). With similar levels 8 0.7 ...... *...... ‘rt ...... c of overall Education Index (a composite index ~ .- 0.6 ...... L. ?...*..@ ...... reflecting both a country’s adult literacy and 0.5 ...... its primary and secondary school enrollments), ...... *------some other SSA countries spend far less on 0.4 the education sector as percent of their GDP. 03 0 6 Although the Education- Index does not take 2 4 8 Education Spending as % of GDP into account the aualitvAI or leaminaY 1 I achievement factors, the widely recognized Source: Humon Development Report, UNDP, mi. unsatisfactory students’ academic

24. This inefficiency of public spending on education is mainly owing to the inappropriate resource allocation and utilization within the sector. A large proportion of spending is on personal emoluments, leaving little resources to support educational inputs, such as teaching and learning materials, school equipment, and other operational activities at school level. Before 2002, teacher salaries had constituted as much as 99 percent ofrecurrent expenditure at the primary level, and over 95 percent at the secondary level. The allocation between personal emoluments and other operational costs reached a reasonable level at the primary level following the implementation of the “Free Primary Education” policy in 2003. The current personal emolument (PE)/other charges (OC) ratio at primary level is 81:19 in 2003. However, to make this level of allocation sustainable at primary level, and further adjust the PE/OC allocation at secondary level, there are two areas in which policy changes could make a difference.

25. The first area is teacher’s salary level. The average annual eamings of primary and secondary school teachers are reasonable compared with Kenya’s GDP per capita, with the average primary school teacher’s salary about 3.5 times, and secondary school teacher’s salary 5.5 times the per capita GDP. Teachers’ eamings are also comparable with the civil servants in other sectors. Although the levels of teacher’s salaries are adequate, the total cost of employing teachers is quite high since benefits constitute a large proportion of teacher’s overall compensation package. Including all the benefits, the average teacher’s compensation would be six to nine times the GDP per capita at the primary and secondary levels, respectively. In addition, in some cases, teacher’s qualifications do not match their positions. Teachers are paid according to their qualifications, but do not necessarily reflect the jobs they are actually doing. For example, although usually only P1 teachers are needed at the primary level, there are still graduate teachers teaching at this level, with a graduate teacher’s salary. The utilization of “over- qualified” teachers also pushed the average PE cost higher.

26. The second area concems the overall teacher supply. Before the enrollment increase in 2003, Kenya had one of the lowest pupil-teacher ratios in Africa at the primary level. Further, this ratio declined steadily over time - from 39 in 1963 to 33 in 2000. Following the primary enrollment jump in 2003, the current PTR has come back to an adequate level of 39:l. At the secondary level, the PTR dropped from 26 in 1983 to a mere 16 now. The decline in the pupil-teacher ratio in recent years has been a result of declining enrollment together with the supply-driven teacher employment. Although the

vi practice of supply-driven teacher employment has been replaced by a demand-driven approach in recent years, the deployment of teachers over the years under the supply-driven approach has resulted in wide variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across schools and communities. Curriculum-related overstaffing has also been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. Owing to the broad curriculum and low student registration for many selective courses, many teachers do not have a sufficient teaching load.

Equity 27. Most of the public spending on education that benefits the poor is delivered through primary education; however, this pro-poor effect is marl la1 in Kenva. SDending on secondarv education. on the other hand, is pro-rich. The poorest 20 percent of the households received only 10 Fig. 10: Equity of Public Spending: Concentration percent of the government subsidies that went Curve to secondary schools. In contrast, the richest 20 percent received 24 percent (Fig.10). The degree of inequality is even more severe if one looks at the distribution of public spending across all school-age children instead of across households, due to the fact that poor households have more out-of-school children of the relevant age range. In addition, even some of the children from poor households do go to school, these schools in poor communities tend to receive less public resources such as teachers from the government.

0 20 40 60 80 100 28. The inefficient and inequitable public spending on education has put much of the --t primary --E#-- secondary financing burden on poor households. Household expenditures include tuition, school uniform, textbooks, transportation, meals and boarding, and “Harambee” contribution. At primary level, before the FPE policy was implemented, it cost a household 1,210 Kshs (US $16) annually on average to send a child to the primary school. Household expenditure on secondary education is much higher than at primary level. The average annual expenditure is close to 10,000 Kshs (US $130 equivalent) annually per secondary school pupil. Given the fact that public expenditure on education is already high in the country, this indicates that the overall unit cost is alarmingly high at the primary and secondary levels in Kenya.

InstitutionalArrangement and Capacityfor Service Delivery 29. Adequate institutional arrangements and capacity are necessary conditions for effective service delivery. At the central level, weaknesses are found in the areas of sector analysis, policy and planning, and overall system monitoring. Coordination is also lacking between the MoEST and other central technical agencies, including Teachers Service Commission, Kenya Examination Council, and Kenya Institute of Education, which is reflected by irregular information flows and communication across and within the agencies. The management of human resources, including both education officers and teachers, and the management of financial resources are also weak at central level.

30. Kenya’s education system is highly centralized. Decentralization is justifiable given the vast coverage of the education sector in terms of the number of students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers. Weak district-level and school-level capacity, however, is a barrier to the effective decentralization of education service delivery. These weak areas include limited local authorities’

vii involvement, district- and school-level planning and reporting, school inspection, and teacher support as well as financial management and other day-to-day functions for service delivery.

Policy Recommendations 3 1. Further development of the education system in Kenya requires a major investment in all the critical areas including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift of some of the household burden of education costs to the public sector will also put much pressure on the public resource allocation to the sector. The implementation of the “Free Primary Education” policy has pushed the education recurrent expenditure up to 39 percent of the total government discretionary spending in 2002-2003. Given the extremely high public spending on the education sector, improvement of efficiency will be the key for the overall sector strategy. The efficiency improvement would benefit all the areas of sector development including expanding enrollment, improving quality, and lowering the unit cost as well as strengthening the management of the system. The efficiency improvement in the allocation and utilization of resources is particularly vital to the sustainability of the overall sector development.

32. The other crucial factor for sustained sector development is the balance between the sub-sectors. The enrollment bulge at primary level, together with quality improvement at this level will ripple through the system and lead to the increased pressure on the expansion of general secondary, technical and vocational education and training, as well as tertiary education. Overall planning is needed well ahead to prepare for the most effective sector-wide development strategies with close relation to Kenya’s poverty reduction and economic recovery efforts.

33. The recommended policy directions are summarized in the table below. Further operationalizing these policy directions with sequencing and the design of investment mechanisms would require wide discussions among stakeholders under the development of a comprehensive sector strategic plan.

viii Table 1: Summary of Policy Directions

Targeting disadvantaged areas and population groups through both supply-side and demand-side financing

Other imoortant measures: Efficient utilization of classrooms and other school facilities

view the staffing norm and redeployment ofteachers to ensure adequate availability teachers in each school

Other imoortant measures: Continuation and supervision of the curriculum reform Strengthening in-service teacher training and other teacher professional support Continuation and supervision of the provision of teaching and learning materials at primary level, targeted provision ofteaching and learning materials at secondary level

Studies on school and classroom effectiveness including students’ time on task, pedagogy, and assessment

efficienc;of Rationalize teacher compensation package, in relation to the establishment of public performance-based teacher incentive schemes resource Evaluate and adjust teacher resource requirement under the streamlined curriculum, allocation together with alternative teaching methods such as multi-grade teaching in small and schools utilization Establish a planning mechanism for adequate resource allocation between primary, general secondary and other sub-sectors

institutional Strengthening central function ofsector analysis, policy and planning, and system arrangements monitoring and capacity Strengthening management capacity at the school level, including the capacity of for service School Management Committee at primary level and that ofBoard ofGovernors at the delivery secondary level

Other important measures: Strengthening district-level capacity of local system management, including school inspection, teacher development, monitoring and reporting Decentralization and greater involvement of local authorities in education service

Equitable Expansion ofEnrollment Targeting 34. Spending additional public resources on poor and underserved districts and fewer resources on better-off and well-served districts would not only be more equitable but also increase the effectiveness of public spending on education. Demand-side financing targeting the lowest-income households will also achieve greater education participation. Although every primary school-age child has benefited from the

ix “Free Primary Education” policy, there is a need to put in place clear and transparent mechanisms for exempting the poorest students from user fees in secondary schools and make available to them bursaries and scholarships that help their families pay for the other costs of schooling.

Efficient utilization of classrooms and other school facilities 35. Expansion of the system also calls for increased classroom capacity. Although double-shifting use of classrooms is not common in Kenya, after the primary enrollment increase this year, many schools have successfully practiced double-shifting, particularly for lower grades with shorter learning hours. This practice has the potential to save substantial resources that would have otherwise gone into new building.

Public-private partnership in education provision 36. Greater private sector participation in the education sector is inevitable for the future expansion of education, particularly at the secondary level, since a very large proportion of public resources has already been allocated to the education sector. Furthermore, gains from efficiency improvement and lowered unit cost will not be sufficient for further expansion of coverage given the currently extremely low secondary education enrollment. Greater private sector participation will also introduce competition into the sector, which is a crucial internal mechanism for efficiency enhancement. This would require review and necessary revisions of the regulatory framework with regard to private school registration as well as quality assurance and supervision. The policy focus should also be on relieving the constraints of private participation in education, for example, in areas of school financing and credit market access, and land acquisition together with tax exemption and other incentives to make private education more attractive to investors.

Quality and Internal Efficiency Impro vement Efficient deployment of teachers to ensure adequate teacher supply in schools 37. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary level has increased to 39:l from 33:l after the implementation of FPE in 2003. However, teacher resources need to be more evenly distributed across schools based on school enrollment. The staffing norm of 1.025 teachers for one class need be reviewed and better articulated so as to link the number of pupils directly to staffing needs. Deployment of teachers according to need will be crucial to improve efficiency and education quality. Furthermore, there are large PTR differences among zones within districts, and among districts within provinces. Therefore, redeployment of teachers is not infeasible given that within-district and within-province redeployments are relatively low-cost and put less stress on redeployed teachers.

38. At the secondary level, although the overall teacher supply is high related to the secondary enrollment, attention should be given to certain core subjects such as maths and science where teacher deficiency still exists. Long-term teacher needs should also be evaluated for the expansion at this level, particularly with regard to the “rippling effect” from the great expansion of primary education following FPE.

Implementation and supervision of curriculum reform 39. The curriculum reform currently underway at each level is aimed at re-aligning the curriculum design and learning objectives at each level. The examined subjects at the primary level have been reduced from seven to five at secondary level from eight to seven. The curriculum content has been revised to focus on teaching and learning essential core skills. Further monitoring and supervision will be needed to examine the effects of curriculum reform on core course learning achievement as well as on lowering the overall cost.

X In-sewice teacher training and other teacher professional support 40. The ongoing curriculum reform also requires a great deal of in-service training of teachers and extensive teacher professional support to let the teachers adapt to the new curriculum. This is particularly crucial at the secondary level as many teachers may have to be re-trained to teach core courses within a streamlined curriculum with fewer subjects. The roles of Teacher Advisory Centres will have be reevaluated and strengthened to provide needed professional support to teachers.

Provision of teaching and learning materials 41. Until 2002, teacher salaries accounted for over 95 percent of the recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary levels. As a result, there were almost no public resources remaining for other school inputs, such as learning materials and textbooks. In 2003, the spending on school materials has increased to close to 20 percent of the total primary-level recurrent expenditure, mainly through the implementation of the primary school grants for textbooks and other teaching and leaming materials. At the secondary level, to raise the effectiveness of public spending on education, the government will have to continue increasing the total resources on instructional materials or reallocate resources from teacher salaries to other recurrent inputs. To make the most of limited resources, the provision of textbooks and other leaming materials may have to be targeted to poor students at the secondary level. Better-off students and communities who are able to pay for textbooks and learning materials may have to continue to finance these inputs themselves.

Improvement of school facilities 42. Improving the condition of school facilities will include new constructions and also emphasis on the maintenance of school facilities, which is in general more cost-effective, particularly under double- shifting use of classrooms. Furthermore, since the distribution of classrooms relative to enrollment is uneven across districts, targeted provision of development funds for classroom construction and maintenance should be considered. In the meantime, more populated areas also face the constraint of the availability of land. Efficient utilization of classrooms is particularly crucial to ensure education quality in these areas.

Improvement of classroom effectiveness 43. There has not been much information so far in Kenya regarding the process that educational inputs produce learning outcome. The research findings in other developing countries have shown that it is one the most important determinants of effective learning and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis is needed in the areas of classroom learning such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Efficiency Enhancement ofResource Allocation and Utilization Rationalization of teacher compensation with linkages to performance-based incentive schemes 44. There is need to further review and rationalize teachers’ overall compensation package, particularly with regard to the pending teachers salary award granted in 1997198, its sustainability and fiscal impact. More importantly, an incentive scheme, in replace of the uniform benefit package, should be considered to link certain award directly to teacher’s performance.

Evaluate and adjust teacher resource requirement 45. New staff norms need to be established based on the enrollment at school level, so as to optimize teacher utilization with enough teaching loads for each teaching position. Alternative teaching modes, such as multi-grade teaching, should also be experimented to increase the cost-effectiveness of teaching

xi and learning. This is particularly relevant to schools of small sizes and located in sparsely-populated areas.

46. Curriculum-related overstaffing has been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. This situation should improve with the ongoing implementation of curriculum reform. However, this may also require re-training of many teachers because the training they received to teach certain subjects may not be useful for teaching core courses.

Resource allocation between sub-sectors 47. The effect of nearly one million increase of primary enrollment in 2003 on the demand for secondary education and other levels of education and training will be seen in a few years. There is immediate need to plan ahead.for the expected expansion. Given an improved economic perspective, it is envisaged that there will be increased resource demand at secondary and higher levels. However, decisions on how much publicly-financed upper general secondary education a country such as Kenya should provide at its present stage of economic development is not an easy one. Labor market considerations should play an important role in determining the priorities for public financing. How to efficiently allocate public resources among sub-sectors will be a major challenge ahead for a balance growth ofthe education sector to meet the needs of poverty reduction and economic recovery.

Strengthen InstitutionalArrangements and Capacity for Service Delivery 48. Strengthening institutional capacity should focus on two major areas. The first area is the management and planning functions at the central level. The second area is the implementation capacity at the school and district levels. At the central level, there is need for (1) better coordination of central agencies including KIE, TSC, and KNEC for overall sector policy and standards with (2) clear accountabilities and communication mechanisms across various agencies. There is also need for (3) enhanced capacity of monitoring and evaluation function at the central level, which would firther require (4) an improved EMIS and (5) better Research and Development (R&D) functions at this level.

49. In accordance with GoK reforms ofthe public sector, particularly within the context of the “Free Primary Education” policy in the education sector, major administrative and resource management functions have been devolved to district and school levels. Therefore, a need exists to strengthen the capacity at this level for the management of service delivery and financial accountability. The range of management issues at this level not only covers student flow management, but may also include hiring teachers, school-based teacher development, curriculum implementation, school level financial management, and monitoring and reporting.

50. Another important area is to strengthen the role of Local Authorities in education service delivery. Local Authorities are mostly held accountable for the development oflocal communities. They have the ultimate incentives to support the local primary and secondary schools. Local authorities have also the most direct contact with the local communities to communicate on public policies. They also in general have better knowledge on local conditions, thus have comparative advantage in ensuring the efficiency of resource allocation on the ground, including the allocation of teacher resources, as well as targeted demand-side financing resources.

Sector Development Projections 5 1. The extent of the efficiency gains in the sector, and the need for a balanced resource allocation between primary and secondary levels can be shown using a projection model of sector planning.

xii Enrollment projections 52. The enrollment projection at primary Fig. 11: Enrollment Projections level uses the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the target, with primary cycle 8,050,000 1.10 completion rate reaching 100 percent by 20 15. 7,050,000 100 0.90 This requires that a universal intake rate 6,050,000 together with zero dropout should start at the 0.80 0.70 latest in 2007. The projection shows that the 1 5'050,000 5 'e 4,050,000 060 0 3,050,000 "FPE bulge" works its way through the 0.50 system. By 2012, the last cohort of "FPE 2,050,000 0.40 bulge" will reach the last grade of the primary 1,050,000 0.30 50,000 0.20 cycle. The system reaches a steady-state in 2013, with 100 percent Net Enrollment Ratio '"*""'pnw enrollment ISSSSSsecondaty enmllmt -Secondary enmllmcnf (NER), and 103 percent GER. Due to the baseline wl expansion --+- PnwGER -See GER baseline Sm GER w/expansioi slow-down of school age population growth, , as projected by the Kenya Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the size of the enrollment grows slowly over time. Total primary enrollment is estimated at between 7.5 to 8 Fig. 12: Recurrent Cost and Financing of Primary million during most of the subsequent years. schooling Secondary level enrollment is determined by the Standard 8 enrollment of the year before in the primary cycle, together with the transition rate from the primary to secondary cycle. We provide two cases of enrollment projections ...... (Fig. 11)......

53. The first is the baseline case, with the transition rate constant at the current level of 40 percent. It should be noted that even 450.0 4 , , ~ , , , , , , , , , without increasing the transition rate, the gross enrollment ratio will increase from 23 percent to 38 percent by 2015. This is mainly due to --C Recurrent cost (lower bound) 4- Recurrent cost (upper bound) the expansion of the primary education, --t domestic recurrent resources producing more graduates from the primary cycle. The second case has vast expansion of secondary school enrollment, with a transition rate of 80 percent starting in 2004, together Fig. 13: Development Cost of Primary Education with a gradual increase in GER from 23 percent in 2003 to 76 percent in 2015. 70.0 ......

...... Cost projections ...... 54. Cost projections focus on the policy options for efficiency gains. At the primary level, the lower-bound scenario with maximal efficiency gains assumes that the uneven 10.04 , ~ , , , , , , , , ~ , distribution across districts and schools can be solved via complete redeployment of teachers. Classroom utilization can be intensified though double-shift in areas where there are -Development cost (lower bound) *Development cost (upper bound) more than 40 pupils in one classroom on

... Xlll average. Under this scenario, the national average will determine the total cost at this Fig. 14: Recurrent Cost and Financing of Secondary level. In comparison, the upper bound Education estimation assumes no efficiency gains with complete rigidity ofteacher redeployment and ...... 8ooo classroom utilization. It is estimated that, 700.0 4T---- ...... between 2003 and 2015, the savings from efficiency improvement can reach US$600 million in recurrent spending, and US$l50 million in development spending (Fig. 12 and 13).

55. At secondary level, three scenarios are presented for the comparison of efficiency gains from better teacher utilization. The baseline scenario is based on the constant primary to secondary transition rate without efficiency improvement in teacher utilization. The projected domestic resources would not be sufficient to sustain the system. In contrast, Scenario 1 shows that under the same circumstances, but increasing pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 35: 1, this system can largely self-sustained. Scenario 2 further shows that, with more efficient utilization of teachers, about the same amount of financial resources required under the baseline scenario can largely finance a much expanded secondary enrollment with 80 transition rate starting in year 2004 (Fig. 14).

Resource projections and allocation across subsectors 56. The FY03104 recurrent budget for MoEST has reached the level of 39 percent of GoK's total discretionary budget. This share is unlikely to increase significantly in the future. The increase of the domestic resource to the sector will largely rely on the economic and total budget envelope growth. If the resource allocation across subsectors stays constant, and assuming a 3 percent growth rate in the subsequent years, there is no financing gap at primary level. Indeed, there is significant surplus that could be reallocated for further measures ofquality improvement. In the meantime, the efficiency improvement of teacher utilization is critical at secondary level to ensure the sustainability of the development at this level. The sub-sector balance of public financing would also require to map out the directions of the development of general secondary education in relation to technical and vocational education and training, and tertiary education, to meet the needs of education and skills for economic recovery and growth. In addition, mobilizing resources from the private sector will be necessary to ensure continuous sector expansion.

xiv Chapter 1 Macroeconomic Context and Demographic Trends

1.1 A country’s macroeconomic and demographic conditions are important determinants of many features of the education and training sector in that country. The main indicators of these conditions that will be discussed in this Chapter include national income and growth potential, population growth and structure, and public sector structure and performance. These factors contribute to the potential of as well as impose constraints upon the sector development. In the meantime, the performance of the education and training sector also contributes to the overall economic development by increasing productivity, reducing poverty, and improving human welfare.

1.2 Kenya is currently going through an important political and economic transition period. On December 27, 2002, Kenyan voters elected their first new president in 24 years, effectively ending the political domination of the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. Faced with the tremendous challenge of revitalizing economic performance, the new Government is quickly moving forward to address govemance and economic management issues, and to strengthen poverty reduction efforts. With its close links to economic development, the education and training sector is given great priority in the overall economic recovery strategy.

Evolution of Gross Domestic Products 1.3 The first decade after independence witnessed a pattem of high and sustained economic growth followed by a period of decline, and eventually low cycles of growth, especially in the 1990s (Table 1.1). Between 1963-1972, the economy recorded the highest growth rates, averaging 6.6 percent per annum. During 1990 to 2001, Kenya’s real GDP grew at only an annual average rate of 2.2 percent. The growth rate in the 1990s was well below the neighboring countries of Uganda (6.8 percent) and Tanzania (3.1 percent).

1.4 Kenya’s weak economic performance coupled with a population growth rate averaging 2.7 percent during the 1990s, leading to a contraction in real per capita income by an average of 0.5 percent per year. The peak of current GDP per capita reached US $450 in 1980, compared with US $365 in 2001 and US$399 in 2002 (Table 1.2).

Table 1.1: Real GDP Growth 1980-2001

80-89 90-93 94-97 98-01 90-01 GDP 4.3 1.3 3.3 1.o 2.2 Agriculture 3.5 -1.0 3.4 0.5 1.o Industry 4.0 1.8 2.7 0.5 1.7 Services 5.0 3.3 4.3 1.5 3 .O Real GDP per capita 0.7 -1.5 1.6 1.o -0.5 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

Table 1.2: Current GDP Per Capita and Population

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Current GDP Percapita 370 340 330 250 240 260 320 379 399 359 346 365 399 (US$) Population 23.4 24 24.7 25.3 26 26.7 27.4 28.0 28.8 29.5 30.2 30.8 31.5 (million) Source:1990-1996 from World Bank; 1997-2002from Public Expenditure Review (Republic of Kenya, 2003).

1 Fiscal Resources and Performance 1.5 Table 1.3 shows that Government revenue collection peaked at 28.7 percent of GDP in 1997/98 before falling gradually to 2 1.4 percent ofGDP by the end of the financial year 2000/0 1, partly due to the slowdown in economic activity and an increase in tax evasion, and paoly to the decline in tax rates. Meanwhile, the share of extemal grants has fallen steadily from 1.2 percent of GDP in 1995/96 to 0.5 percent ofGDP in 1999/2000; before improving to 2.8 percent of GDP in the year ending 2000/0 1.

Table 1.3: Government Revenue and Expenditure As Percentage of GDP, 1997/1998 - 200212003

1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 Domestic revenue and grants 29.5 27.2 23.5 25.6 22.1 23.9 Domestic revenue 28.7 26.5 22.9 22.7 21.4 22.2 Grants 0.8 0.7 0.5 2.8 0.7 1.6 Expenditure and net lending 31.1 26.6 22.5 27.5 24.5 27.0 GDP at Market prices (Kshs. Million) 623,235 694,029 743,479 796,343 882,725 969,354 Exchange rate: Kshs per US $ 58.0 61.8 70.4 76.3 78.6 75.0 Source: PER 2003.

1.6 Adequate fiscal discipline has characterized the second half of the 1990s. In 1999/2000, the fiscal deficits tumed into surplus. However, due to the slow expansion &at characterized the economy over the last decade, expenditure has continued to exceed budgeted targets. Although the deficit increased in 2001 due to drought-related expenditures (Figure 1. l),in general the poor expenditure and enforcement controls put much pressure on domestic financing and the accumulation of domestic arrears. Conversely, where expenditure items as a percentage of total public spending are concemed, recurrent expenditures have grown whereas the fiscal adjustment fell on capital investment. The spending proportions ofboth wage and non-wage items have increased during 1995-2000.

Table 1.4: Expenditure Category and As Percentage of GDP, 1997/1998 - 2002/2003 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03* KSh million Recurrent 160,279 165,33 1 156,535 198,941 200,807 227,055 Development and net Lending 34,686 32,010 18,584 33,980 24,953 38,795 Total 194,965 197,341 175,119 232,921 225,760 265,850 % of GDP Recurrent 25.6 22.3 20.1 23.5 21.8 23.1 Development and net Lending 5.5 4.3 2.4 4.0 2.7 3.9 Total 31.1 26.6 22.5 27.5 24.5 27.0 Source: PER 2003. *provisional.

2 Figure 1.1: Fiscal Deficit as Percent of GDP

1.5 ...... I I 1 ...... 0.5 ...... 0 -0.5 -1 $ -1.5 ...... -2 ......

...... ’ -2.5 -3 i ...... -3.5 1......

1.7 In recent years, the government has sought to restructure expenditure allocations across sectors to meet the requirements of basic functions (Table 1.5). In 2000, the government adopted a medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF), a three-year program aligned with the Govemment’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) aimed at making spending more effective and more oriented to expenditure categories with the highest potential to affect growth and improve social sector performance. Human resource development, including education and health, has been identified as one of the priorities areas for public spending in line with overall poverty reduction strategies. Currently, the education sector has the largest share in social spending with an allocation of a quarter of the Govemment’s available resources. This represents around 6 percent of Kenya GDP, compared with an average of 3.5 percent for Sub-Sahara African countries. Details of education sector financing will be discussed in Chapter 5.

Table 1.5: Share of Public Expenditures By Sector

Defense & Public Administration 22.3 21.2 31.6 17.8 26.4 28.8 33.3 36.6 General Administration 7.9 9.6 16.1 8.8 13.7 14.3 18.8 18.9 Extemal Affairs 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.o 1.4 1.7 1.4 2 .o Public Order and Safety 4.9 4.7 6.5 4.3 5.9 7.0 6.9 8.5 Defense 8.2 5.3 7.1 3.7 5.4 5.8 6.1 7.1 Social Services 27.1 24.7 32.5 23.1 31.3 33.5 29.2 33.7 Education 18.5 17.6 22.8 16.9 24.4 26.4 21.4 24.9 Health 5.0 4.8 7.2 4.7 5.3 5.6 6.7 7.2 Housing and Community Welfare 0.5 1.3 2.4 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.o 1.5 Social Welfare 3.0 0.9 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Economic Services 21.9 15.9 18.0 9.4 13.9 15.4 17.0 21.1 General Administration 3.7 1.9 1.9 1.1 1.7 2.8 6.1 6.2 Agriculture 7.4 5.5 4.7 2.8 4.8 4.3 3.6 4.5 Industry 12 2.4 1.3 1.6 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.6 Energy 13 2.7 1.7 2.2 1.1 1.o 0.8 1.1 1.3 Road 3.1 3.2 5.4 2.8 4.1 4.9 4.1 5.2 Other Transport & Communications 0.6 1.o 1.5 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 Other 2.1 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.9 Other Services 28.8 38.2 17.9 49.7 28.4 22.3 20.6 8.7 Debt Service 12.3 25.2 17.2 48.9 31.5 27.7 23.9 27.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: ”Economic Survey” various editions. * Provisional; * * Preliminaly

3 Population and Labor Force Evolution of the Population 1.8 Kenya experienced a fast population growth since independence. During the 1970s and 1980s Kenya had one of the fastest-growing populations in the world. The 1979 census revealed an astonishing annual growth rate of 4.1 percent. Ten years later the census estimated that the rate had slowed to a still- rapid 3.3 percent. The results of the 1999 population census put Kenya's population at 28.7 million, representing an annual average of 2.5 percent of the growth rate. The adult HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is high in Kenya. After peaking at 14 percent in 1998, it is estimated at 10 percent currently. The increased mortality rate of adults has also contributed to the slowing growth and increasing dependency ratio of Kenyan population.

1.9 Some of the factors that explain the key issues and challenges facing the education sector can be seen in the country's basic demographic indicators. Changes in the demographic profile can dictate the trend of investments made in the provision of education. For example, the growth of the school-age population and the variation in the population density is critical in determining the cost-effectiveness of the distribution of resources for education service provisions. Where the population density is low, the per capita cost of service provisions can be relatively high and vice versa. However, efficiency is not the only concern for public investment, in many cases, social equity is vital to ensuring the overall sustainability of economic development. As poor economic conditions are often observed in sparsely- populated areas, the trade-off between efficiency and equity will be faced by many public policies.

1.10 Table 1.6 below illustrates the age composition of the population according to the 1999 population census. The country's population distribution is highly skewed towards the youth with the population between 0-19 years accounting for about 57 percent of the total population. The interpretation suggests a high dependency ratio that will increasingly demand a corresponding rise in the provision of social services and employment opportunities.

Table 1.6: Population by Gender and Age Structure in 1999 (in 1000s)

Age group Male Female Total YOof Total 0-4 2,573,752 2,444,924 5,018,676 17.5 5-9 1,988,609 1,951,935 3,940,544 13.7 10-14 2,014,745 1,986,036 4,000,781 13.9 15-19 1,655,872 1,699,894 3,355,766 11.7 20-24 1,301,094 1,487,950 2,789,044 9.7 25-29 1,069,877 1,151,212 2,222,089 7.7 30-34 820,661 833,973 1,654,634 5.8 35-39 680,892 716,297 1,397,189 4.9 40-44 505,237 511,158 1,016,395 3.5 45-49 412,677 415,821 828,498 2.9 50-54 338,472 336,897 675,459 2.4 55-59 220,771 235,034 455,805 1.6 60+ 622,930 709,887 1,332,817 4.6 Total 14,205,589 14,481,018 28,686,607 100

Source: 1999 Population Census Report Vol. II.

4 1.11 Between 1989 and 1999, the population growth rate in Kenya was estimated at 2.7 percent. However, the effect of reduced fertility is felt first on the size of the younger age cohorts. The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) projections show that population growth in the younger age groups is falling rapidly. For example, the preschool age group shows an average of annual growth rate of 0.5 percent. The growth rate is also slowly declining. The primary age group grows at 1.33 percent annually declining to 0.80 percent by 2006. The secondary age group grows at around 2.0 percent annually and is also declining. An implication ofthese trends is that Kenya will not be faced with rapidly growing school age populations in the coming years. Preliminary population projections are shown in Table 1.7'.

Table 1.7: School Age Population Estimates 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Preschool (ages 3-5) 2,786,410 2,800,338 2,812,842 2,822,983 2,830,705

Primary (ages 6-13) 6,592,000 6,681,445 6,770,406 6,856,230 6,938,760

Secondary (ages 14-17) 2,865,000 2,910,322 2,968,263 3,025,6 10 3,082,292

Growth rate previous year 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.27 preprimary (%)

Growth rate previous year 1.36 1.33 1.27 1.20 primary (%)

Growth rate previous year 1.58 1.99 1.93 1.87 secondary (%)

Source: CBS.

Labor force and employment 1.12 In the past decade, the formal sector has failed to meet the challenges of employment creation and income generation. This is largely due to the slow economic growth and declining levels of investment. While the labor force is increasing rapidly at 3.5 percent annually during the period 1997-2001, formal sector employment grew by only 1.8 percent. Although the performance of the informal sector was better, recording an average growth of 10 percent annually, the productivity in the sector has been low partly due to inadequate technological skills resulting from the declining levels of skills involved. Table 1.8 below provides a summary of the structure of employment by sector in Kenya.

Table 1.8: Total Employment And Shares by Sector 1997 - 2001 (in 1000s)

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001*

Formal Sector : 1,708.0 1,743.2 1,753.6 1,760.7 1,742.3 Public sector 697.1 711.2 698.8 692.5 658.4 Private Sector 946.8 967.2 989.9 1,002.9 1,018.7 Self-employed** 64.1 64.8 64.9 65.3 65.3 Informal Sector 2,986.9 3,353.5 3,738.8 4,150.9 4,624.40 Total 4,694.9 5,096.7 5,492.4 5,911.6 6,366.7 Shares (YO): Formal Sector : 36.4 34.2 31.9 29.8 27.4 Public sector 14.8 14.0 12.7 11.7 10.3

' The 2000-2003 projections are from CBS (Analytical Report on Population Projections, February 2003). The 1999 data are preliminary World Bank PER team calculations.

5 Private Sector 20.2 19.0 18.0 17.0 16.0 Self-employed&** 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.o Informal Sector 63.6 65.8 68.1 70.2 72.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Provisional **Includes unpaidfamily workers Source: Economic Survey, various issues

1.13 Table 1.8 shows that the total share of employment in the informal sector has increased from 65 percent in 1997 to 72 percent in 2001. In the public sector, wage employment declined by 4.9 percent from a total of 697,100 persons in 1997 to 658,400 persons in 2001. It is also noticeable that although the employment share of the overall formal sector is shrinking, the proportion of private sector wage employment in the formal sector is increasing; at the same time, there is a decline in employment in the public sector, attributable to continued restructuring initiatives.

Impact of HIV/AIDS 1.14 HIV/AIDS has the potential to create a severe economic impact in the country. It causes a reduction in the size of the experienced labor force, increases health care expenditures, raises the cost of labor, and reduces savings and investment. It is different from most other diseases that it strikes people in the most productive age groups and the mortality rate is extremely high. The economic effect of AIDS is felt first by individuals and their families, then ripples outwards to firms, businesses and ultimately, the whole economy.

1.15 In year 2000, the HIV/AIDS national adult (15-49 years) prevalence in Kenya was 13.3 percent, representing an estimated 1.9 million people living with HIV/AIDS. Urban adult prevalence was 17.7 percent compared to a rural adult prevalence of 12.4 percent. More than 700 Kenyans die every day from AIDS-related diseases. There has been a steady rise in HIV prevalence rates from 5 percent in 1993 to about 13.3 per cent in 2000. The current prevalence rates pose serious challenges to economic growth and development prospects. The Kenya National HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan (2000-2005) estimates that the impact of AIDS may reduce Kenya's GDP by 14.5 percent over the period while per capita income will fall by 10 per cent over the same period.

1.16 The HIV/AIDS epidemic affects the demographic profile by reducing population growth and life expectancy, and increasing infant and child mortality and dependency ratios. Projections indicate that by the year 2005, the population will be smaller by 3.6 million due to AIDS. Life expectancy will be reduced to 46 years by 2010. Both the infant mortality rate and the child mortality rate have increased by 20 percent in the period 1989-1998 as a result of the rise in prevalence rates.

1.17 The education sector is one of those expected to be severely affected by AIDS in many ways. Children infected with HIV at birth do not live to enroll in school. In addition, many children have to drop out of school when they become orphans or stay at home to care for the sick family members. Worse still, many teachers are also dying from AIDS, and are too sick to work for a long time, thus denying the sector a vital and skilled human resource. In the education sector generally, the HIV/AIDS epidemic threatens to undermine achievements in literacy, increase the number of poorly-educated children, and reduce the education quality.

Economic Development Perspectives 1.18 Currently, an Economic Recovery Action Plan (EM) is being developed at an advanced stage by the new Government, focusing on the main strategy for reviving the economy and creating jobs during

6 2003-2007. There are four pillars for ERAP: economic growth, governance, infrastructure, and human capital.

Macroeconomic Prospects 1.19 The Government is committed to the maintenance of a stable macroeconomic framework within the context of structural reforms that will lead to employment creation and poverty reduction. The key macroeconomic objectives for the period 2003-2007 include:

0 Creating 500,000 quality jobs annually 0 Reducing poverty levels by at least 5 percentage points from the current 56.8 percent level 0 Achieving a higher real GDP growth rate rising from an estimated 1.1 percent increase in 2002 to 2.3 percent in 2003 and 6.5 percent in 2006 0 Keep average annual inflation rates to below 5 percent 0 Increase official foreign exchange reserves from 2.8 months ofimport cover in 2002 to 3.5 months of import cover in 2007 0 Containing the current account of the balance of payments to an average of 6.2 percent of GDP.

1.20 To achieve the desired growth and employment creation targets, Kenya will require an increase in gross fixed capital formation from 16.8 percent of GDP in 2002 to about 23 percent in 2007. Investment, particularly by the private sector, is envisaged to recover if assisted mainly by the stable macroeconomic conditions and envisaged improvement in governance following implementation ofproposed far-reaching reforms in this area. Much of the investment recovery will be financed with domestic savings, which are projected to rise from 10.7 percent of GDP in 2002 to 15.8 percent in 2007. It is estimated that to finance the remaining resource gap, external resources of at least US$2.2 billion will be needed by the public sector and US$1.1 billion by the private sector over the next 5 years.

1.21 The sector expected to lead in reviving the economy will be building and construction, which is projected to grow annually by 16.7 percent on average. Consequently, the building and construction share of the GDP will rise from 2.3 percent in 2002 to 4.2 percent in 2007 driven primarily by increased public investments in infrastructure. The other major source of growth is manufacturing, which is projected to grow at 8.6 percent annually during the following five years, compared with only 1.2 percent in 2002. Its share of GDP will rise from 13 to 15.7 percent during the same period. The driving force of the growth in manufacturing is envisaged to be efficiency improvement, including an improved business environment and reduced cost of production, improved governance, and public sector efficiency as well as better security situation.

1.22 The agriculture sector, which has been faced with myriad structural problems, is expected to grow by an average of 3.1 percent annually during the recovery period as investment in rural infrastructure, agricultural research, and extension services begin to yield desired results. Tourism is also expected to make a significant contribution to the economic recovery, growing by an annual average of 5.4 percent over the period. The main direction of the development of agricultural sector is towards less agricultural- dependency through diversifying while recognizing the strategic position of agriculture in fighting poverty.

Education Sector Development 1.23 The Government has recognized the strategic importance of raising the overall education level of Kenyans within the context of poverty reduction and economic growth. Education is not only a welfare indicator per se, it is also a key determinant of earnings and, therefore, an important exit route from

7 poverty. As a result, human capital investment, including health and education, is identified as one of the four pillars of the Government’s overall economic recovery strategy.

1.24 To contribute to the country’s overall economic recovery and further development, a consistent and effective sector strategy will be needed. The objective of this sector report is to provide an analytical base of the status of major aspects of Kenya’s education sector for the development of such a strategy. Policy directions will be discussed together with its cost implications in relation to public resources required based on a projection model of sector financing. The report is envisaged to provide policy makers and stakeholders with rich information and analytical results to design effective and efficient public interventions in the sector.

Conclusions 1.25 This is a transition period for Kenya both politically and economically. Not only will the development of the education sector contribute to the continuous economic growth and social transformation, but also there will be increased demand for more equitable education attainment, which is an important human welfare indicator per se. The challenges the sector is facing are as well the opportunities the sector can seize to improve access and quality, and eventually to meet the needs of poverty alleviation, economic recovery and sustainable social development.

8 Chapter 2 Education Coverage and Attainment

Historical Overview 2.1 Kenya has achieved impressive increases in adult literacy since independence. It grew from a mere 20 percent in 1960 to 83 percent todaf. This reflects continuous government and community efforts on the expansion of education access. Total number of primary schools has risen from 6,058 at independence to around 18,000 currently. The total number of secondary schools has increased from 15 1 to over 3,600 over the same period. This effort led to a substantial increase in school enrollment. At the primary level, student enrollment rose fiom a total of 891,000 in 1963 to close to 6.3 million in 2002, and further to 7.2 million in 2003. In the meantime, the enrollment at secondary level rose from 30,000 in 1963 to 660,000 in 2002, and is estimated at over 700,000 in 2003.

2.2 Overall, enrollment increase at the primary and secondary education level is faster than the school-age population growth through more than two decades since independence, bringing a consistent increase in primary and secondary Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) up to the late 1980s. However, the gains appear to start eroding after 1989. Since it peaked at 105 percent in 1989, the primary gross enrollment fell to 88 percent in 1993, and remained stagnant at this level throughout the 1990s and up to year 2002 before the implementation of.the “Free Primary Education” Policy. Secondary school gross enrollment shows a similar trend. It fell from 30 percent in 1990 to only 22 percent in 2000. It is evident that the dramatic growth Kenya had experienced during the early decades stalled.

2.3 The slowing down of the sector expansion is often seen as closely related to the overall economic condition. A deteriorated economy and increased poverty put tight constraints on the public and private resources to be invested in education. In the meantime, shrinking demand for slulled labor with a smaller modern sector also curbed the incentives for investment in education.

2.4 Currently, Kenya is experiencing a historical moment. In December 2002, a new Govemment was formed after a democratic election, ending the 24 years of political domination by the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. The new Government has already made a clear break from the past in its policy actions. In education, a “Free Primary Education” policy was announced and implemented in the 2003 school year. Expansion of primary education has now jump-started with close to 1 million enrollment increase between the 2002-2003 school years.

2.5 The large-scale demand-side response to the abolition ofprimary school fees is evidence that one of the main hurdles to education access is the cost burden on households for basic education. Improving access at both primary and secondary levels requires immediate alleviation of this cost burden. In the meantime, capacity constraint in school places needs to be further investigated and address. More importantly, to retain the outcome of FPE, improving school retention and completion also needs resources to improve education quality, strengthening every aspect of education - inputs as well as management. Shift of some of the household burden of education cost to the public sector, and increase in investment in education quality will require significantly increased public resource allocation to the sector. Given the current high public spending on the education sector, improvement of public spending efficiency will be key for the overall sector strategy.

2.6 Currently, the education and training sector contains the following main subsector programs:

0 Early Childhood Development and Preschool Education

0 Primary Education

Unless otherwise indicated, data in the following chapters are from MoEST.

0 9 0 Secondary Education 0 University Education 0 Technical and Vocational Education and Training 0 Teacher Education and Training 0 Nonfonnal Education and Adult Education 0 Special Education.

2.7 The structure of the sector is illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1: Structure of Education and Training in Kenya

...... university degree (4-6 POSt-graduate YMS) Degree ...... I age1417 1

I...... I ~ ...... i: i Re- j I PritnaryEducation i Priv i* dyears r) ...... : ; age6-13

,...... Vocational mining: Polytechnics (up to 5 years) Crab apprentice (Up to 5 , Years) Teacher diploma (3 years) ...... Trade ... .-) 4 Advanced ; Artisan(3years) Teacher certificate (2 years) i professional ; courses ! Nming(3years) Vocational diplomas 1(Agriculture, Vet, Medicine, I Agriculture and vet. (3 &.,up to 4 Ym) i years)

...... KCPE: Kenya Certificate of Primary Education KCSE: Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

Preprimary Education 2.8 Preschool education has significant coverage in Kenya: over 1 million children aged 3 to 5 are in preschool classes, representing a GER ofover 30 percent. The program has grown tremendously over the past 20 years. The number of children attending preprimary units in 1990 was 822,796 while the number of preschool teachers was about 20,000. In 2000, there were 1,107,276 children enrolled. However, the expansion has generally following the population growth for the relevant age range. The GER of preprimary education has more or less remained stable during the most recent decade (Table 2.1). However, it is observed that following the FPE implementation in 2003, the enrollment in ECD programs

10 has decreased slightly, arguably due to parents’ perception of its benefit relative to its cost compared with that ofprimary education. The causal factors need to be further investigated.

2.9 Before 1980, preprimary education was exclusively the responsibility of local communities and nongovernmental organizations such as churches, voluntary organizations, local authorities and individual investors. During the same period, there were only six preschool training centers, which were managed by the Ministry ofCulture and Social Services.

Table 2.1 : Evolution of Gross Enrollment Ratio of Preprimary Education (in Percentage)

Year Boys Girls Total 1990 35.8 35.0 34.4 1991 35.3 34.7 35.0 1992 34.0 33.4 33.7 1993 35.5 34.8 35.2 1994 35.4 34.8 35.1 1995 35.8 34.8 35.3 1996 36.1 35.3 35.7 1997 35.7 35.5 35.6 1998 35.4 34.3 34.9 1999 33.7 35.1 33.4 2000 33.5 34.3 33.9 Source: MoEST.

2.10 The Government assumed responsibility for preschool education in 1980 and has since streamlined the preschool program. The training of preschool teachers and the preparation of teaching materials are now undertaken by the Government. The development of preschool units and the cost of teachers’ services has, on the other hand, continued to be met by the communities and other nongovernmental agencies.

2.1 1 To enhance the development of preschool education, the Government, in collaboration with donors, established the National Centre for Early Childhood Education and 14 District Centres for Early Childhood Education (DICECE) to train ECD teacher trainers and ECD teachers.

2.12 There has been much discussion regarding the objectives, management structure, and financing of preprimary education in Kenya. A central issue is the role of the government in this sub-sector. Currently, preprimary education has faced pressure to provide academic education so that children entering primary school can already read. This is often used by some primary schools, particularly those with good quality but limited seats, to select children for admission. Following the large expansion of primary education and changes of the dynamics between subsectors, re-evaluating the role of preprimary education in the system is imperative.

Primary Education 2.13 Primary education is, in essence, the first phase of Kenya’s formal education system. It officially starts at 6 years of age and runs for 8 years. Prior to independence, primary education was almost exclusively the responsibility of the communities or nongovernmental agencies such as local church groups. Since independence the Government gradually took over the administration of primary education from local authorities and has now assumed a greater share of the financial cost in line with the political commitment to provide equal educational opportunities to all through the provision of free primary education.

11 2.14 Kenya’s primary education has expanded drastically since independence. However, the most recent decade has seen a gradual decline in the gross enrollment rate. According to the data collected by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST), primary GER peaked at 105 percent in 1989 but has gradually declined to only 88 percent in 20003 before coming back to over 100 percent in 2003 as the result of the “Free Primary Education” policy (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Primary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989 - 2000

Year Enrollment (in 1000s) Population age 6-13 (in 1000s) Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1991 2,797.1 2,659.0 5,456.1 2,996.0 2,971.0 5,967.0 93.4 89.5 91.4 1992 2,806.8 2,723.4 5,530.2 3,052.0 3,025.0 6,077.0 92.0 90.0 91.0 1993 2,761.1 2,667.5 5,428.6 3,106.0 3,075.0 6,181.0 88.9 86.7 87.8 1994 2,814.8 2,742.2 5,557.0 3,158.0 3,123.0 6,281.0 89.1 87.8 88.5 1995 2,802.3 2,734.1 5,536.4 3,207.0 3,168.0 6,375.0 87.4 86.3 86.8 1996 2,843.4 2,754.3 5,597.7 3,258.0 3,220.0 6,478.0 87.3 85.5 86.4 1997 2,934.0 2,830.9 5,764.9 3,306.0 3,270.0 6,576.0 88.7 86.6 87.7 1998 2,994.6 2,925.2 5,919.7 3,352.0 3,316.0 6,668.0 89.3 88.2 88.8 1999 2,993.1 2,874.6 5,867.7 3,367.5 3,322.3 6,689.8 88.9 86.5 87.7 2000 2,978.1 2,904.5 5,882.6 3,379.3 3,333.8 6,7 13.1 88.1 87.1 87.6 2002~ 6,314.6 6,856.2 92.1 2003 7,198.5 6,938.8 103.7

Table 2.3: Primary Schools Gross Enrollment Rate by Province and Sex, 2000

Gross enrollment Population age 6-13 Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Boys Girls Total 1 Boys Boys Girls Total Coast 212,420 176,650 389,070 274,002 269,173 77.5 65.6 71.6 Central 430,203 435,691 865,894 410,494 406,135 816,629 104.8 107.3 106.0 Eastem 545,402 555,811 1,101,213 573,238 563,703 1,136,941 95.1 98.6 96.9 Nairobi 79,342 79,269 158,611 147,798 157,377 305,175 53.7 50.4 52.0 Rift Valley 776,118 726,223 1,502,341 856,964 845,354 1,702,3 18 90.6 85.9 88.3 Westem 380,299 414,080 794,379 425,166 426,272 851,438 89.4 97.1 93.3 Nyanza 521,740 501,542 1,023,282 546,843 541,687 1,088,530 95.4 92.6 94.0 Northeastem 32,574 15,262 47,836 144,769 124,058 2 6 8,8 2 7 22.5 12.3 17.8 Total 2,978,098 2,904,528 3,379,214 3,333,759 6,713,033 88.1 87.1 87.5

Formal primary school enrollment is predominantly in public schools. There are only 385 registeredprivate schools including religious and for-profit schools, out of a total of around 18,000 schools. However, many unregistered non-formal schools are not included in the regular school census. 4 Data for 2001 was not processed by MoEST.

12 Table 2.4: Enrollment Increase by Region between 2000 and 2003

GER Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment GER 2000 2000 2003 increase (YO) 2003 Coast 71.6 389,070 469,514 20.7 82.1 Central 106.0 865,894 891,681 3 .O 100.9 Eastem 96.9 1,101,213 1,331,605 20.9 109.8 Nairobi 52.0 158,611 234,890 48.1 61.5 Rift Valley 88.3 1,502,341 1,799,950 19.8 98.1 Westem 93.3 794,379 1,070,223 34.7 119.1 Nyanza 94.0 1,023,282 1,336,690 30.6 114.0 North Eastem 17.8 47,836 63,898 33.6 23.2 Total 87.5 5,882,626 7,198,450 20.7 103.0

2.15 In addition, as shown in Table 2.3, large regional disparities in gross enrollment rate are also a predominant issue. For example, the Central Province boasts a 106 percent of GER, compared with Northeastem’s lowest, 17.8 percent. There is no significant gender disparity in GER at the national level. However, gender disparities are pronounced in Northeastem and Coastal Provinces, where proportionally more boys are enrolled in primary schools.

2.16 After the implementation of FPE policy started in 2003, the enrollment at the primary level increased dramatically in school year 2003. Table 2.4 presents the increase of total enrollment by province, using 2000 as the base year. The enrollment data collected in early 2003 shows that the total enrollment increased 21 percent between 2000 and 2003. At the same time, the eight provinces have various enrollment growth rates in response to the FPE policy. In general, enrollment grew faster in provinces with historically low GERs, since the better-off provinces do not have many children out of school to absorb since the coverage is nearly saturated already. For example, the enrollment in Northeastem Province and Nairobi increased 48 percent and 34 percent respectively, compared with the Central region’s 3 percent. However, it is not the case if we compare the Rift Valley and Nyanza Province. The enrollment increase in the Rift Valley is not as great as in the Westem region even though the enrollment rate in the Valley was lower. In addition, the Northeastem region does not have an unusually fast growth given its extremely low enrollment rate before the FPE policy. Therefore, it is not only the monetary cost ofeducation, but also other factors that determine the school enrollment.

2.17 One distinctive issue that calls for immediate public policy intervention is the basic education coverage in urban slum areas. For example, the urban slum areas cover over 60 percent of the population in Nairobi. Public school coverage is in general low, and leads to the low GER in these areas. In addition, the existing public schools in these areas tend to be over-crowded. Although many community schools exist, they usually are not covered under school census, thus have limited support as well as supervision from the Govemment.

General Secondary Education 2.18 Secondary education caters to students between 14 and 17 years from Form Ito Form IV. There are approximately 3,600 secondary schools currently, including national secondary schools, provincial and district public secondary schools, and privately-owned secondary schools. The enrollment in 2000 was about 660,915, of which 47 percent were girls. The rapid expansion at the secondary level has been the result of the vigorous harambee movement that led to the establishment of many secondary schools that were later taken up by the Government.

13 2.19 Table 2.5 and Table 2.6 below show the gender-specific secondary level GER trend and the recent gender-specific enrollment patterns by province. GER at the secondary level has a similar time trend compared to that at primary level. The gross enrollment rate of secondary education dropped from 29 percent in 1990 to 22 percent in 2000.

Table 2.5: Secondary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989-2000

Enrollment (in 1000s) Populationage 14-17 (in 1000s) Gross enrollment rate (YO) Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1991 345.8 268.4 614.2 1,156.0 1,157.0 2,3 13.0 29.9 23.2 26.6 1992 353.4 275.7 629.1 1,221 .o 1,221.0 2,442 .O 28.9 22.6 25.8 1993 295.2 236.1 531.3 1,288.0 1,286.0 2,574.0 22.9 18.4 20.6 1994 336.4 283.4 619.8 1,356.0 1,352.0 2,708.0 24.8 21.0 22.9 1995 341.8 290.6 632.4 1,426.0 1,420.0 2,846.0 24.0 20.5 22.2 1996 352.9 305.3 658.3 1,457.0 1,449.0 2,906.0 24.2 21.1 22.7 1997 363.9 323.6 687.5 1,488.0 1,478.0 2,966.0 24.5 21.9 23.2 1998 373.4 327.1 700.5 1,518.0 1,505.0 3,023 .O 24.6 21.7 23.2 1999 348.1 313.7 661.8 1,438.5 1,434.0 2,872.4 24.2 21.9 23.0 2000 350.3 310,6 660.9 1,487.7 1,483.6 2,971.2 23.5 20.9 22.2

Table 2.6: Secondary School Gross Enrollment by Sex and Province, 2000

Enrollment (in 1000s) Population age 14-17 (in 1000s) Gross enrollment rate (YO) Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Coast 17,876 15,206 33,082 114,549 115,593 230,142 15.6 13.2 14.4

Central 71,866 75,020 146,886 196,143 193,370 389,513 36.6 38.8 37.7

Eastem 59,066 58,179 1 17,245 254,252 249,036 503,288 23.2 23.4 23.3

Nairobi 9,745 8,281 18,026 64,441 88,191 152,632 15.1 9.4 11.8

Rift Valley 72,438 57,914 130,412 359,200 353,522 712,722 20.2 16.4 18.3

Westem 47,824 43,856 91,680 182,372 183,411 365,783 26.2 23.9 25.1

Nyanza 67,855 50,627 118,482 254,067 250,173 504,240 26.7 20.2 23.5 North 3,647 1,455 5,102 62,627 50,297 112,924 5.8 2.9 4.5 Eastem Total 350,317 3 10,598 660,915 1,487,651 1,483,593 2,971,244 23.5 20.9 22.2

2.20 The secondary gross enrollment rate also shows large regional gaps. The Central region has the highest GER at 38 percent, compared with Northeastern’s lowest 4.5 percent. There are also large gaps within provinces across different districts. For example, within the Eastern Province, the Embu District has over 34 percent of secondary GER, while Moyale District has only 2.9 per~ent.~Gender gap is also larger than that ofprimary education. However, the gender gap is smaller than the gap among different regions and districts.

Detailed district-specific GER is included in Annex I,Table A. 1.

14 2.21 The proportion of private schools at the secondary level is higher than that at the primary level, although it is still much fewer than in public schools. It is estimated that only about 10 percent of secondary schools are private6.

Determinants for Low Enrollment at Primary and Secondary Level 2.22 According to the Second Report on Poverty in Kenya based on Welfare Monitoring Survey (WMS) in 1997, children who have attained primary and secondary school-age do not attend school for various reasons. For both poor and non-poor households, the four main reasons are the inability to afford it, early marriage, failure in examinations, and school being uninteresting. For the poor rural households, non-affordability accounted for 30 percent followed by early marriage (1 1.9 percent), school being un- interesting (1 1.8 percent), and failed exams (10.4 percent). The poor urban households are more affected by lack of affordability (34.2 percent) and early marriage (17.3 percent). Failed exams accounted for 5.0 percent for urban poor. Overall, and as reflected in Table 2.7, lack of affordability accounted for 30.7 percent of all children who are out of school.

Table 2.7: Reasons for Non-School Attendance (by percentage)

Central Rural 1.0 5.0 0.0 23.2 1.0 3.5 0.2 19.2 0.0 0.9 4.6 11.4 28.0 2.0 Coast Rural 2.4 10.4 0.9 36.6 2.3 1.1 5.2 12.0 0.5 5.7 2.4 12.6 5.0 2.9 Eastem Rural 6.0 6.9 0.9 33.3 0.3 1.4 6.1 13.2 0.3 2.1 7.3 7.2 10.1 4.8 Nyanza Rural 2.3 20.3 1.3 25.6 2.0 2.2 1.8 4.7 0.3 3.9 6.6 17.0 8.8 3.2 Rift Valley Rural 5.5 14.9 0.8 28.0 3.1 0.9 2.9 13.9 1.9 2.8 4.9 9.1 7.3 5.8 Westem Rural 1.5 10.9 1.2 33.3 0.0 0.6 0.8 9.5 0.2 2.4 2.8 6.6 23.2 7.1 Total Rural 3.1 11.9 0.9 29.5 1.5 1.6 2.9 11.8 0.6 2.8 5.2 10.4 13.2 4.5 Total Urban 7.9 17.3 0.4 34.2 6.3 1.3 0.5 4.1 0.1 0.7 1.9 5.0 19.0 1.2 Nairobi 9.2 18.6 0.0 31.9 6.7 1.1 0.6 2.9 0.0 0.4 OS 4.4 22.9 0.8 Mombasa 2.2 7.5 3.0 50.6 0.0 0.7 0.0 2.4 0.0 2.5 1.7 9.3 18.7 1.4 Kisumu 17.5 11.6 0.9 45.5 8.3 0.6 0.0 4.0 0.0 2.8 3.9 OS 3.7 0.9 Nakuru 7.0 14.6 0.0 26.2 6.5 3.0 0.0 10.8 0.0 0.0 5.3 10.0 12.1 4.2 Other Urban 4.3 20.4 0.1 31.3 7.6 1.9 0.8 6.7 0.4 0.2 4.2 5.2 15.0 1.8 Nation 4.3 13.3 0.7 30.7 2.7 1.5 2.3 9.9 0.5 2.3 4.4 9.1 14.6 3.7 Source: Ministry Of Finance and Planning Second Report on Poverty In Kenya: Volume IL 2000, based on WMSII (1997).

2.23 These results are not surprising particularly with regard to the extent of household burden of education expenditures. According to the WMS I1 (1994) and I11 (1997), school expenditure items for households include tuition fees, uniforms, books, other supplies, transport, room and board, private tutoring and "harambee" contributions. The average cost at the primary level for all these items amounts to Kshs 843 per annum in 1994, and rises to over Kshs 1,200 in 1997. At the secondary school level, the average cost is a lot higher -- Kshs 9,898. It is estimated that household expenditure on primary and education constitutes over 20 percent ofnon-food consumptions (See Chapter 5 for details).

2.24 Using WMS-11, Deolikar (1999) analyzed the determinants of the probability that a child is enrolled in school. His findings include the following: (1) The economic background of a child is one of

Enrollment comparison between public and private schools is not available.

15 the strongest determinants ofboth primary and secondary enrollment; (2) the mother’s education level has significant effect on household decision of whether send children to school; (3) caring for younger siblings is a chore that keeps girls from attending school; (4) the availability of schools per school-age child is a significant determinant of school enrollment. These analytical results have shown that both demand-side and supply-side factors contribute to the household decision on children’s school enrollment.

Postsecondary Education and Training 2.25 University education forms the apex of Kenya’s formal education and training. Further postsecondary school education and training is also provided by middle-level colleges such as National Polytechnics, Teacher Training Colleges, Institutes of Technology and the more specialized institutions run by relevant technical ministries.

University 2.26 In addition to preparing high-level manpower for national development, university education is charged with undertaking research, development, and dissemination of knowledge. In 2001, there were six public universities and about 15 private universities of which six are officially accredited. Undergraduate education follows four-year courses. Supervision of university education is assured by the Commission for Higher Education (CHE). The enrollment in public and private universities totals about 57,000 students. Annual intake into public universities is about 10,000; private intake is about 6,000. In addition, public universities annually take in about 4,000 “self-sponsored’’ students, mainly as evening students, who are entirely self-financed.

2.27 Enrollment in the universities has been steadily increasing since the establishment of the University of Nairobi (former Royal College) in 1970. By 1980, the University of Nairobi could not cope with the pressure for university admissions, hence the establishment of other public universities such as Moi Eldoret, Kenyatta University College and Jomo Kenyatta College of Agriculture and Technology. The country has also experienced the quick establishment of private universities in response to the increasing demand for university education. The total enrollment in public universities grew from 3,443 in 1970 to 9,044 in 1984, and to 43,038 in 1994.’ Table 2.8 shows the trend in enrollment from 1995 to 2001.

Table 2.8: Enrollment in Universities 1995-2001

Public I Private Foreign University Total Year Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total 1995 10,590 293 12 39,902 2,288 2,496 4,784 984 1,919 2,903 13,862 33,727 47,589 1996 11,381 28,047 39,428 2,872 3,092 5,964 1,568 2,750 4,318 15,821 33,889 49,710 1997 10,940 27,586 38,526 2,328 2,642 4,970 1,853 2,982 4,835 15,121 33,210 48,331 1998 12,339 28,231 40,570 3,382 3,609 6,991 2,109 3,228 5,337 17,830 35,068 52,898 1999 12,770 28,498 41,268 4,122 3,963 8,085 2,042 3,066 5,108 18,934 35,527 54,461 2000 13,481 29,027 42,508 4,101 4,111 8,212 2,054 3,069 5,123 19,636 36,207 55,843 2001 15,884 32,552 48,436 4,486 4,401 8,887 N.A. N.A. N.A. 20,370 36,953 57,323 Source: MoEST and Commission For Higher Education (CHE).

2.28 Total enrollment at university level has been growing steadily over the years. However, gender disparity in university admission is quite distinctive, particularly in public universities. In 200 1, only one-third of the total public university enrollment were females. Gender disparity exists to a lesser extent

Comprehensive Education Sector Analysis Report 1994.

16 in private universities. However, due to the low proportion of private university enrollment - about 15 percent ofthe total enrollment, overall gender disparity in university enrollment needs much attention for public interventions.

Tertiary-Level Technical Education 2.29 Tertiary-level technical education covers the technical training institutes (TTIs), institutes of technology (IT), and the national polytechnics, including Kisumu Polytechnic and Kenya Polytechnic in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Eldoret. Technical education was integrated into the Ministry of Education only four years ago.

2.30 Enrollment in technical institutes in general has been on the rise (Table 2.9). Enrollment in the national polytechnics increased by 15.8 percent from 9,042 in 2000 to 10,472 in 2001. Enrollment in technical training institutes and institutes of technology rose from 15,155 in 2000 to 17,801 in 2001, an increase of 17.5 percent. Female student enrollment constituted 44 percent of total student enrollment. The Kenya Polytechnic recorded the highest enrollment at 4,562, or 5 1.7 percent of the total polytechnic enrollment in 2000. The Kisumu Polytechnic registered the lowest enrollment at only 0.3 percent of the total. The overall increase in enrolment is due to the diversification of courses offered in the institutions.

Table 2.9: Enrollment in Technical Education 2000-2001 2000 2001 Increase Technical Training Institutes and Institutes of Technology 15, 155 17,801 17.5 Polytechnics (Kenya, Mombasa, Eldoret, and Kimusu) 9,042 10,472 15.8 Total 24,197 28,273 16.8

Teacher Education and Training 2.31 29 public and 8 private colleges give pre-service education and training to primary teachers, in two-year residential courses. In 2001, 15,700 students were enrolled in the public colleges (about 47 percent of which were female, Table 2.10), and about 4,500 in the private training colleges. Annual output of qualified teachers is about 10,000. The public colleges operate below their capacity of approximately 18,000. The public colleges also provide a three-year in-service upgrading programme, both residential and distance learning, catering to teachers in-service.

2.32 There is a regional quota system to provide for regional balance. Entry requires a “C” grade (compared with C+ for university entrance), although some students from disadvantaged areas are admitted with lower qualifications. Recruitment criteria have no special emphasis on subject grades, resulting in poor output in science subjects especially.

17 Table 2.10: Enrollment in Public Primary Teacher Training Colleges 1991-2001

Year Women Men Total 1990 7,643 9,430 17,073 1991 7,696 9,808 17,504 1992 8,823 10,169 18,992 1993 7,843 8,578 16,421 1994 8,021 8,440 16,461 1995 8,227 8,651 16,878 1996 8,977 9,134 18,111 1997 9,343 9,064 18,407 1998 4,549 4,380 8,929 1999 3,194 3,484 6,678 2000 6,990 7,326 14,316 2001 15,700

2.33 At the secondary level, teachers are trained in two public diploma colleges for 3 years. In the meantime, the faculties of education in four public and one private university offer 4-year Bachelor of Education (B. Ed) programmes. Teacher-Training diploma colleges recorded an enrollment of 2,125 students in 2001, an increase from 1,366 in 2000. Among over 2,000 trainees, 42.9 percent were female.

2.34 There are also training programs for preprimary school teachers. In principle, the minimum entry requirement is a graduate certificate in primary education. However, the majority of trainees currently admitted in the DICECE centers have a secondary education certificate. DICECE centers conduct a two- year training program for trainees who have already assigned to existing preschools. Total enrollment in pre-service training course in DICECE is not readily available. However, there is indication that the coverage is limited since less than half of the over 40,000 preschool teachers in service are currently trained, according to MoEST.

Other Education and Training Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TWTf 2.35 Besides general programmes, the education and training system offers a wide range of vocational and apprentice programmes. This is a vital subsector that provides parallel opportunities either as alternatives to the general education or as after-school training.

2.36 The general structure of TVET starts with youth polytechnics under the Ministry of Labour and Human Resource Development (MLHRD). These youth polytechnics are mainly funded by the communities with some subsidy from MLHRD. They offer courses of artisan and crafts. They target mainly primary and secondary education dropouts. In parallel, there are also a number of industrial training centers and institutes providing vocational education and training.

2.37 While the number of TVET institutions is more than 700, the enrollment levels and output quality vary widely. Including private sector training institutions, which provide for about half ofthe total intake, over 300,000 students annually enter some form ofTVET training, according to MLHRD.

8 Here we refer to only the TVET programs below tertiary level.

18 2.38 The successful development of TVET would require a re-evaluation of the strategic position of this subsector in the overall human capital development strategy. It has often been argued that public-run TVET units tend to be costly and sluggish in response to changes in labor market conditions. In addition, the TVET sector in Kenya also faces problems similar to those found in many countries: outdated and non-functioning equipment, lack of trained staff, outdated curricula, lack of operating expenses and training materials, and in many institutions low enrollment linked to the perception that they cannot give good value for the fees they charge.

Nonformal Education (NFE) 2.39 Nonformal Education has been defined as any organized, systematic learning activity outside the formal school system. It provides selected types of learning for particular subgroups in the population. The objective of nonformal education is to provide alternative learning opportunities to the youth and adults not participating in the formal education system, with programs tailored to equip the learners with basic skills as well as help them join the formal education system. In 2003, MoEST started to coordinate the Adult and Continuing Education (ACE) program within the fi-amework of Board of Adult Education and the Department of Adult, providing adult and continuing education. In addition, various government departments, NGOs, religious organizations, and other donor agencies are involved in the provision of NFE and alternative basic education programs. The four main categories of institutions providing NFE are: Centres for Religious Education, Nonformal Primary Schools, Adult Education Centres, and Skills Training Centres. The type and quality of learning varies from center to center; and the target groups are mainly out-of-school youths between age 6-17. Due to the diverse sources of provisions for NFE in Kenya, there is no accurate account of enrollment.

Adult Education 2.40 Enrollment in adult literacy programs has been characterized by sharp decline over the years. The total enrollment in 1979, when the literacy program was launched, was 415,074, of whom 321,208, or 77 percent were women. Twenty years later in 1999, the total enrollment had dropped to 101,261, of whom 71,061 were women. The total enrollment for the year 2001 is even lower at 93,052, of whom 66,573 are women.

2.41 Table 2.11 below illustrates the changes in enrollment for Adult Education over the past decade. The decline of enrollment in adult literacy program may reflect the improved coverage of formal education system. However, the decline during the most recent decade needs much attention as GER at primary and secondary levels has also shown a declining trend during the same period of time.

Table 2.11: Enrollment in Adult Literacy Programs

YEAR Male Female Total 1990 37,092 110,847 147,939 1995 26,168 82,739 108,907 1996 26,180 74,081 100,261 1997 27,734 75,540 103,274 1998 26,639 90,476 117,115 1999 30,200 71,061 101,261 2000 25,802 68,101 93,903 2001 26,479 66,573 93,052

Source: Department of Adult Education

19 Special Education 2.42 Current estimates suggest that there may be as many as 800,000 handicapped children up to 16 years old, out of which an estimated 90,000 have been identified and assessed. However, only 14,614 are enrolled in educational programs for children with disabilities, while an equivalent number are integrated in regular schools. Table 2.12 and Table 2.13 illustrate the levels of enrollment for children with disabilities at primary and secondary school levels, respectively. u

2.43 The provision of education and training for this target group through special programs and special schools is still far from adequate. At the secondary level there are three schools for the physically handicapped, one each for the blind and the deaf as well as four integrated units for the blind. The TVET provision consists of three vocational training centers and one technical training institute. Furthermore, budgetary provisions for the subsector have remained low and have actually diminished in real terms in the last decade.

Table 2.12: Enrollment in Special Education at Primary Level by Sex 1986-99

YEAR No. of schools/units Boys Girls Total 1986 287 2,783 2,319 5,102 1987 350 3,631 2,594 6,225 1990 423 4,390 3,135 7,525 1998 761 7,397 5,536 12,933 1999 823 8,420 6,194 14,614 Source: MOESTstatistics (Special Education Section 2001)

Table 2.13: Enrolment in Special Schools at Secondary Level by Sex 1990-99

YEAR No. of schools/units Boys Girls Total 1990 5 338 316 654 1998 7 565 528 1,063 1999 7 605 565 1,170 Source: MOEST statistics (Special Education Section 2001).

School Access and Education Attainment: Evidence from Demography and Health Survey Data 2.44 Most of the school enrollment information above is derived from school census data. This section will show results from tabulating household level data. Household level data is usually advantageous in providing individual’s schooling status in relation to each individual’s and household’s socio-economic status. The data we use here is the 1998 Kenya Demography and Health Survey (DHS).

2.45 A major advantage of using household-level data is that it provides insights into the determinants of the enrollment pattern. Overall, low enrollment could result from lack of area schools, which denies student access, or from a high dropout rates having nothing to do with access. DHS data shows that over 95 percent of young adults in Kenya age 15 to 19 have started school at some point. However, only 69 percent reach Standard 8, and only 49 percent reach Form 4 nationwide. This may suggest that demand- side factors are more important than the availability of schools as the cause of declining enrollment rates. However, other supply-side issues such as the existing low quality of education could also contribute to it.

2.46 Figure 2.2 shows that the gap between urban and rural areas is quite small, although the aggregation by only rural and urban may hide the regional disparities. We used 15- to 19-year-old young adult sample to reflect the most current status with enough information. Over 95 percent of the sample

20 has access to school. However, rural children drop out of school faster than urban children in the primary cycle (up to grade 8), but have a better survival rate during the secondary cycle. As a result, 50 percent of rural children reach 12 years of education, compared with 44 percent in urban areas.'

Figure 2.2: Grade Attainment Profile by RuralKJrban

120.0

100.0 m F .s 80.0

60.0 ...... E 1 B urban 1 L2 o 40.0 s 20.0

0.0

Years of schooliig

2.47 Figure 2.4 shows the education attainment profile by gender. Girls and boys have equal chance to start school. It shows that over 95 percent of boys and girls started schooling at some point before they reached 19 years old. However, girls are more likely to drop out of school than boys, particularly during the secondary cycle. For example, over 71 percent of the boys finish the primary cycle, compared with 66 percent of girls. Over 55 percent of the boys finish the secondary cycle, compared with the 44 percent of girls.

Figure 2.3: Grade Attainment Profile by Province

......

--Central ......

Eastern

---X---Nyanza

bft-valley ...... - ----t-- Western 40.0 ......

300 mra8.8rrar 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112

Years ofschooling

The grade-attainment rate is used here for the analysis for historical data, as opposed to the cross-sectional information captured by the gross enrollment rate. The deviation from each other could be substantial depending on the age composition of school enrollment. The fact that around 50 percent of the observations in the sample reach 12'h grade compared with only 22 percent of the GER at secondary level could be the result ofthe older- age of children in the secondary system (beyond the normal age range of 14-17). For example, if all 18 years olds and only them, are in secondary school, and the population is uniformly distributed, the GER would be 20 percent compared with a secondary attainment rate of 100 percent.

21 Figure 2.4: Grade Attainment Profile by Gender

120.0 - ......

100 0 ......

2 ...... '$0 80 ,0

60.0 ...... $ --

(r% m-.-.-. 40.0 ...... s 20.0 ......

o.o,, , i,I,, I I I,,I

2.48 Household wealth does not affect children starting schooling. However, the education attainment gap is very large at the end ofprimary cycle (Figure 2.5); 60 percent of children from households of the lowest two quintiles reach Standard 8, compared with over 75 percent of the children from the richest quintile. The gap remains through the secondary cycle.

22 0.01, I,, , , , , I,,I I 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112 Years ofschwling

2.49 An interesting result comes out using the sample of younger cohorts age 10-14 (Figure 2.6). Only 66 percent of children from poor households start school before 14, compared with close to 99 percent of the children from the rich households. This suggests that although over 95 percent of poor children start school at some point in their lives, they tend to start school at a much older age than children from rich households.

Figure 2.6: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth (Age 10-14 cohort)

--@E-- ddlel0-14 ---fi"chlO-l4

Conclusions 2.50 The development of the primary and secondary education in Kenya has been accentuated by the implementation of the "Free Primary Education" policy in 2003, with primary gross enrollment rate reaching over 100 percent this year. However, there are still large disparities of education participation among regions and population groups of different socio-economic background. Secondary education still has very narrow coverage. The strategic linkage between primary education and the development of other sub-sectors has yet to be established.

23 Chapter 3 Internal Efficiency and Student Flows

3.1 The efficiency of an education system is reflected by (1) how many graduates are produced out of those who enter the system, (2) how much resources it takes to produce a graduate, and eventually (3) how many graduates can proceed to the next cycle of schooling. Therefore, the characteristics of the entry cohort, along with rates of retention, completion, repetition, and transition are all the major indicators of system efficiency.

Late School Entry 3.2 Late school entry is quite common in Kenya. Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 show the proportions of each age group enrolled in Standard 1 for girls and boys in 2000. Only a third of boys and less than a third of girls enter grade 1 at the official age of 6 years old. A majority of grade 1 enrollees are 7 years old and above. Girls tend to enroll in school later than boys. The average age for a girl enrolled in grade 1 is 7.2 years old, while a boy is 6.4 years old. Late school entry is arguably related to poor physical status or poor preparedness for schooling at younger age. Late school entry often results in early dropout since older ages at higher grades is related to higher opportunity cost of schooling in the form of forgone labor. For girls, the pressure of early marriage is also an important determinant for older girls to drop out at a higher grade.

Figure 3.1: Girl's Age Composition in Standard 1

1 I

Figure 3.2: Boy's Age Composition in Standard 1

24 3.3 Due to FPE policy in 2003, many children entered school at earlier ages than in the past. The on- going school census data collection will provide useful information in this area.

Dropout Rate at Primary Level 3.4 Dropout rate at the primary level remains very high. Table 3.1 shows the number of dropouts during school year 1999. Eastem and Northeastem region have the highest dropout rates, compared with Nairobi’s low dropout rate at 1.5 percent. Girls are more likely to drop out in Nyanza and Northeastern Province.

Table 3.1: Primary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999

Enrollment Dropouts Dropout rates (YO) Province BOYS Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Coast 209,090 170,639 379,729 10,852 8,520 19,372 5.2 5.0 5.1 Central 430,842 434,047 864,889 13,379 11,470 24,849 3.1 2.6 2.9 Eastem 578,391 556,3 16 1,I 34,707 37,184 3 1,776 68,960 6.4 5.7 6.1 Nairobi 76,085 74,767 150,852 1,247 984 2,231 1.6 1.3 1.5 Rift Valley 730,313 702,529 1,432,842 35,549 32,845 68,394 4.9 4.7 4.8 Westem 415,483 423,108 838,591 21,353 21,271 42,624 5.1 5.0 5.1 Nyanza 519,839 498,025 1,017,864 28,846 30,685 59,531 5.5 6.2 5.8 Northeastem 33,011 15,123 48,134 1,832 1,048 2,880 5.5 6.9 6.0

Total 2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608 150,242 138,599 288,841 5.0 4.8 4.9

3.5 Table 3.2 below shows the nationwide dropout rates by sex and grade during school year 1999. Dropout rates get higher from grade 4 and onwards, which represents the upper primary level. The dropout rate is highest in grade 7, which is argued to be related to the challenge of facing the primary completion examination during grade 8 (This also causes high repetition rates of grade 7 that will be illustrated later in this chapter). For example, schools are graded and headmasters are evaluated on overall school performance at KPCE. Therefore, there are incentives for schools to let drop out or repeat grade for those who are not expected to perform well in the examinations.

Table 3.2: Primary School Drop-out Rates by Sex and Grade

I-Enrollment I Drooouts I Drooout rates (%) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total STD 1 488,882 456,768 945,650 23,352 20,938 44,290 4.8 4.6 4.7 STD 2 485,392 428,520 913,912 20,522 17,707 38,229 4.2 4.1 4.2 STD 3 418,997 396,668 815,665 20,093 17,245 37,338 4.8 4.3 4.6 STD 4 399,413 385,377 784,790 22,303 18,580 40,883 5.6 4.8 5.2 STD 5 348,764 347,448 696,212 19,435 17,302 36,737 5.6 5.0 5.3 STD 6 313,236 321,785 635,021 19,192 18,847 38,039 6.1 5.9 6.0 STD 7 309,731 321,383 631,114 21,162 22,741 43,903 6.8 7.1 7.0 STD 8 228,639 216,605 445,244 4,445 5,600 10,045 1.9 2.6 2.3 TOTAL 2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608 150,504 138,960 289,464 5.0 4.8 4.9

3.6 Several reasons account for children dropping out of school. The 1998 Primary School Census (MoEST, 1998), gives the most common reason for dropping out of primary school (19 percent of the cases) as lack of interest in schooling. In the same census, poverty is cited as an important factor (13 percent). Among the girls, marriage and pregnancy are important reasons for dropping out (13.5 percent

25 of the cases). These main reasons cited here are also consistent with the poverty survey result that shows cost of schooling, “school uninteresting,” and early marriage among girls as the major reasons that children are not in school during the survey year. In addition, the census also shows that poor academic performance accounts for 6.5 percent of the dropout cases.

Grade Repetition at Primary Level 3.7 Table 3.3 shows the number of repeaters at the end of the 1999 school year. Nationwide, grade repetition rate is very high. It does not significantly vary across the provinces except for Nairobi, where the repetition is well below the national average. There is no marked difference between boys and girls.

Province Gross enrollment Repeaters Repetition rates (%)

Bovs Girls Total Bovs Girls Total Bovs Girls Total Coast 209,090 170,639 379,729 30,721 25,819 56,540 14.7 15.1 14.9 Central 430,842 434,047 864,889 49,896 45,654 95,550 11.6 10.5 11.0 Eastem 578,391 556,316 1,134,707 76,106 73,126 149,232 13.2 13.1 13.2 Nairobi 76,085 74,767 150,852 2,290 1,820 4,110 3.0 2.4 2.7 Rift Valley 730,313 702,529 1,432,842 113,620 104,674 218,294 15.6 14.9 15.2 Westem 4 15,483 423,108 838,591 63,984 58,516 122,500 15.4 13.8 14.6 Nyanza 519,839 498,025 1,017,864 66,201 60,588 126,789 12.7 12.2 12.5 Northeastem 33,011 15,123 48,134 2,148 1,406 3,554 6.5 9.3 7.4 Total 2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608 404,966 371,603 776,569 13.5 12.9 13.2

3.8 Table 3.4 shows the repetition rates by grade at the end of school year 1999. It is notable that repetition rates are higher at grade 1. This may be due to the low preparedness of many children. High repetition rates in grade 7 are arguably due to forced repetition in pre-examination and examination classes in order to improve their performance in KCPE exams, and get into better secondary school. These grade-specific repetition patterns are not differentiated between boys and girls.

3.9 High repetition rate in many developing countries has drawn much attention in recent years. Research findings indicate that grade repetition per se has little effect on the improvement of learning outcome. Special classroom attention is more effective to allow the low performance students to catch up. Automatic grade promotion combined with special programs has proven to be a cost-effective way to tackle quality-related repetition issues.

Table 3.4: Primary School Repetition Rate by Sex and Grade, 1999

Enrollment Repeaters Repetition Rate

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Std 1 4 8 8,8 8 2 456,768 945,650 87,780 75,238 163,018 18.0 16.5 17.2 Std2 485,392 428,520 913,912 64,224 54,833 119,057 13.2 12.8 13.0 Std3 418,997 396,668 8 15,665 55,514 47,307 102,821 13.2 11.9 12.6 Std4 399,413 385,377 784,790 54,569 49,940 104,509 13.7 13.0 13.3 Std5 348,764 347,448 696,212 42,125 41,273 83,398 12.1 11.9 12.0 Std6 313,236 321,785 635,021 38,568 40,273 78,841 12.3 12.5 12.4 Std7 309,731 321,383 631,114 52,577 54,507 107,084 17.0 17.0 17.0 Std8 228,639 216,605 445,244 9,892 8,539 18,431 4.3 3.9 4.1 Total 2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608 405,249 371,910 777,159 13.5 12.9 13.2

26 Cohort Flows and Completion at Primary Level 3.10 Table 3.5 shows the comparison between enrollment in Standard 1 and Standard 8 during an 8- year cycle. It shows that Standard 8 enrollment is only less than half ofthe size of Standard 1 eight years before. To some extent this reflects the low completion rate. However, this method does not tease out the survival of each cohort. For example, the enrollees in Standard 8 could include both those in Standard 1 eight years before, and those in grade 2 eight years before who repeated and take one more year to reach Standard 8, thus joining the first group in the same year at grade 8. The other caveat ofthe enrollment size comparison is that it does not consider those students who get enrolled in the first year, but have not yet reached grade 8 in eight years due to repetition. Although in a steady state, and these two effects would offset, it is still clearer to show the cohort flow as in Table 3.6.

Table 3.5: Primary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Grade 1 and Grade 8 during Eight Year Cycle, 1989 - 2000

Year in Year in Enrollment in Std 1 (in 1000s) Enrollment in Std 8 (in 1000s) Yo Std 8IStd 1 Std 1 Std 8 Bow Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1982 1989 467.8 440.9 908.8 224.1 190.5 414.6 47.9 43.2 45.6 1983 1990 460.6 429.4 890.0 210.4 174.1 384.5 45.7 40.5 43.2 1984 1991 447.2 417.4 864.6 207.3 173.7 381.0 46.4 41.6 44.1 1985 1992 436.5 412.1 848.6 195.0 198.8 393.8 44.7 48.2 46.4 1986 1993 473.0 439.0 912.0 210.4 185.3 395.7 44.5 42.2 43.4 1987 1994 476.0 442.3 918.3 212.5 190.3 402.8 44.6 43.0 43.9 1988 1995 491.6 461.2 952.8 211.6 194.0 405.6 43.0 42.1 42.6 1989 1996 482.2 457.3 939.5 217.3 199.0 416.3 45.1 43.5 44.3 1990 1997 484.6 457.2 941.8 224.6 209.3 433.8 46.3 45.8 46.1 1991 1998 476.2 447.8 924.0 221.0 215.3 436.3 46.4 48.1 47.2 1992 1999 479.6 453.2 932.8 228.6 216.6 445.2 47.7 47.8 47.7 1993 2000* 472.5 446.1 918.6 228.4 220.8 449.2 48.3 49.5 48.9 Source: CBS, Economic Survey, Various Issues

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Total Grade 1 100 17 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 78 24 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 65 28 8 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 54 30 11 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 44 30 12 4 1 0 0 0 0 6 36 27 12 4 1 0 0 0 7 29 24 11 4 1 0 0 8 22 19 9 3 1 0 Graduate 21 18 9 3 1 0 52

3.1 1 Using current grade-specific repetition and dropout rates, Table 3.6 constructed the dynamics of cohort flow. It shows that on the overall completion rate is 52 percent. However, on average only 21 percent complete the primary cycle on time; 18 percent complete the cycle in 9 years, followed by 9

27 percent in 10 years, 3 percent in 11 years, and 1 percent in 12 years. Therefore, the average number of years it takes for those who complete the cycle is about 9 years.

Dropout at Secondary Level 3.12 Table 3.7 shows that the Northeastern Province has the highest dropout rate at the secondary level, with Nairobi following. Dropout rates in other provinces are quite close to each other. Table 3.8 presents the dropout rate by grade. Dropout rates are higher in Form 2 and Form 3, with girls more likely to drop out than boys during this cycle.

Table 3.7: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999

Province Enrollment Dropouts Dropour Rates (YO)

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Coast 17,722 15,092 32,814 1,018 751 1,769 5.7 5.0 5.4 Central 67,294 76,754 144,048 2,984 2,755 5,739 4.4 3.6 4.0 Eastem 62,393 59,946 122,339 3,143 3,267 6,410 5.0 5.4 5.2 Nairobi 1 1,882 8,525 20,407 817 633 1,450 6.9 7.4 7.1 Rift Valley 71,730 56,839 128,569 3,208 3,395 6,603 4.5 6.0 5.1 Westem 48,622 45,768 94,390 2,028 2,359 4,387 4.2 5.2 4.6 Nyanza 64,791 49,443 114,234 2,655 2,593 5,248 4.1 5.2 4.6 Northeastem 3,699 1,324 5,023 289 94 3 83 7.8 7.1 7.6 Total 348,133 313,691 661,824 16,142 15,847 31,989 4.6 5.1 4.8

Table 3.8: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Sex and Grade

Enrollment Dropouts Dropout Rates Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Form I 89,626 84,283 173,909 3,505 3,626 7,131 3.9 4.3 4.1 Form I1 95,030 86,894 181,924 5,925 5,774 11,699 6.2 6.6 6.4 Form I11 85,530 75,716 161,246 4,676 4,523 9,199 5.5 6.0 5.7 Form IV 77,947 66,798 144,745 2,036 1,924 3,960 2.6 2.9 2.7 Total 348,133 313,691 661,824 16,142 15,847 31,989 4.6 5.1 4.8

Repetition Rate at Secondary Level 3.13 At the secondary level, Nairobi has the highest repetition rate of 4.8 percent mostly due to a distinctively high girl’s repletion rate, which is 8.9 percent as compared with national average of 1.6 percent (Table 3.9). The reasons behind this need to be further investigated. There are more children repeating Form IV than in other grades, facing the pressure of secondary education certificate examination at the end ofthe cycle.

28 Table 3.9: Secondary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999

Province Gross enrollment Repeaters Repetition rates (YO)

Bovs Girls Total Bovs Girls Total Boys Girls Total Coast 17,722 15,092 32,814 263 159 422 1.5 1.1 1.3 Central 67,294 76,754 144,048 859 513 1,372 1.3 0.7 1.0 Eastem 62,393 59,946 122,339 832 549 1,381 1.3 0.9 1.1 Nairobi 11,882 8,525 20,407 226 761 987 1.9 8.9 4.8 Rift Valley 7 1,730 56,839 128,569 1,028 741 1,769 1.4 1.3 1.4 Westem 48,622 45,768 94,390 905 922 1,827 1.9 2.0 1.9 Nyanza 64,791 49,443 114,234 1,626 974 2,600 2.5 2.0 2.3 Northeastem 3,699 1,324 5,023 52 7 59 1.4 0.5 1.2 Total 348,133 313,691 661,824 5,791 4,626 10,417 1.7 1.5 1.6

Enrollment Repeaters Repetition Rates Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Form 1 89,626 84,283 173,909 694 723 1,417 0.8 0.9 0.8 Form 2 95,030 86,894 181,924 1,039 956 1,995 1.1 1.1 1.1 Form 3 85,530 75,716 161,246 1,455 1,265 2,720 1.7 1.7 1.7 Form 4 77,947 66,798 144,745 2,604 1,685 4,289 3.3 2.5 3 .O Total 348,133 313,691 661,824 5,791 4,626 10,417 1.7 1.5 1.6

Completion Rate and Cohort Flow at Secondary Level 3.14 The grade retention at the secondary level is much better than that at primary level (Table 3.1 1 and Table 3.12). Given that the transition rate is low (see next section), therefore a highly selective process, this is not a surprising result.

Table 3.11: Secondary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Form Iand Form IV during Four Year Cycle, 1989 - 2000

yearin yearin Enrollment in Form 1 (in 1000s) Enrollment in Form IV (in 1000s) YOcompleting Form IV Form1 Form8 Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1987 1990 95,528 69,719 165,247 82,800 59,987 142,787 86.7 86.0 86.4 1988 1991 99,822 73,783 173,605 78,347 57,457 135,804 78.5 77.9 78.2 1989 1992 97,725 69,023 166,748 80,467 58,646 139,113 82.3 85.0 83.4 1990 1993 96,079 74,992 171,071 67,881 49,961 117,842 70.7 66.6 68.9 1991 1994 95,511 76,126 171,637 78,605 62,383 140,988 82.3 81.9 82.1 1992 1995 97,267 78,081 175,348 74,087 61,094 135,181 76.2 78.2 77.1

1993 ' 1996 81,543 69,560 151,103 78,104 66,042 144,146 95.8 94.9 95.4 1994 1997 90,774 78,140 168,914 80,457 68,659 149,116 88.6 87.9 88.3 1995 1998 96,360 83,650 180,010 82,632 69,492 152,124 85.8 83.1 84.5 1996 1999 97,394 85,917 183,311 77,947 66,798 144,745 80.0 77.7 79.0 1997 2000 98,487 88,614 187,101 79,717 68,012 147,729 80.9 76.8 79.0

29 Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Form I 100 1 0 0 0 0 Form I1 95 2 0 0 0 Form I11 88 3 0 0 Form IV 81 4 0 Graduate 77 4 0 81

3.15 The cohort flow chart constructed by using grade-specific dropout rate and repetition rate shows that on average 77 percent of a cohort can complete the secondary cycle on time, another 4 percent take 5 years to graduate. The total dropout rate ofthe secondary cycle is 19 percent.

Primary to Secondary Transition Rates 3.16 The transition rate indicates the educational level progression and retention of children in the educational system. Table 3.13 and Table 3.14 below indicate that the overall transition rate from primary to secondary schools is low, with only less than 50 percent of primary graduates entering secondary cycle. In addition, it dropped from 46 percent in 1991 to 40 percent in 1999. In the meantime, girls have a lower transition rate than boys.

Table 3.13: Primary to Secondary School Transition Rates by Sex, 1991-2000

Year in Year in Enrollment in Std 8 (in 1000s) Enrollment in Form I (in 1000s) % Transit to Form I Std 8 Form I Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1990 1991 210.4 174.1 384.5 95.5 76.1 171.6 45.4 43.7 44.6 1991 1992 207.3 173.7 381.0 97.3 78.1 175.4 46.9 45.0 46.0 1992 1993 195.0 198.8 393.8 81.5 69.6 151.1 41.8 35.0 38.4 1993 1994 210.4 185.3 395.7 90.8 78.1 168.9 43.2 42.1 42.7 1994 1995 212.5 190.3 402.8 96.4 83.6 180.0 45.4 43.9 44.1 1995 1996 211.6 194.0 405.6 97.4 85.9 183.3 46.0 44.3 45.2 1996 1997 217.3 199.0 416.3 98.5 88.6 187.1 45.3 44.5 44.9 1997 1998 224.6 209.3 433.9 102.4 92.8 195.3 45.6 44.3 45.0 1998 1999 221.0 215.3 436.3 89.6 84.3 173.9 40.5 39.1 39.9 1999 2000 228.6 216.6 445.2 93.6 84.8 178.4 40.9 39.2 40.1

3.17 The low transition rates from the primary to the secondary level are arguably due to several factors including the limited number of places at the secondary level, low quality of some of the existing secondary schools, much higher cost at the secondary level, and lack of perceived incentives to continue education with unpromising employment opportunities.

3.18 The transition rate also varies across provinces and across districts within regions. The Westem Province has nearly a 50 percent transition rate, while in Nairobi, less than 30 percent of Standard 8 students progress to the secondary level. There are large disparities across districts within provinces. For example, in the Western Province, Kakamega District has a 75 percent transition rate, while Buteremumias District has only 33 percent.

30 Table 3.14: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and Province, 2000 Province STD 8 ( 1999) I Form 1 (2000) Transition rate (YO) Boys Girls Total I Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Coast 16,629 11,907 28,536 4,779 4,053 8,832 28.7 34.0 31.0 Central 38,907 42,134 81,041 19,024 20,349 39,373 48.9 48.3 48.6

Eastem 41,433 44,208 85,641 16,037 15,073 31,110 38.7 34.1 36.3

Nairobi 7,733 7,994 15,727 2,472 2,191 4,663 32.0 27.4 29.6

Rift Valley 54,270 50,253 104,523 19,331 16,459 35,790 35.6 32.8 34.2

Westem 25,279 25,444 50,723 12,892 12,171 25,063 51.0 47.8 49.4

Nyanza 42,233 33,838 76,071 18,104 14,123 32,227 42.9 41.7 42.4

North Eastem 2,155 827 2,982 979 406 1,385 45.4 49.1 46.4

Total 228,639 216,605 445,244 93,618 84,825 178,443 40.9 39.2 40.1

3.19 In summary, the internal efficiency ofprimary and secondary education in Kenya is low. This is reflected in high dropouts and repetitions, and low transition rates between cycles. These efficiency issues are closely related to many aspects ofeducation quality, which will be further analyzed in the next chapter.

Conclusions 3.20 The education system in Kenya has been characterized by low internal efficiency, as indicated by the high grade repetition and dropout rate. At the primary level, although the dropout rate in each grade averages 5 percent, the cumulative effect is quite large. This is arguably related to the late school entry particularly for the children from the poorest households. The grade repetition rate is alarmingly high at primary level, and averages about 14 percent annually between Standards 1 and 7. Although the transition rate from primary to secondary education is low at 40 percent, the internal efficiency at secondary level is relatively better. Eventually 81 percent of the entry cohort complete the secondary cycle, with over 90 percent ofthe graduates graduating on time.

31 Chapter 4 Education Quality

4.1 In this chapter, we look into two aspects ofeducation quality. The first aspect is the adequacy of educational inputs, including curriculum, teaching and learning materials, educational equipment and physical facilities, and most importantly, teaching force. The other aspect is the quality of educational output, which is commonly used in reference to the learning achievement of students and measured by standard test results.

Educational Inputs Curriculum 4.2 Prior to 1984, Kenya had a 7-4-2-3 education system with 7 years ofprimary school, 4 years of lower secondary, 2 years of upper secondary, and minimal 3 years of university. A new education structure, the 8-4-4 system, was introduced in 1984. This new system includes 8 years ofprimary school, 4 years ofsecondary school, and minimum of4 years ofuniversity education.

4.3 A diversified curriculum was introduced together with the 8-4-4 system. Besides the core courses of English and Mathematics, the diversified curriculum at the primary level emphasizes Kiswahili, pre- vocational skills including agriculture, craft, home science, and business education; and development of values and attitudes through courses of religious education, art, and music. There are 13 teaching subjects, and 7 examinable subjects at the primary level to earn the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE).

4.4 At secondary level, the curriculum has a total of 32 courses, with compulsory courses in English, Kiswahili, and mathematics. During Form Iand Form 11, students are required to study 12 subjects. In preparation for Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), students in Form I11 and IV take a maximum of 8 subjects, 7 ofwhich must be (a) the three compulsory courses, (b) two science subjects, (c) one humanities subject among geography, history and government, religious education, and social education and ethics, (d) one subject selected from among agriculture, home science, art and design, music, three foreign languages, seven industrial disciplines, and four business education disciplines. The eighth subject could be either a third science or a subject from the electives in (c) or (d).

4.5 The broad curriculum and extensive selection of subjects require a large amount ofresources to support the system. Training teachers for every subject demands increased financial resources. Offering these courses at school also requires added facilities and equipment, and teaching and learning materials. To make the case worse, many subjects are rarely selected by students, which results in wasted materials. Table 4.1 below shows the number of students by the selection of courses examined. It shows that many courses are chosen by only below 1 percent ofexamination takers.

Subject Code & Name No. % Subject Code & Name No. % 101 English 193,823 100.00 444 Woodwork 1,301 0.67 102 Kiswahili 193,825 100.00 445 Metalwork 368 0.19 121 Mathematics 193,815 99.99 446 Building Construction 867 0.45 231 Biology 177,024 91.33 447 Power Mechanics 322 0.17 232 Physics 54,650 28.20 448 Electricity 497 0.26 233 Chemistry 181,396 93.59 449 Drawing and Design 1,867 0.96 235 Biological Science 28 0.01 450 Aviation Technology 43 0.02 31 1 History and Government 8 1,950 42.28 451 Computer Studies 1,113 0.57

32 ~~

Subject Code & Name NO. % ~ lSubjectCode&Name ~ No. % 312 Geography 109,470 56.48 501 French 1,857 0.96 3 13 Christian Religious Education 65,300 33.69 502 German 334 0.17 3 14 Islamic Religious Education 4,304 2.22 503 Arabic 524 0.27 3 15 Hindu Religious Education 17 0.01 511 Music 2,054 1.06 316 Social Ethics & Education 49,343 25.46 561 Accounting 10,108 5.22 441 Home Science 10,891 5.62 562 Commerce 93,994 48.49 442 Art and Science 1,193 0.62 563 Economics 1,171 0.60 443 Agriculture 97,490 50.30 564 Typing with office Practice 1,012 0.52

Source: KNEC.

4.6 This broad curriculum caused a thin spread of limited resources and left little time and effort for students to study and master the core subjects to gain essential basic shlls. In many cases this is shown by the poor performance on national examinations.

4.7 In addition, the broadened curriculum requires added resources. Given that the allocation of public resources to the sector is already high, cost-sharing is introduced in the late 1980s to call for household contributions and to alleviate government budget constraints. However, with stagnant and even decreasing economic growth and widespread poverty, cost-sharing had made basic education hardly affordable. The negative impact of cost-sharing on school enrollment was gradually becoming evident through the 1990s.

4.8 Setting aside the high cost and waste incurred by a broadened curriculum, whether such curriculum is relevant with regard to the objectives of primary education is also arguable. In many countries where general and vocational secondary education coexist, the employer puts more value on general education level with sufficient literacy and numeracy skills, reasoning, problem-solving oriented personal traits, and, more importantly, sufficient flexibility to adapt to the changing worlung environment and self-leaming capability. These shlls, traits, and flexibility are also always needed for successful self- employment.

4.9 The current curriculum has been under evaluation through the Inspectorate Department and Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC). It has been recognized that there is need to consolidate and reduce the curriculum to fewer, more manageable subjects that allow for effective development of skills. The curriculum reform has already started with the reduction of the number of subjects examined in KCPE from 7 to 5, and KCSE from 8 to 7. Broad guidelines have also been developed to encourage the adaptation of the curricula to the local environment with strengthened support to effective teaching- learning to ensure that leamers gain relevant knowledge and skills. The reformed curriculum at primary level is being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5, and Form Iin 2003; Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1in 2004; Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006.

Teachers 4.10 Teaching resources are one of the most important inputs into the education system. The teacher is the locus of classroom instructional activity and curriculum delivery. Therefore, he or she is an important determinant of education quality.

Availability and distribution of teachers 4.1 1 Table 4.2 shows the number of primary school teachers by qualification. In 2000, the primary school enrollment was 5,867,426, with the pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) at a national average of 33:l. After the implementation of the FPE policy in 2003, the enrollment surge has pushed the PTR to close to 39: 1

33 in public primary schools. Although the utilization of teachers at the aggregated level seems to be more efficient under this circumstance, the allocation of teachers across schools, districts, and regions is another important issue that needs much attention.

4.12 Before 1997, all teachers who graduated from various colleges were immediately employed by the Teacher Service Commission (TSC). In 1997, teacher employment was suspended. On the resumption of teacher employment in 2001, teacher employment was decentralized so teachers were employed on demand by a particular district and school. One of the conditions is that the teacher remains in that district and school for a minimum of five years before being considered for a transfer. This new approach was designed to regulate the employment of teachers on the basis of teacher demand and position vacancies, and help solve the perennial problem of understaffing and overstaffing coexistence in certain areas.

4.13 Therefore, theoretically, current staffing is based on the needs of the approved establishment. Official staffing criteria is based on 1.025 teachers per class, and each one handling all thirteen subjects. Given the normal class size of 40 students, the past PTR of 33: 1 may reflect an increased need in teachers due to the broad curriculum. Therefore, the current reduction of the number of subjects at this level would ensure that the gradual increase of PTR, which would have minimal negative impact on education quality.

Table 4.2: Numbers of Primary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2003

~ ~~ Qualifications 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003 Graduate 31 164 193 176 Approved 2,159 1,651 2,594 2,635 19,223

SVDiploma 15,385 19,744 18,942 17,970 69 1 PI 120,238 127,610 125,490 121,002 127,538

P2 30,917 29,085 27,673 26,262 25,696

P3 7,270 6,532 5,301 4,946 4,428

P4 34 1,114

Total trained 176,034 185,736 180,164 173,008 171,752

Total untrained 10,556 6,570 6,448 5,894 3,108 Grand total 186,590 192,306 186,612 178,902 180,860 178,037'' Source: Teacher Service Commission (TSC).

4.14 There is a wide variation of the number of teachers relative to the number of pupils across districts; however, the variation is largely hidden at the provincial level (Table 4.3). For example, in Rift Valley Province's Baringo District, every 21 pupils have one teacher on average. In the same province, Eldoret Municipality has a PTR of 47: 1. Similarly, in Eastem Province, the PTR varies between 24: 1 in South Meru and 50: 1 in Moyale." This uneven distribution may reflect that in practice the deployment of teachers does not strictly follow need. It is often noted that in areas with arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), and other hardship areas where understaffing occurs, teachers are unwilling to be posted there in spite of additional hardship allowances.

loFigure from 2003 primary school census, not TSC payroll. This may be an underestimate since school returns are not 100 percent. We are still using 2000 data. Enrollment by district is available for school year 2003. However teacher data is still under processing.

34 Table 4.3: Pupil-Teacher Ratio by District and Province 200312 DISTRICT NAME ENROLLMENT GROSS NO. OF PUPIL ENROLLEM TEACHERS TEACHER ENT RATIO RATIO (PTR) ("/.I

1 Coast MALINDI 63,978 95.80 1,185 54 2 Coast KILIFI 124,660 89.40 2,533 49.2 3 Coast MOMBASA 62,131 57.70 1,422 43.7 4 Coast KWALE 107,538 85.90 2,48 1 43.3 5 Coast TAITA TAVETA 62,736 107.30 1,78 1 35.2 6 Coast LAMU 16,249 93.60 518 31.4 7 Coast TANA RIVER 23,877 5 1.20 809 29.5 Coast Total 461,169 82.10 10,729 43 8 Central MARAGUA 1 1 1,93 1 113.50 2,865 39.1 9 Central KIAMBU 137,196 89.90 3,536 38.8 10 Central THIKA DISTRICT 120,888 95.50 3,146 38.4 11 Central NYANDARUA 13 1,702 105.70 3,577 36.8 12 Central THIKA MUN. 13,128 95.50 382 34.4 13 Central KIRINYAGA 95,957 100.50 2,934 32.7 14 Central MLJRANGA 93,997 108.20 2,881 32.6 15 Central NYERI 146,585 100.70 4,596 31.9 Central 851,384 100.90 23,917 35.6 Total 16 Eastem MOYALE* 12,249 80.90 247 49.6 17 Eastem MERU N. (NYAMBENE) 159,585 102.60 3,381 47.2 18 Eastem MWINGI 103,727 123.30 2,733 38 19 Eastem MACHAKOS 272,635 118.90 7,209 37.8 20 Eastem KIWI 163,107 1 17.40 4,476 36.4 21 Eastem MAKUENI 249,528 117.90 6,85 1 36.4 22 Eastem MARSABIT 16,047 5 1.40 444 36.1 23 Eastem THARAKA 31,589 125.50 1,029 30.7 24 Eastem MBEERE* 51,211 114.80 1,734 29.5 25 Eastem EMBU 6 1,750 102.20 2,155 28.7 26 Eastern ISIOLO 16,097 63.70 622 25.9 27 Eastern MERU CENTRAL 102,483 97.40 4,040 25.4 28 Eastem MERU S (NITHI) 50,021 102.80 2,087 24 Eastern Total 1,290,029 109.80 37,008 34.9 29 Nairobi NAIROBI 194,013 61.50 4,030 48.1 Nairobi Total 194,013 61.50 4,030 48.1 30 Rift Valley ELDORET MUN, 28,155 100.20 598 47.1 31 Rift Valley TRANS-NZOIA 156,993 113.60 3,474 45.2 32 Rift Valley BOMET 113,129 106.40 2,589 43.7 33 Rift Valley NAKURU MUN. 40,885 102.50 940 43.5 34 Rift Valley TRANS-MARA 43,127 89.40 1,000 43.1 35 Rift Valley WEST-POKOT 72,784 88.40 1,707 42.6 36 Rift Valley KITALE MUN. 13,090 113.60 308 42.5 37 Rift Valley NAROK 80,193 82.10 1,965 40.8 38 Rift Valley BURET1 93,634 116.00 2,364 39.6 39 Rift Valley NAKURU 244,9 15 102.50 6,197 39.5 40 Rift Valley KERICHO 134,787 115.00 3,487 38.7

12 Only public schools are included, with total enrollment of 6.9 million.

35 41 Rift Valley TURKANA 36,594 32.60 949 38.6 42 Rift Valley KAJIADO 66,775 69.10 1,762 37.9 43 Rift Valley SAMBURU 24,05 1 61.70 682 35.3 44 Rift Valley UASIN GISHU 118,812 100.20 3,390 35 45 Rift Valley NAND1 169,962 116.60 5,049 33.7 46 Rift Valley MARAKWET 47,809 129.20 1,452 32.9 47 Rift Valley LAIKIPIA 73,425 93.90 2,326 31.6 48 Rift Valley KEIYO 49,488 137.50 1,629 30.4 49 Rift Valley KOIBATEK 43,103 126.20 1,803 23.9 50 Rift Valley BARING0 73,670 100.90 3,499 21.1 Rift Valley Total 1,725,381 98.10 47,170 36.6 51 Western BUTEREiMUMIAS 134,389 108.80 2,744 49 52 Western BUNGOMA 292,524 128.10 6,049 48.4 53 Western MT ELGON 48,335 132.00 1,017 47.5 54 Western TESO 53,046 113.40 1,134 46.8 55 Western BUSIA 108,869 11 1.70 2,338 46.6 56 Western KAKAMEGA 18 1,430 117.00 4,05 1 44.8 57 Western LUGARI 70,601 122.00 1,627 43.4 58 Western VIHIGA 159,028 118.40 3,939 40.4 Western Total 1,048,222 119.10 22,899 45.8 59 Nyanza KISUMU MUN. 64,229 101.90 1,266 50.7 60 Nyanza KURIA 46,803 1 17.20 969 48.3 61 Nyanza MIGORI 157,855 123.90 3,370 46.8 62 Nyanza RACHUONYO 116,195 141.60 2,495 46.6 63 Nyanza SIAYA 149,25 1 118.80 3,322 44.9 64 Nyanza NYANDO 94,912 127.40 2,259 42 65 Nyanza HOMABAY 93,580 127.70 2,247 41.6 66 Nyanza SUBA 45,057 116.20 1,144 39.4 67 Nyanza KISII 130,062 101.20 3,303 39.4 68 Nyanza BOND0 7 1,990 119.70 1,849 38.9 69 Nyanza KISUMU DISTRICT 55,460 101.90 1,436 38.6 70 Nyanza GUCHA 125,686 101.90 3,261 38.5 71 Nyanza NYAMIRA 13 1,807 98.30 4,062 32.4 Nyanza Total 1,282,887 114.00 30,983 41.4 72 North MANDERA 24,771 33.00 439 56.4 Eastern 73 North IJARA 4,299 19.60 79 54.4 Eastern 74 North GAR1S SA 16,654 19.60 342 48.7 Eastern 75 North WAJIR 18,724 19.50 44 1 42.5 Eastern

North Eastern Total 64.448-7 ~ 23.20 1,301 49.5

TOTAL 6,917,533,, 99.70 178.037 38.9 Source: TSC.

4.15 School level teacher distribution also shows that distribution of teachers is not strictly according to the school size. On the average, schools have about 400 pupils and the numbers of teachers range from 5 to 16. Figure 4.1 is a scatter plot of the number of teachers versus the number of students of each school covered in school census 2000. The dispersion of the number of teachers for schools with the same enrollment size is quite wide. This does not only reflect the system management issue, which will be covered in detail in Chapter 6, but also shows that although teacher availability is not an issue at the aggregate level, and lack ofteaching staff is still a prevalent threat to educ2ion quality in many schools.

36 Figure 4.1: School Level Teacher Distribution In Relation to Number of Pupils at Primary Level

0 63 i

0 0

0 00

00 I

0 0 0 0

I I I I 7 1859 Studentno 4.16 The total number ofteachers by qualification at the secondary level is shown in Table 4.4. Most ofthe secondary school teachers are trained graduate teachers. The number of teachers relative to pupils on the secondary level is listed in Table 4.5. The overall pupil teacher ratio is around 16:l in 2000. Therefore, aggregated teacher resources at the secondary level are adequate. Compared to the primary level, there is also less variation in the pupil teacher ratio across the provinces as well as the districts.

4.17 The number ofteachers required in public secondary schools is basically determined by the total number of periods per week of learning time, teacher’s required class contact time, and the class size. The general formula is (class size X teacher’s class contact time)/learning time. For Anglophone African countries, with and average class size of 40 to 45 students, learning time 30 periods a week, and teachers’ contact time of 24-27 on average per week, the PTR norm is between 30:l to 40:l. Kenya has comparable levels ofteachers class contact time and class size. However, under the broad curriculum, the total number ofrequired learning periods per week is as many as 45. Another factor that brings the PTR even lower is that there are many practical courses under the curriculum, which further requires much smaller class size for teaching and learning.

4.18 Although the aggregated teacher number does not reflect the scarcity ofteacher resources at this level, critical teacher shortages exist in subjects such as English, mathematics, Kiswahili, physics, chemistry, biology, commerce and agriculture. Most of these shortages are in Eastern, Nyanza, the Rift Valley, and Western Provinces. A thorough study would be required to project for a balanced teacher supply in the future.

37 Table 4.4: Number of Secondary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2001

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Trained: Graduate 23,265 29,388 24,419 24,153 28,628 Approved Teachers 3,103 5,222 5,161 12,408 SYDiploma 11,031 10,134 8,667 8,579 1,696 Technical 870 778 1,115 1,104 270 P1 158 137 88 Total trained 38,427 40,437 39,423 38,997 43,090 Total untrained 5,951 3,257 1,359 1,093 1,853 Grand total 44.378 43,694 40,782 40,090 44,943 Source: TSC.

Table 4.5: Distribution of Secondary School Teachers across Provinces and Districts, 2000

Trained Pupil Trained Pupil Teacher Enrollment Teachers Untrained Total Teachers Teacher Ratio Teachers Ratio

KIAMBU 30,501 1,960 48 2,008 15.6 15.2 KIRMYAGA 15,443 996 27 1,023 15.5 15.1 MARAGUA 16,347 836 13 849 19.6 19.3 MURANGA 17,526 968 29 997 18.1 17.6 NYANDARUA 16,139 1,078 28 1,106 15.0 14.6 NYERI 33,283 1,986 39 2,025 16.8 16.4 THIKA DISTRICT 17,647 1,058 29 1,087 16.7 16.2 Total Central 146,886 8,882 213 9,095 16.5 16.2

KILIFI 7,273 433 12 445 16.8 16.3 KWALE 5,851 309 19 328 18.9 17.8 LAMU 1,010 67 3 70 15.1 14.4 MALINDI 2,159 120 8 128 18.0 16.9 MOMBASA 5,827 438 16 454 13.3 12.8 TAITA TAVETA 8,843 538 14 552 16.4 16.0 TANA RIVER 2,119 125 6 131 17.0 16.2 Total Coast 33,082 2,030 78 2,108 16.3 15.7

EMBU 10,526 662 12 674 15.9 15.6 ISIOLO 1,081 94 4 98 11.5 11.0 KITUI 13,275 768 21 789 17.3 16.8 MACHAKOS 28,545 1,573 53 1,626 18.1 17.6 MAKUENI 25,094 1,438 50 1,488 17.5 16.9 MARSABIT 8 90 39 1 40 22.8 22.3 MBEERE 4,478 278 10 288 16.1 15.5 MERU CENTRAL 14,501 1,045 18 1,063 13.9 13.6 MERU NORTH 6,272 424 17 44 1 14.8 14.2 MERU SOUTH 7,791 486 17 503 16.0 15.5 MOYALE 177 10 1 11 17.7 16.1 MWMGI 3,190 21 1 12 223 15.1 14.3 THARAKA 1,425 67 3 70 21.3 20.4 Total Eastern 117,245 7,095 219 7,314 16.5 16.0 Nairobi 18,026 1,569 18 1,587 11.5 11.4

38 GARISSA 1,920 100 16 116 19.2 16.6 MANDERA 1,359 76 3 79 17.9 17.2 WAJIR 1,823 67 2 69 27.2 26.4 Total North Eastern 5,102 243 21 264 21.0 19.3

BOND0 4,448 284 4 288 15.7 15.4 GUCHA 16,806 780 13 793 21.5 21.2 HOMABAY 5,102 275 4 279 18.6 18.3 KISII 18,578 969 28 997 19.2 18.6 KISUMU DISTRICT 10,412 738 24 762 14.1 13.7 KURIA 2,242 130 2 132 17.2 17.0 MIGORI 8,908 553 10 563 16.1 15.8 NYAMIRA 24,941 1,126 31 1,157 22.2 21.6 NYANDO 7,421 478 9 487 15.5 15.2 RACHUONYO 6,196 322 11 333 19.2 18.6 SIAYA 11,593 669 22 69 1 17.3 16.8 SUBA 1,835 162 3 165 11.3 11.1 Total Nyanza 118,482 6,486 161 6,647 18.3 17.8

BARINGO 5,743 329 9 338 17.5 17.0 BOMET 7,700 385 7 392 20.0 19.6 BURET 9,577 409 12 42 1 23.4 22.7 KAJIADO 3,857 239 10 249 16.1 15.5 KEIYO 8,052 420 19 439 19.2 18.3 KERICHO 10,305 589 15 604 17.5 17.1 KOIBATEK 4,324 256 9 265 16.9 16.3 LAIKIPIA 7,640 461 7 468 16.6 16.3 MARAKWET 3,674 189 12 201 19.4 18.3 NAKURU DISTRICT 23,743 1,539 28 1,567 15.4 15.2 NAND1 12,896 752 31 783 17.1 16.5 NAROK 3,592 176 10 186 20.4 19.3 SAMBURU 1,450 88 3 91 16.5 15.9 TRANS-MARA 1,668 78 5 83 21.4 20.1 TRANS-NZOIA 9,237 521 13 534 17.7 17.3 TURKANA 2,367 154 5 159 15.4 14.9 UASINGISHU 11,185 694 15 709 16.1 15.8 WEST-POKOT 3,402 240 5 245 14.2 13.9 Total Rift Valley 130,412 1,519 215 7,134 11.3 16.9

BUNGOMA 26,310 1,527 62 1,589 17.2 16.6 BUSIA 6,665 383 18 40 1 17.4 16.6 BUTEREMUMIAS 6,939 387 15 402 17.9 17.3 KAKAMEGA 13,533 787 23 810 17.2 16.7 LUGARVMALAVA 9,251 543 12 555 17.0 16.7 MT ELGON 2,926 138 7 145 21.2 20.2 TESO 3,742 230 5 235 16.3 15.9 VIHIGA 22,3 14 1,178 26 1,204 18.9 18.5 Total Western 91,680 5,113 168 5,341 11.1 17.2 Grand Total 660,915 38,997 1,093 40,090 16.9 16.5 Source: TSC.

39 Teacher Attrition 4.19 Comparing the teacher attrition rate and the total number of trained teachers recently out of training colleges and universities will determine the dynamics of teacher supply. Attrition in teaching consists of voluntary and compulsory retrenchment resignations, dismissal, transfer of services to the central Government, medical reasons, or death. Attrition due to compulsory retirement is the first reason for staff reduction followed by death, which accounted for 27.1 percent. The current teacher attrition rate is estimated at 3.3 percent per year. With the emergence of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, death among the teaching force has become an significant phenomenon, and addressing the potential understaffing due to attrition is important. Table 4.6 below indicates the reasons for teachers leaving the profession according to reason and sex.

Table 4.6: Reasons for Teachers Leaving Service (YO)

Reasons Total Male Female Compulsory retirement 27.1 31.0 17.0 Death 17.3 17.4 17.0 Other resignations 16.3 13.2 24.5 Dismissal on disciplinary grounds 11.6 11.0 13.2 Voluntary retirement 10.1 10.3 9.4 Transfer of service to central govemment 9.8 11.7 4.7 Release to private institutions 4.9 3.9 7.5 Resignation due to marriage 1.6 5.7 Retirement on medical grounds 1.3 1.4 0.9 Total 100 100 100 Source: MoEST (1995).

Teacher Training and QualiJication 4.20 As shown in Table 4.2 and Table 4.4, the majority ofprimary and secondary schools have trained teachers compared to schools with only 1.7 percent and 4.1 percent of untrained teachers, respectively. The introduction of parallel degree programs has also contributed to the increase in teachers with upgraded qualifications.

4.21 There are 29 public and 8 private colleges that give pre-service education and training to primary teachers in two-year residential courses. The annual output of qualified teachers is about 10,000. The public colleges also provide a three-year in-service upgrading program, both residential and distance learning, catering to teachers in-service.

4.22 At the secondary level, teachers are trained in two public diploma colleges for 3 years. In the meantime, the faculties of education in four public and one private university offer 4-year Bachelor of Education programs , The output of secondary schoolteachers is estimated at 700 per year. The majority of teacher trainers have been trained in general methods but not in special methods for the various levels. Many teacher trainers, especially in the primary teachers training colleges have been redeployed from administrative positions. This is often argued as negatively affecting the quality of the teachers trained at these teacher training colleges.

4.23 Although a majority of primary and secondary schoolteachers are formally trained, attention should also be paid to teaching quality in practice. Qualifications and quality are correlated, but not equivalent. Further study may be needed in this area to evaluate any improvements needed in overall teacher quality in relation to the improvement ofoverall student learning outcome.

40 Teaching and learning materials 4.24 The availability of educational materials has a major bearing on educational outcomes. According to “National Policy on Textbooks Publication, Procurement, and Supply for Primary Schools”, MoEST specifies that the book-pupil ratio should reach 3:l in grades 1-5, and 2:l in grades 6-8. However, surveys carried out in Kenya (SAQMEC13 2001) showed that there was a critical shortage of textbooks. For example, more than three-quarters of the graded 6 students surveyed reported a lack of textbooks (See Table 4.7). In addition, there were rarely any class or school libraries that would provide access to more textbooks (Table 4.8).

Table 4.7: Availability of Textbooks

YOreport lack of textbook Standard Deviation Mean (St. D.) Coast 76.2 5.3 Central 76.1 4.33 Eastem 79.0 4.62 Nairobi 42.9 5.92 North Eastem 77.5 4.48 Nyanza 73.7 5.12 Rift Valley 72.8 5.57 Westem 84.6 4.29 Total 75.7 2.04

4.25 The availability of textbooks and learning materials was perhaps the most constraining resource to educational quality, particularly in rural schools in Kenya. Textbooks, whether designed for use in activities led by the teacher or independently by the students, offer the most explicit instructional design formats. Thus, the availability of these materials has implications for immediate quality improvements in the educational system. Regarding the availability of textbooks, two major cost issues exist: the first relates to the production and distribution of the books, and the second relates to textbook financing. Textbook costs are determined by the publishing capacity of the country, the transportation, infiastructure, and administrative capacity for the management of distribution activities. Obtaining textbooks in Kenya used to be the sole responsibility of the parents where the burden was even higher, considering that they have to meet the extra distribution cost of delivering books to remote or rural areas.

l3“ The Quality of Education: Some Policy Suggestions Based on a Survey ofSchools”. (SACMEQ policy research report no. 6, Nzomo, Kariuki, and Guantai.) The survey randomly selected 185 schools to examine different aspects ofthe teaching and learning process. The standard 6 classes are included in the survey.

41 Table 4.8: Availability of Classroom and School Libraries

YOof Classrooms w/ Class Library YOSchool wAchool Library Mean St. D. mean St. D. Coast 13.4 7.18 10.1 7.15 Central 36.6 9.68 38 10.31 Eastem 24.8 7.82 26.6 8.42 Nairobi 42.2 9.61 68.1 11.67 North Eastem 41.3 13.32 52.3 15.13 Nyanza 35.7 11.31 65.2 11.59 Rift Valley 44.9 10.73 41.4 10.7 Westem 30.7 10.79 41.9 11.97 Total 34 4.14 41.5 4.33

4.26 Together with lack of textbooks, lack of exercise books, notebooks, and other learning materials was also prevalent, according to the same SACMEQ study (Table 4.9).

Table 4.9: Availability of Other Learning Materials

Exercise book Notebook Pencils Rulers Erasers 3allpoint pen As % needed as YOneeded as YOneeded as YOneeded as YOneeded as YOneeded 13 pp 7 pp 1 pp 1 pp lpp lpp Mean St.D. Hean St.D. Mean St.D. Mean St.D. Mean St.D. Mean St.D. Coast 25.7 5.98 8.2 3.34 86.4 3.13 77.6 3.84 59.7 4.03 87.5 2.89 Central 30.7 4.83 16.9 3.63 94.1 2.19 87.5 2.69 70.8 4.99 90.8 3.09 Eastem 25.4 4.99 18.6 3.76 87.6 4.72 75.8 4.81 65.2 4.87 85.8 4.67 Nairobi 55 6.38 14.2 3.04 95.7 1.76 87 2.78 78.9 3.95 91.3 3.16 North Eastem 13.9 3.18 13.8 4.71 93.6 2.07 76.9 8.48 60.1 8.86 89.5 4.61 Nyanza 22.3 4.62 10.8 4.45 88.1 4.59 73.4 4.98 70.8 6.01 91.6 4.4 Rift Valley 24.9 6.76 22:7 4.29 90.2 5.44 79.5 5.1 73.5 5.23 90.8 5.4 Westem 15.6 6.17 24.1 5.95 91.5 1.37 71.7 4.13 59.8 4.97 88.7 2.44 Total 25 2.29 17.8 1.8 90.1 1.76 78 1.85 68.3 2.15 89.5 1.81 Source: SACMEQ (2001) Report no. 6.

4.27 To improve the availability oftextbooks and other instructional materials, and lower the high cost involved, the government has started a primary school textbook project with donor support. Over the last 3 years, the program has introduced major reforms in the textbook procurement and distribution systems. The current DFID education support program supports the implementation of the new textbook policy: Textbook preparation and publication have been liberalized; the principle of the shared use of textbooks has been accepted; approved lists of textbooks are now available; and there has been full financial decentralization of textbook procurement to school committees. DFID support has matched governmental allocations for primary textbook funding; and both government and DFID funds are transferred directly to schools to purchase textbooks.

4.28 Most recently, in response to the request for support by the Kenyan Government to implement the FPE policy, The World Bank has approved US$40 million grants to meet the increased demand for textbooks and other learning materials following the primary enrollment surge in the 2003 school year. The bulk of the grant will be used for the scaling-up of the GoKDFID textbook program, which is aimed at reaching 1:3 and 1:2 book-pupil ratio nationwide at lower and upper primary education, respectively.

42 The fund will also support the provision of instructional materials, including exercise books, pencils, registration books, teacher guides, dictionaries, maps, etc., to meet the minimum standard specified by MoEST for the essential support needed for quality education.

Physical Facilities 4.29 School physical facilities provide the basic teaching and learning environment. The same SACMEQ survey has provided an overview of the current situation in Kenya..

4.30 Table 4.10 and Table 4.11 present the availability of basic school and classroom facilities. The benchmark for classroom furniture included sitting and writing places, one per pupil; and a chalkboard, one per class. The findings of the survey show that school sitting and writing places are quite adequate. However, much furniture needs to be repaired. Schools also tend to be overcrowded with regard to small to average classroom space per pupil with extremely crowded sanitary facilities shared by pupils.

Table 4.10: Availability of Classroom Furniture

Sitting places as YOneeded Writing places as YOneeded Chalkboard as YOneeded Mean St. D. Mean St. D. Mean St. D. Coast 100.0 0.00 91.4 3.10 97.3 2.63 Central 99.2 0.48 79.1 5.85 90.5 5.61 Eastem 98.7 0.50 82.5 3.69 99.6 1.46 Nairobi 100 0.00 84.6 7.75 96.0 3.99 North Eastem 86.2 11.33 59.3 12.99 100 0.00 Nyanza 100 0.00 89.5 2.72 100 0.00 Rift Valley 99.7 0.52 90.9 1.99 89.7 8.1 Westem 99.6 0.37 90.1 2.48 100 0.00 Total 99.4 0.20 86.6 1.45 95.1 2.07

YOof major classroom #of students repairs needed space per pupil (mz/pupil) per toilet Mean St. D. Mean St. D. Mean St. D. Coast 34.6 11.09 2.1 0.7 1 73.8 9.03 Central 25.4 9.75 1.5 0.15 30.5 1.89 Eastem 35.4 9.02 1.7 0.18 37.6 4.29 Nairobi 31.6 10.62 2.2 0.69 36.2 5.49 North Eastem 64.9 13.87 0.7 0.15 91.7 17.48 Nyanza 80.5 8.64 1.o 0.13 66.8 5.08 Rift Valley 45.5 10.66 1 .o 0.14 45.5 4.74 Westem 73.6 10.74 1.8 0.69 57.9 7.52 Total 49.5 4.15 1.4 0.12 55.0 6.94 Source: SACMEQ (2001) Report no. 6.

4.31 However, these results from the SACMEQ survey only reflected the conditions in 2001. Following the enrollment increase in 2003 at primary level, there have been many reported cases of classroom shortage in schools, particularly in urban areas. Based on the school-level information collected early this year, the total number of classrooms nationwide is quite adequate, with an average

43 pupil-classroom ratio of 36:l. However, the classroom distribution is quite uneven in relation to enrollment in the districts. For example, the pupil-classroom ratio is as high as 66:l in the Malindi district in Coastal Province, and 71:l in Kisumu Municipality (See Annex, Table A. 2).

Measuring Academic Performance 4.32 Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) and Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) are national standard tests that evaluate student achievement as related to curriculum objectives. Both examinations also serve the purpose of certification and selection for progression to higher education levels.

Kenya Certificate ofPrimary Education (KCPE) 4.33 The scope of the examinations is very wide. Under 8-4-4 system, KCPE has been expanded to seven areas: English, Kiswahili, mathematics, science and agriculture, geography, history, civics (GHC), and religious education; art, crafts and music, and home science and business education. The KCPE raw scores are standardized with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 15. Compared with raw scores, standardized scores are easy to use for a certain school or district to compare its ranking in performance from year to year. However, raw scores are more useful in evaluating the percentage of the curriculum students actually grasp. Absolute performance (vs. ranlung) comparisons across subjects or over time will have to use raw scores. The Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) issues both rankings of schools based on standardized scores, and KCPE Newsletter with raw scores to help schools identify weak subjects and encourage them to improve teaching and learning results.

Figure 4.2: Comparison of Candidates Mean Performance in the Year 2001 and 2000 KCPE Examinations

80% I I i ......

English English kswahili ffiswahili Maths Science GHCRE Objective Comp Objective Insha

Subjects

Source: KNEC Comp.: Composition Insha: Comosition GHCRE : “Geography, History & Civics &Religious Education”

4.34 Figure 4.2 shows the mean percentage (raw) scores in the 2000-2001 school year. The overall score is below 70 percent. Among core courses, such as Kiswahili, the objective is better than in English and mathematics, with English composition having the lowest score, around 35 percent.

4.35 KNEC data from 2001 also shows that, in general, private schools perform better than public schools. The top 30 KCPE performance schools include 27 private schools, with only 3 public schools ranking 4thout of 25.

44 4.36 School ranking also changes from year to year. Although the available data is not sufficient to draw the determinants of district level ranking, it is often argued that household soci0-economic background, availability of learning materials, and the experience and qualifications of teachers all contribute to the pattern. It is also found that repeaters do better in KCPE (Appleton 1995).

Kenya Certificate ofSecondary Education (KCSE) 4.37 KCSE requires that student take 8 subjects, 7 of which must include: (a) the three compulsory courses--English, Kiswahili, and mathematics; (b) two science subjects; (c) one humanities subject from amonggeography, history and government, religious education, social education, and ethics; (d) one subject selected from among agriculture, home science, art and design, music, three foreign languages, seven industrial disciplines, and four business education disciplines. The eighth subject could be either a third science or a subject from the electives in (c) or (d).

4.38 Table 4.12 shows the scores of five core subjects between 1992-2001. According the KNEC data, the majority of KCSE participants absorb less than 30 percent of the KCSE syllabus content. In addition, over the past ten years, there is no significant improvement in the core course results. The extremely low score in mathematics is particularly worrisome.

Table 4.12: Examination Performance in English, Maths, Physics, Biology and Chemistry at KCSE 1992-2001 Subject 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 English 32.6 33.0 28.4 28.0 32.1 34.9 31.8 31.4 34.8 34.6 Maths 12.0 14.3 11.0 12.9 17.9 16.2 17.3 12.1 16.0 18.5 Physics 23.0 28.1 27.4 33.7 23.6 26.4 29.5 29.9 31.1 24.5 Biology 18.2 27.4 31.8 29.8 32.3 30.8 30.0 31.0 31.9 32.0 Chemistry 32.4 30.8 31.8 30.5 25.1 26.6 25.7 28.6 29.7 26.4 Source: KNEC Records.

4.39 Table 4.13 shows performance by gender in English, math and science in 2001. Girls did better than boys in English, Swahili, and chemistry, but boys performed much better in maths and other science subjects.

Table 4.13: Performance by Gender, 2001

Subject Code & Name Female Male #of students Mean % # of student Mean % 101 English 89,484 34.71 104,339 34.44 102 Kiswahili 89,486 44.72 104,339 43.34 121 Mathematics 89,481 15.83 104,334 2 1.20 231 Biology 85,499 29.52 91,525 34.48 232 Physics 16,225 22.22 38,425 26.84 96,862 23.41 Source: KNEC Statistics.

4.40 KCPE and KCSE are designed to measure learning outcomes in relation to curriculum objectives. Although the outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students seem to do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results shows that Kenyan 6*-graders perform well on both reading and maths tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and maths, respectively (Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4). Although Kenyan students are doing relatively better than other SACMEQ countries, there is general concerns among education officers, teachers and parents that the education quality is not satisfactory by international standards. For example, although Kenya has not participated the “Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)”, the participating

45 South Africa could provide a useful benchmark. The low performance of South African students is particularly alarming as South Africa is generally considered the highest performer in Sub-Sahara Africa

Figure 4.3: SACMEQ Reading Scores, 2000

Seychelles Kenya Tanzania Mauritius Swaziland Batswana Mozambique Uganda Lesotho Namibia

400 450 500 550 600

Figure 4.4: SACMEQ Maths Scores, 2000

Mauritius 568 Kenya Seychelles Mozambique Tanzania Swaziland Batswana Uganda Lesotho Namibia

400 450 500 550 600

4.41 The differentials of the results of the public examinations such as KCPE and KCSE, and the standard learning assessment such as SACMEQ are arguably due to the biasness of public examinations in measuring learning outcome as they also serve the purpose of selecting students for the next cycle of education. The selection requires certain degree of difficulty of the testing items so as to differentiate the top students. In the meantime, to emphasize the accountability of schools and teachers in the quality of education service delivery, the public examinations also bear the objective of differentiating schools with various performance. This also requires certain level of difficulty ofthe examinations.

4.42 In summary, there are several areas of education quality that need special attention at both the primary and secondary levels. The provision of textbooks and other critical teaching and learning materials, and curriculum revision are two of the key areas that have received crucial investment recently. Further evaluation of learning outcomes in relation to the educational inputs will require an improved education information system which links data of these assessment results with school, classroom conditions, family background, and individual student learning effort. In particular, the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process needs much attention since the research findings in other developing

46 countries have shown that many “process” factors are important determinants of effective learning and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis is needed in the areas of classroom learning process such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Conclusions 4.43 Although the KCPE and KCSE examination outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results show that Kenyan G*-graders performed well on reading and mathematics tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and mathematics, respectively. The differentials are arguably due to the biasness of public examinations in measuring learning outcome as they also serve the purpose of selecting students for the next cycle of education, and differentiating schools’ performance for accountability purposes. Attentions should also be given to the educational inputs such as teachers, textbooks and instructional materials, curriculum, and learning environment, as they may also contribute directly to the classroom learning effectiveness.

47 Chapter 5 Education Cost and Finance

5.1 Education financing in Kenya encompasses all financial outlays made by central and local governments, the private sector (including NGOs), households, communities and other stakeholders in services and investments in the education sector. This includes public sector financial disbursements to educational institutions to meet personnel emoluments, operations and maintenance expenses, and development expenditures. It also includes financing by parents, families, and communities for items such as fees and other levies, development funds, books, stationery, transportation, etc. Private provision of education, which currently covers only a small proportion, has also contributed to the sector. In addition, many international development partners also provide support to the education sector in Kenya.

5.2 Despite the large amount ofresources allocated to the education sector by the government, access to primary and secondary education had been declining before the implementation of the FPE policy in 2003. Education quality was also going down. This is due partly to the relatively high unit cost of education in the context ofpoor economic performance, and increasing poverty level in the country.

5.3 This chapter will analyze the issues of costs and financing the education sector; the level and composition of the unit cost at each level; the efficiency and equity of the use of resources; and financing sources of education.

Overall Public Finance 5.4 Kenya’s public expenditure as percentage of the GDP declined from 25.6 percent in 199711998 to 23.1 percent in 2002/2003, whereas recurrent expenditure as a percentage ofthe GDP declined from 20.1 percent to 19.2 percent, and development expenditure declined from 5.5 percent to 3.9 percent during the same period. Table 5.1 below summarizes government revenue and expenditure as percentage of the GDP over the years.

Table 5.1: Share of Government Revenue and Expenditure as Percentage of GDP

1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/2002 2002/03

Domestic Revenue 28.7 26.5 22.9 22.7 21.4 22.2 Grants 0.8 0.7 0.5 2.8 0.7 1.6 Total expenditure 25.6 22.3 20.1 23.5 21.8 23.1 Dev. Expenditures 5.5 4.3 2.4 4.0 2.7 3.9 GDP Market prices (Ksh. million) 623,235 694,029 743,479 796,343 882,725 969,354 Source: PER (2003).

5.5 Public expenditure on social services as a proportion of the total government budget has ranged between 24.8 percent to 34.8 percent between 1991-2001. Significant and consistent budgetary allocation towards education has existed since independence. It translates to as high as over 6 percent of GDP during recent years (Table 5.2). Significant investment has been made particularly towards the provision of basic education. As a consequence, notable achievements have been recorded since independence in the education sector in terms of infrastructure, teachers, and student enrollments. Drastic expansion of enrollment, especially at the primary level has partly vindicated the high level ofpublic investment in the sector.

48 Table 5.2: Government Expenditure on Social Services and Education (by percentage)

Education Education Total Social expenditure as YO Year service as Yo of of total GoK expenditure as GoK expenditure Yo of GDP expenditure 199 1/92 24.8 18.8 5.5 1992193 20.3 15.3 5.3 1993194 20.5 15.1 5.4 1994195 24.9 19.2 6.1 1995196 26.0 19.4 6.1 1996197 29.4 20.4 5.7 1997198 30.9 22.6 6.9 1998199 32.6 22.7 6.1 1999100 34.8 26.6 6.1 200010 1 28.4 19.8 5.7 2001/02 19.2 2002103 22.0

Source: QBR, Treasury, June 2001 Edition

Recurrent Government Expenditure on Education Allocation across subsectors 5.6 The commitment of the Government to provide for education is reflected in the large and consistent resource allocations and expenditures in the sector since independence. Even with the country’s economic downturn and tight resource constraints, education remains one of the country’s highest budgetary priority. Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 show the trend of Government expenditure on education during the most recent years. Since 2000/01, the MoEST voted recurrent budget has constituted over 35 percent of the total Government discretionary budget. Furthermore, there was also significant increase in year 2002/03 following the implementation of FPE policy. This increase not only includes primary school grants to support the provision of instructional materials, but also reflects extra resources needed for system management at district as well as central level.

49 Table 5.3: MoEST Recurrent Expenditure by level, 1996/97-2002 in Ksh Millions

2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 Subsector approved estimates Approved Estimates General Administration 1,482.57 1,471.26 2,071.94 3,479.60 and Planning Early childhood 5.94 5.94 7.15 1.43 Education Primary Education 26,245.46 26,443.45 34,611.41 40,788.38 Secondary Education 13,433.84 13,566.87 16,355.47 18,371.93 Teacher Education 129.63 138.90 155.91 215.94 Special Education 103.19 103.78 121.39 187.39 Technical Education 750.92 716.11 889.55 1,108.32 University Education 5,849.69 5,907.1 1 6,795.74 1,470.07 Miscellaneous Services 264.92 229.67 261.13 251.11 Total 48,266,168,982 48,583,741,620 61,269,683,015 71,880,179,400 % of GoK discretionary 0.36 0.35 0.38 0.39 expenditu re14 Source: GoK budget estimates 2000/01-2002/03

Table 5.4: Proportion of Subsector Public Recurrent Expenditure

2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 Subsector approved estimates Approved Estimates General Administration and Planning 0.031 0.030 0.034 0.048 Early childhood Education 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Primary Education 0.544 0.544 0.565 0.567 Secondary Education 0.278 0.279 0.267 0.256 Teacher Education 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 Special Education 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 Technical Education 0.016 0.01s 0.015 0.015 University Education 0.121 0.122 0.111 0.104 Miscellaneous Services 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.003 Total 1.00 1.00 1.oo 1.oo

5.7 The primary subsector has continued to consume the largest share of the overall recurrent expenditure of Ksh 35 billion, followed by secondary education recurrent expenditures of Ksh 16 billion in 2002/03. The estimates for 2003/04 will reach Ksh 41 and 18 billion in these two subsectors. They represent 57 percent and 26 percent of total education recurrent expenditure, re~pectively’~.Although these expenditures have already reflected Government emphasis on basic education, it is expected that the allocation will further increase to fulfill the Government’s commitment towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of poverty reduction, and economic recovery during the next decade.

Allocation across functions and Unit Cost Composition 5.8 Table 5.5 presents the pattern of unit cost evolution in recent years. It also shows the unit cost growth at a constant (1982) price. In real terms, both primary and secondary unit costs increased 27

l4Discretionary expenditure is recurrent expenditure excluding interest payment, pension and gratuities, and other obligations. l5According to the categories in GoK budget book under Vote 3 1. TSC expenditure is subtracted from “general administration, and distributed to primary and secondary subsectors, according to estimated proportions for teacher salaries at either level.

50 percent from 1996/97 to 1997/98. To a large extent, this reflects the teacher salary increase between the two years. However, the simultaneous teacher hiring freeze has also had an impact on reducing the salary component of the unit cost in the following years. In 2000/01, the unit cost at primary level was about US$60, and US$200 at the secondary level. Given US$360 ofcurrent per capita GDP in Kenya, the unit costs are quite high on both levels.

5.9 The recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary levels are predominantly personal emoluments in the form of teacher’s salaries and other benefits. As a result of the 1997 teacher salary review, the expenditure on these two subsectors rose by 49.4 per cent from Ksh 23.5 billion in 1996/97 to Ksh 35.1 billion in 1997/98 and continued to rise gradually up to Ksh 40.8 billion in 2000/2001. At the primary level, nearly 98 percent of the total budget goes to teacher salaries and allowances over the 5 years before 2001, leaving less than 2 percent for operation and maintenance, including spending on programs such as bursaries, school feeding, etc. At the secondary level, 96 percent ofthe budget goes to personnel emolument, leaving less than 4 percent for operation and maintenance, including program such as scholarships.

51 e,

E a

U 8 5.10 Implementation the FPE in 2003 has led to drastic changes in the structure and level of the unit cost at the primary level. It is estimated that the current unit cost at the primary level has reached 5,534 Kshs per pupil. However, the salary component ofthe unit cost is reduced to only a little over 80 percent due to faster growth of enrollment than the number of teachers in the system together with the largely increased nonsalary components due to the school capitation grants.

Teacher resource 5.1 1 As teacher’s salary bill is the largest component of government recurrent expenditure, it is necessary to look further into the details in this area. Expenditures on teachers represents a bulk of public spending, therefore the distribution ofteachers in relation to enrollments will also give us insights into the resource distribution across districts and schools.

(a) Pupil-teacher ratio 5.12 Currently, the staffing in the primary schools does not use PTR as a direct benchmark. Teacher need is determined by the number of classes times 1.025. The advantage of using this formula is that it would guarantee a sufficient number of teachers in sparsely-populated areas where class and school size tends to be small. However, unnecessary low PTRs are also observed in schools with normal sizes.

5.13 Table 5.6 shows the time trend of the numbers of teachers and pupils between 1993 to 2000. The growth of the number of teachers is faster than enrollment growth at primary level between 1993 and 1997. However, mainly due to the policy of hiring suspension of teachers issued in 1997, the teacher growth is slower than enrollment growth in 1999 and 2000. The 2003 enrollment surge has pushed the PTR even higher. The trends of the growth of teachers and enrollment, together with pupil-teacher ratio evolution between 1993 and 2003 are shown in Figure 5.1, with 1993 levels as the base index.

Table 5.6: Number of Teachers and Pupils at Primary Level 1993-2003

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2003 no. of teachers 164,252 169,015 172,793 175,092 186,590 192,306 186,612 178,902 178,037

no. of pupils 5,428.60 5,557.00 5,536.40 5,597.70 5,764.90 5,919.70 5,867.70 5,882.60 6,917,553

PTR 33.05 32.88 32.04 31.97 30.90 30.78 31.44 32.88 38.85

Source: Deolnliknr (1998) and MoEST.

5.14 Figure 5.1 shows that since 1998, PTR has increased fiom 31:l to 33:l in 2000. However, compared with intemational average, this is still low. As teacher is the most important input in teaching-leaming process, this to some extent reflects Kenya’s efforts towards quality education. However, many existing studies show that the marginal contribution of low PTR to effective leaming is negligible up to certain level. This implies that the cost of maintaining a low PTR could exceed the benefit of it after a certain point. Figure 5.2 presents a scatter plot of individual school’s KCPE performance ranking against its PTR17. There does not seem to be a significant correlation between these two variables.

” PTR is derived from school census data. KCPE results data is maintained at KNEC. These two sources use different coding system for schools. School name is used for merging the two datasets. Over 8,500 schools turn out in the merged data set for the graph presented here.

53 Figure 5.1: Growth of Pupils and Teachers at Primary Level, 1993-2003

,I

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

-no ofpupils -no. aftcachas -PTR

5.15 One factor worth mentioning here is the effect of the curriculum on the requirement of teachers. Under the old curriculum, although the staffing policy assumes that a teacher teaches 13 subjects for each class at primary level, the demand for more teachers would perhaps assist schools to cope with the teaching loads of each individual teacher. This would therefore further drive the pupil-teacher ratio down. Following the reform towards a more streamlined curriculum, this pressure on lowering PTR should be relieved soon.

5.16 However, another downward pressure on PTR would appear with the further enrollment expansion. The system expansion would reach further remote areas with more sparsely distributed populations. More small schools would have to be established to improve the availability and accessibility of education in these areas. Alternative teaching method such as multi-grade teaching might be an option for efficient utilization of teachers in this case.

54 Figure 5.2: Primary School KCPE Ranking and PTR

0 0 OO g6j 0 0 0 0 0 0

I I I 1 4 10869 ranking 5. 7 There are a total number of 44,943 teachers at secondary level in school year 2001. it this level, curriculum based establishment is used to plan for teacher requirement at this level. In recent years, the PTR at secondary level stands at around 16: 1, which is low compared with other countries in sub-Sahara Africa. Currently, the secondary curriculum is also being revised to strengthen the core courses. Govemment continuous effort in the area will bring a much streamlined curriculum and more efficient utilization ofteachers at this level.

Table 5.7: Numbers of Primary and Secondary School Teachers by Category

00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 in position estimates in position Estimates

Chief principal teacher 69 69 69 72 Senior principal teacher 100 105 105 106 Principal GraduateiApproved Teacher I 247 300 300 320 Principal GraduateIApproved Teacher I1 700 700 700 780 Senior graduateiapproved Teacher 3,669 9,580 14,776 14,741 Graduate/approved teacher I 4,461 4 1,705 41,705 graduate/approved teacher I1 25,748 5,901 5,901

Untrained graduate teacher 20 26 1,650 1,650 SVDiploma teacheriGraduatelapproved teacher I11 29,877 55,092 2,793 2,793 trained technical teacher 2,281 700 700 700

Approved teacher IV 98 5,658 5,658 5,658 Untrained technical teachericertificate teacher 1,497 900 P 1 teacher 120,469 120,755 121,446 13 1,642 P2 teacher 25,418 27,000 26,500 26,235 P3 teacher 5,294 5,011 5,011 5,011 Untrained teacher 6,000 4,550 3,500 3,500 Total 225,923 230,421 230,789 240,789 Source: GoK Budget Estimates.

55 Table 5.8: Average Annual Salary of Teachers by Category (Kshs)

~~ avg. salary avg. salary avg. salary avg. salary 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 Chief principal teacher 250,776 329,559 286,330 335,244 Senior principal teacher 236,256 334,262 184,937 297,576 Principal Graduate/Approved Teacher I 193,948 25 1,277 225,900 268,128 Principal GraduateiApproved Teacher I1 211,306 211,300 233,910 245,088 Senior graduate/approved Teacher 118,673 167,053 136,659 221,856 Graduate/approved teacher I 202,217 175,020 192,244 graduate/approved teacher I1 157,680 151,620 163,879

Untrained graduate teacher 130,350 137,820 SVDiploma teacherlGraduateiapprovedteacher I11 135,580 165,588’* 130,350 137,820 trained technical teacher 135,580 134,271 130,350 137,820

Approved teacher IV 110,300 109,242 105,456 112,644 Untrained technical teacherkertificate teacher P 1 teacher 94,451 87,633 102,350 102,906 P2 teacher 67,657 64,560 62,670 72,476 P3 teacher 55,640 55,105 55,105 59,628 Untrained teacher 100,733 59,206 58,110 60,180 Total 108,225 108,163 114,152 124,255 Source: GoK Budget Estimates.

(b) Teacher salary level 5.18 Teacher’s total salary bill also depends on the average salary level of teachers. A commonly used comparison is that with the per capital GDP. In 2002103, the annual average salarylg of a Kenyan primary school teacher is about 3.5 times, and that of a secondary school teacher is about 5.5 times of GDP per capita. These basically lie in the regular range of other comparable Sub-Sahara African countries. However, it should be noted that salaries only constitute 60 percent of the total compensation package to the teachers at both levels. Teacher’s benefits include housing, medical, pension, other personal allowances. There is also transferring allowances starting in 2003/04. Taking this into consideration, the average compensation for a primary and a secondary school teacher would be around 6 and 9 times of the GDP per capita respectively.

5.19 It is also useful to evaluate the teacher’s average salary compared with that of other workers in the public sector. Table 5.9 lists and Figure 5.3 graphs the average annual earnings by level of government structure between year 1995 and 2000. Figure 5.4 compares the earnings of civil servant in education services to those in other public sectors.

18 Including Graduate/Approved teacher Iand I1also. A majority of primary school teachers are P1 teachers. Most of the secondary school teachers are SI/Diploma/Graduate/approved teachers.

56 Table 5.9: Average Monthly Earnings in Public Sector by Function

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Central Govemment 3,276 3,791 5,301 5,925 6,394 6,607 TSC 2,582 3,325 5,152 7,498 7,550 7,796 Parastatal Bodies 3,861 4,565 4,995 6,176 7,502 8,253 Majority control by the public sector 4,412 5,903 6,252 7,840 9,800 10,930 Local govemment 3,826 4,599 5,031 6,458 7,703 8,815 Source: Statistical Abstract, 2001. CBS and Ministry of Finance and Planning.

Figure 5.3: Civil Servant's Salary Increase

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000 5,000

4,000 3,000 2 000

1,000 ......

, I I

5.20 Table 5.9 shows that salary at TSC is quite comparable with those at both local and central government level. Compared with other public sector workers, Figure 5.4 shows that the average salary in education sector in 2000 is higher than agriculture and forestry; mining and quarrying; construction; manufacturing; and community, social and personal services (excluding education), but lower than finance, insurance, real estate, and business services; electricity and water; and transport and communications.

57 Figure 5.4: Public Sector Monthly Earnings by Industry: 1996-2000

1997 0 1998 0 1999

’8910

10 Education services 1. Agriculculre and Forestry 4. Electricig and Water 7. Transport and communications ??.Finance.insurance, Real estate, busi. 2. Miningand Quarrying 5 Construction Services 9. Communig, social andpersonal Source: Statistical Abstract, 2001, CBS and 3. Manufacturing 6. Wholesale, retail trade, restaurants & hotels service, including education services Ministry of Finance and Planning,

5.21 The average salary trend in public sector industries is shown in Figure 5.5. Between 1996 and 2000, the average annual salary in education services increased fastest among all public sector industries. The 2000 level is more than 2.5 times as much as the 1996 level. In comparison, the construction industry’s average salary increased 72 percent during the same 5- year period.

Figure 5.5: Public Sector Average Salary Growth Rate, 1996-2000 (1996=100)

300

+Agriculculre and Foreshy

Mining and Quarrying 250 +Manufacturing

Elecblcity and Water

200 +Construction

-Wholesale, retail trade, restaurants & hotels +Transport and communications 150 -Finance, insurance,Real estate, busi. Services

’-- -Community, social and personal services

100 +Education services 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

58 Development Expenditure and Donor Finance 5.22 Trends in development expenditure as shown in Table 5.10 indicate that overall development expenditure stands at Kshsl.3 billion in 2000/01. External donor support constitutes a large part of development expenditure. Preprimary education subsector development expenditure increased from Kshs 268.5 million in 1999/2000 to Kshs 271.9 million in 2000/2001, which accounts for 21.1 per cent of the overall development expenditure. Primary education sector expenditure has been constant. These two subsectors have continued to receive donor support in the form of capital outlays. Donor support also strengthened the areas of primary education by providing textbooks and inservice teacher training2'. Due to reduced donor support at the tertiary level, development expenditure at this level declined from Kshs 1,509 million in 1998/99 to Kshs.74.6 million in 1999/2000, and further to Kshs 47.9 million in 2000/01.

Table 5.10: Development Expenditure Per Subsector, 1997-2002 (million Ksh)

Subsector 1996/97 1997198 1998/99 199912000 2000/2001 General Administration 35.00 21.80 170.00 27.07 473.10 Preprimary Education 11.80 45.80 104.00 268.45 271.88 Primary Education 282.80 3 10.40 160.80 284.88 235.86 Secondary Education 22.60 10.60 14.00 2.40 9.30 University Education 489.80 839.80 1,509.00 74.62 47.90 Technical Education 2.60 2.80 0.60 13.33 Teacher Education 339.40 321.20 208.20 2.87 33.00 Special Education 127.00 58.20 0.20 Polytechnic 1.20 Total (Ksh Millions) 1,312.2 1,610.6 2.166.8 660.2 1.289.0 Source: MoESZ Public Expenditure Review, 2003

Efficiency of Public Spending 5.23 According to the United Nations Development Programs (UNDP) Human Development Report 2001 (Table 5.1 l),some countries that posted education indices2' above 0.5 spent over 5 percent of their GDP on education in between 1995 and 1997. These counties include South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Kenya, Algeria, Malawi, Togo, and Nigeria. However, other countries that achieved the same level of education index spent less than 3 percent of their GDP on it. For example, Gabon, Uganda, and Zambia are in the latter group. In the meantime, Lesotho spent 8.4 percent of its GDP on education, but has an education index only at 0.49. This suggests that high public spending on education does not necessarily lead to higher education outcomes or vice versa. The discrepancies largely reflect the efficiency of the systems, which affects the efficiency of public spending in the sector.

5.24 In the same vein, a comparison ofpublic expenditure levels on education between Kenya and other African countries suggests that the country's public education spending is relatively high as a proportion ofboth total government spending and the GDP (Figure 5.6). International experience shows that better education outcomes can be achieved at or below this level of public expenditure. This suggests that there is much potential for Kenya to improve education sector performance through more efficient improvements in public spending on education.

2o These are recurrent items in nature. As donor support is still through project, the added resources are accounted for as development resources in the budget. 2' The education index measures a country's relative achievement in both adult literacy and combined primary secondary and tertiary gross enrollment.

59 5.25 One caveat of using the education index to measure spending efficiency is that the education index does not take into account quality factors. However, although Kenyan students perform better than many of those in other SSA countries in SACMEQ study, the unsatisfactory education quality in Kenya has been observed as the system has experienced severe shortage of many vital educational inputs.

Table 5.11: Public spending on education and indicators of education achievement in selected African countries GDP per capita Adult Literacy Combined primary, Education Public spending as (PPP US$, Rate (YOage 15 secondary Index (1999) % of GDP 1999) and above, and tertiary (1995-97) 1999) gross enrollment ratio (1999) S. Africa 8,908 84.9 93 0.87 7.6 Zimbabwe 2,876 88 65 0.80 7.1 Mauritius 9,107 84.2 63 0.77 4.6 Botswana 6,872 76.4 70 0.74 8.6 Gabon 6,024 63 86 0.71 2.9 Kenya 1,022 81.5 51 0.71 6.5 Algeria 5,063 66.6 72 0.69 5.1 Zambia 756 77.2 49 0.68 2.2 Malawi 586 59.2 73 0.64 5.4 Egypt 3,420 54.6 76 0.62 4.8 Ghana 1,881 70.3 42 0.61 4.2 Uganda 1,167 66.1 45 0.59 2.6 Togo 1,410 56.3 62 0.58 6.1 Nigeria 853 62.6 45 0.57 0.7 Lesotho 1,854 82.9 61 0.49 8.4 Sudan 664 56.9 34 0.49 1.4 Angola 3,179 42 23 0.36 Ethiopia 628 37.4 27 0.34 4.0 Source: UNDP (2001) Human Development Report, New York.

Figure 5.6: Education Spending as Percentage of GDP vs. GDP Per Capita

a 8

60 Equity of Public Spending: Benefit Incidence 5.26 The other closely related issue in public spending is its equity aspect. The benefit incidence table22below shows the share of public spending by wealth quintiles at the primary and secondary level. In general, public spending at the primary level is the most progressive because poor households usually have larger household size with more children to attend primary schools. However, this is only marginally the case in Kenya. Data shows that due to low school attendance by children in poor households, the poorest 20 percent of the households in Kenya share only 19 percent of the public spending on primary education.

Table 5.12: Benefit Incidence of Public Expenditure

Primary level Secondary level wealth quintiles Yo Cumulative % Yo Cumulative YO Poorest 19.45 19.45 10.40 10.40 2nd 23.90 43.36 19.35 29.76 3rd 24.36 67.72 21.07 50.82 4th 21.27 88.99 25.48 76.30 Richest 11.01 100.00 23.70 100.00 Total 100.00 100.00

5.27 At the secondary level, public spending is biased towards better-off households. Close to 50 percent ofthe spending is on the children from the top and the second-highest wealth quintiles, while only 10 percent is spent on children from the poorest quintile.

5.28 The degree of inequality is even more severe if one looks at the distribution of public spending across all school-age children instead of across households, due to the fact that poor households have more out-of-school children of the relevant age range. In addition, even some of the children from poor households do go to school, these schools in poor communities tend to receive less public resources such as teachers from the government.

Household Expenditure on Education 5.29 Households spend a significant amount of their resources on primary and secondary education for their children. Household expenditures include tuition, school uniform, textbooks, transportation, meals and boarding, and “harambee” contribution. Table 5.13 shows that at the primary level, before FPE policy is implemented, it cost a household 1,210 Kshs annually on average to send a child to school. School tuition represented the largest component of household expenditure at both wealthy and poor levels. Textbooks and uniforms also constituted a large amount ofhousehold spending. The abolition of school fees and public provision of instructional materials under FPE policy has to a large extent alleviated households’ direct financing burden of school fees and textbooks. During the follow-up visiting ofprimary schools and communities by the MoEST officials and donors, many parents mentioned increased expenditure on children’s food and nutrition, which is often viewed as an important factor for children’s effective learning at schools.

5.30 Household expenditure on secondary education is much higher than at the primary level (Table 5.13 and Figure 5.8). The average annual expenditure is close to 10,000 Kshs annually per secondary school pupil.

22 Using WMS I11 (1997).

61 Table 5.13: Components of Household Education Expenditures (Ksh, per child annually)

Mean 195% Confidence Interval] Primary Level School fee 589 435 742 Uniform 217 204 230 Textbooks 253 219 286 Transportation 28 12 43 Food 25 14 35 Harambee contribution 99 92 107 total 1,210 1,036 1,383 Secondary Level

School fee 7,357 6,693 8,021 Uniform 703 619 786 Textbooks 503 436 570 Transportation 265 20 1 329 Boarding 825 663 988 Harambee contribution 245 206 285 total 9,898 9,137 10,659 Source: WMS (1997).

Figure 5.7: Household Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education

1 I

10,000 9,000 8,000

7,000 Elharambee contribution 6,000 mfoodiboardmg atransportation 5,000 0 textbooks 4,000 W unifo rm 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 secondary primary

5.31 Household expenditure on education is a heavy burden given the tight household financial constraints, particularly with the overall declining economy and increased poverty. Before the implementation of FPE, on average, primary and secondary education expenditure constitutes 15 percent of household non-food consumption expenditures. Some households spend more then one-fifth of their non-food expenditure to send children to school (Table 5.14 and

62 Figure 5.8). Many poorer households simply cannot afford and have to keep their children in school. .

Table 5.14: Household Education Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education

Average Annual Average Annual Non- Average Annual % of % of wealth quintiles Education food Consumption total consumption edu. Exp/total edu. Exp/total Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure non-food exp*. consumption exp.

Poorest 1,581 10,149 54,408 15.58 2.91 2nd 2,647 12,648 66,696 20.93 3.97 3rd 3,382 16,788 74,796 20.15 4.52 4th 4,639 28,524 93,312 16.26 4.97 Richest 8,800 72,768 148,116 12.09 5.94 Total 4.200 28.128 87.396 14.93 4.81 Source: WMS (1998). * Non-food expenditures include education, non-durrrbles, clothing and footwear, health, and lighting and cooking fuel.

Figure 5.8: Primary and Secondary Education Expenditure as Percentage of Household Total and Non-Food Expenditure

------.______-i'

k * *vI edu Exdtot non-food exn

E]%of .%of edu.Exp/totnon-food exp. edu,Exp/totexp,

5.32 Comparing household and public spending on education, the household proportion of total spending is over one-fifth of the total spending at the primary levelz3, and much higher, 41 percent, at secondary level. Given the fact that public expenditure on education is already high in the country, this indicates that the overall unit cost is alarmingly high at the primary and secondary levels in Kenya.

23 This reflects the situation before FPE policy. No new household survey available for most current estimation.

63 Figure 5.9: Public vs. Household (Private) Spending Per Pupil

R 1

......

public ......

I primary secondary

Conclusions 5.33 Despite large amount of resources allocated to the education sector by the government, the declining access to primary and secondary education in Kenya started in the early 1990s and did not stop until the FPE policy took place in early 2003. Education quality has also been threatened over the years, partly due to the relatively high unit cost of education together with poor economic performance and increasing poverty level over the years. The huge household response to the FPE policy in 2003 provided evidence that reducing the cost burden on households is crucial for further expansion of the sector. However, this expansion is not going to be sustainable at the current high levels of unit cost spending on both primary and secondary levels. The improvement ofpublic spending efficiency will be key for the way forward.

64 Chapter 6 Institutional Arrangement and Management of Education Service Delivery

6.1 This chapter will focus on the management of education sector in Kenya. It will first describe and analyse the current institutional arrangement for service delivery, identifying the weaknesses at the system level, and further analyze key constraints in the management capacity of the existing structure from the micro point of view.

Overall Institutional Arrangement for Service Delivery 6.2 Overall, formal education and training is managed and administered by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST). Other government ministries, including Ministry of Local Government (Education Department), Home Affairs, Heritage and Sport (Children’s Department) all provide education and training in parallel, although they constitute a very small proportion of overall education and training provision in Kenya. In addition, sector-specific training is undertaken by the relevant line ministries

6.3 Till the early seventies primary and secondary education in Kenya was completely a local responsibility. However, since then education responsibilities were transferred to the central level. In practice, the responsibility is now divided among the central government, the local government and private sector (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 : Functional Assignments for Education Services in Kenya Function Assignment Policy and sector MoEST headquarter coordination Teachers Service Commission (TSC) Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC)

Planning at local level MoEST District Education Board and District Education Office Local authorities in selected metropolitan areas

Financing GoK budget allocation for salaries ofteachers, training, school supplies, and primary school grants under “Free Primary Education” policy Through school fees at secondary level Local Authority bursaries for the poor students 7 LA education authorities: quality control, facilities, security, an maintenance

Monitoring and MoEST headquarter regulation MoEST District education office

Service delivery School committees for primary schools School boards for secondary schools Local Authorities for pre-primary schools

6.4 Responsibility of delivery of education services varies across levels and functions (Figure 6.1).

65 6.5 Policy and Planning for Sector Development: The responsibility for policy and planning including strategic formulation rests with the central government, mainly the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST). MoEST develops sector strategy and exercise administrative and regulatory control over education services. Together with the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), and Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC), MoEST sets the curriculum, administers public examinations, and pays salaries of teachers in public schools. TSC is a particularly important part of the education system in Kenya. It recruits teachers and coordinates their allocation across school types and regions in the country. TSC pays the salary of all teachers directly through grant from the MoEST.

6.6 Planning and Monitoring of Schools: The planning, registration, and monitoring of schools takes place at the district level by the District Education Officer (DEO) who represents the MoEST at the district level. The DE0 serves as the secretary to the District Education Board (DEB) that is chaired by the District Commissioner. The DEB, which consists of members from the District Government, Local Authorities, and the communities, is responsible for approving the construction of any new public or private schools to ensure that the proposed schools do not overlap with existing capacity. Once a public school is given approval for construction, or a school built by a community is accepted, MoEST is responsible to ensure the availability of teachers. The DE0 is also responsible for monitoring and oversight of all schools.

Figure 6.1: Institutional Arrangement of Education Service Delivery

TSC recruitment and allocation ofteacheers

Ministry of Ministry of - Education, KIE Curriculum development Government Science, and Technology KNEC Public Examination administration

Provincial Education Olfcer

All Local olfcerIDistric1 Education Board I I

School Boards/ Committees I comminees I I

Public Secondary

ParentdStudents

Private Primary primary Schools

66 6.7 Communities and Establishment of New Schools: New schools in Kenya are generally initiated by local communities. Once a new school is approved by MoEST, teachers will be deployed to the school and paid by the central government. This demand-driven process has the advantage of reflecting the need on the ground quickly. However, there are several remaining inefficiencies of the process. According to the most research findings by Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu (2002), this system creates incentives for local communities to build too many small schools; to spend too much on teachers relative to non-teacher inputs; and to set school fees that exceed those preferred by the median voter and prevent many children from attending school. Moreover, the system generated large financial burdens on the central government, which eventually caused the central government to abandon its commitment to assign teachers to any school created by local community, freezing in place an inefficient and unequal distribution of schools.

6.8 Primary and Secondary Education Service Delivery: Primary and secondary schools are largely the responsibility of MoEST. Primary schools are operated and managed by the school committees and monitored by the DEC. The parents generally elect these school committees. Secondary schools are operated and managed by either school committees or MoEST appointed Board of Governors. As a result, the Board members may not be resident in the school district. The construction and maintenance of the schools is the responsibility of the local school committees (in the case ofprimary schools) or the Board of Governors and the school committees (in the case of secondary schools). School committees are responsible to the parents for the receipt and expenditure of the funds received for school construction, operation, and provision of instructional materials. Secondary school budgets are audited by the District Education Auditors that report to MoEST. MoEST has recently completed a financial audit of all primary schools by outsourcing the management of audit to private sector. Some school supplies such as science lut are produced by public companies and subsidized by MoEST.

6.9 The share ofprivate primary and secondary schools is below 10 percent currently. These schools also come under the purview of the DEOs for planning, registration and monitoring and under the DEBS for overall oversight. However, financially these schools are completely independent and do not receive any public funds.

6.10 Role of Local Authorities in Education Services: Local authorities are involved with pre- primary, primary and secondary schools to varying degrees. Seven LAs are designated as “education authorities”. These seven include Nairobi, Mombassa, Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoret, Kitale, and Thika. For these, the local authority is required to oversee the quality of education as well as provide facilities and facilities maintenance without having: i) adequate financial resources, ii)control over teacher allocations, and ii)powers to coordinate primary and secondary education, along with an acute shortage of schools in major urban areas.

6.1 1 Several other LAs also occasionally contribute a portion to the construction costs of a school. If a LA contributes to a school Harambee, the money is given to the school committee and the LA receives receipt for the amount provided. In some cases, the money is given to the contractor, bypassing the school committee and reducing the accountability and transparency of the fund accounting. Several LAs provide bursaries for needy children that are paid directly to the schools involved. Up to the late seventies, when LAs were providers of education and had financial resources, substantial sums were paid in the form of bursaries. This has declined substantially in recent years but is still practiced.

67 6.12 The 2004 World Development Report (The World Bank, 2003) has emphasized the central role of accountability in the overall public service delivery. The framework for analyzing institutional arrangement for service provision includes four relationships of accountability.

0 Voice, or how well citizens can hold the state - politicians and policymakers - accountable for performance in discharging its responsibility for education. 0 Compacts, or how well and how clearly the responsibilities and objectives of public engagement are communicated to the public and to private organizations that provide services. 0 Management, or the actions that create effective frontline providers (teachers, administrators) within organizations. 0 Clientpower, or how well citizens, as clients, can increase the accountability of schools and school systems.

6.13 Kenya has a long tradition of close involvement of local communities in school management. This has provided a basic foundation for effective and efficient service delivery. However, the current system has weaknesses in all the four areas above. A focal point of these weaknesses is the under-defined role of the Local Authorities.

6.14 The current arrangement of education service delivery in Kenya is a deconcentrated system with DEOs functioning as branches of the central ministry in overseeing the service delivery. Except for seven of the them, local authorities have limited functions and mandates for education service delivery. In recent years, more attention has been paid to the role of local authorities in improving the efficiency of education service delivery. Giving more important roles to Local Authorities can be justified by the following reasons:

0 Local Authorities are mostly held accountable for the development of local communities. They have the ultimate incentives to support the local primary and secondary schools. 0 Local authorities have the most direct contact with the local communities to communicate on public policies. 0 Local Authorities in general have better knowledge on local conditions, thus have comparative advantage in ensuring the efficiency ofresource allocation on the ground, including the allocation of teacher resources, as well as targeted demand-side financing resources. 0 Involvement of Local Authorities would also empower the local communities as these communities hold the votes for the Local Authorities’ officials.

6.15 Therefore, one central issue regarding the decentralization of primary and secondary education in Kenya is to evaluate the comparative advantages of the deconcentrated MoEST district education officers and Local Authorities. From other countries’ experience, the efficiency of service delivery can be greatly improved with local authorities playing a greater part in providing day-to-day support to school operation. For example, they can provide engineering supervision to school construction, provide local market information for schools’ purchase of instructional materials and other school supplies, and provide guidance on efficient utilization of school resources. The involvement of Local Authorities in these areas would ensure quick decision-making to respond to the needs on the ground. In the meantime, the function of DEOs shall be focused on pedagogical support and guidance to schools, maintenance of education standards, education quality assurance, and monitoring and evaluation of educational outcome.

68 6.16 For the Local Authorities to perform these functions effectively, both human resource and financial resource requirement need to be evaluated, particularly within the context of the local government reform and capacity building activities in the future.

6.17 The other issue needs to be further looked into is the role of the private sector. The extent of private provision of primary and secondary education is limited right now. In 2003 some private school at primary level even started to close due the implementation of “Free Primary Education” policy. Private education indeed has important roles to play in meeting the main challenges that are facing education sector: access, quality, and efficiency. Potentials in four categories of private schools can further explored: community schools, religious schools, spontaneous schools (arose in specific learning conditions to meet particular demands); and profit-making private schools. Beside this direct private provision of education, private participation of education can also via private operation of publicly-owned schools; vouches or scholarships to students attending private schools; as well as private sector supply of inputs and services into education process. An effective public-private partnership would require a clear definition of the role of government in regulation; funding; and information. The private sector would provide a public service regulated by the government. They should negotiate a supportive environment and an equitable basis for the partnership with the government.

Management and Capacity of MoEST 6.18 To facilitate the management and administration of its functions, MoEST is organized on three levels. Figure 6.2 presents the organization chart. At the headquarters, the ministry is divided into two major parts comprised of the education and the administration departments. The Directorate of Education is further divided into the Divisions of Policy Formulation and Projects; Primary Division, Secondary Division, University Division, Technical Training Division, Field and Other Services Division, and Inspectorate.

69 Figure 6.2: Organization Chart of Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology

.!€O.w"

ASSISTAN MNISTER(HIGHERE1CN) ASSlSTANMlNISTER(PRI~EDUCATICN)

I

FOOTNOTE

6.19 At the Provincial level, the Provincial Director of Education (PDE) is in charge of all education services, which are managed through the Provincial Education Boards. This level provides general superintendence over several districts on behalf of the headquarters. The arrangement for the administration follows the provincial administration structure of the government.

6.20 At the district level, the District Education Officer @EO) manages educations services through the District Education Boards. The ministry also has Divisional Education Offices headed by Education Officers. Further down the Zonal Education Office has dual responsibility for school inspection and teacher development and support. Education services are ultimately

70 discharged at the institutional level, which comprises of ECD Centres, primary schools, secondary schools, teacher training colleges, technical institutes, and institutions of higher learning. The ECD Centre committees manage the ECD Centres; and school committees manage primary schools while Boards of Governors (BOGs) manage secondary schools and tertiary institutions. The BOGs and Boards of Trustees manage technology institutes while respective university councils manage the universities.

6.2 1 Specialized education services and functions are managed by the Semi-Autonomous Governmental Agencies (SAGAS). For example, teacher management is the responsibility of the Teachers Service Commission (TSC); examination and certification falls under the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC); curriculum development is run by the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE); students loans for higher education by the Higher Education Loans Board (HELD); and university education is managed by the Commission for Higher Education (CHE).

6.22 The management of primary education within cities and municipalities is vested in City Councils and Municipal Councils. County councils also administer bursaries and any material support to schools within their jurisdiction. To discharge the education functions assigned to them, local government structures appoint education committees. The day-to-day administration of education is entrusted to the Directors of City Education and the respective Municipal Education Officers.

National Level Management and Coordination 6.23 At the national level, formalized education and training is managed and administered by various government agencies; however, there is currently no effective coordinating body at this level, The National Education Advisory Board established through Legal Notice No. 16 of 1996 as a co-ordinating body has never been functional. Coordination is therefore ad-hoc and various players at this level meet on an irregular basis as the need arises.

6.24 At the agency level, there is no clear reporting mechanism between the ministry and its specialized agencies. These agencies report directly to the accounting officers while their services have a direct impact on the technical areas of the sector. As a result, the Director of Education and other professional heads in the ministry are not kept abreast of the developments in various technical areas.

6.25 The Minister of Education is charged with promoting education in the country. In recent years, the proliferation of NGOs in the provision of education services has brought about critical challenges relating to the promotion and development of services. The NGOs participate in offering education services to those with special needs, and vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, especially in slum areas; however, there is no reporting relationship between NGOs and the ministry. The situation is the same in relation to channels of communication between the private sector actors in the various subsectors. As a result, the degree of participation by NGOs and other private providers in the sector is hardly defined. The amount ofresources invested by NGOs and private sectors in education is difficult to estimate. This often leads to the duplication and overlaps in service delivery, and inefficient overall resource utilization.

6.26 Issues relating to the weak coordination of education services urgently need to be addressed. The provision of educational services from various stakeholders requires guidance and regulation in order to promote and sustain high standards and efficient resource utilization. In the meantime, institutions with an official mandate for providing education services must be well coordinated. Evaluation of the role of National Education Advisory Board is crucial, particularly with regard to its responsibility for coordinating the participation of all shareholders

71 in the sector at the national level. At the ministry level, structured coordination mechanisms need to be established to promote inter-departmental coordination. A review of MoEST structure and working arrangement may be a necessary first step for strengthening the system.

Information Flow and Communication 6.27 Smooth information flow and communication is crucial for effective system management; however, there are various weaknesses in communication channels linking central planners, policy makers, managers, implementers in the field offices, institutions and stakeholders at the grassroots level. Various departments in the MoEST dealing with different functions like human resource development, finance, and resource management lack regular information exchanges. At the departmental level, there is information sharing at senior management meetings; however, there are bottlenecks in the flow of information from senior management level to the planners and implementers at both the national level and in the field. There are no established channels directing how information should flow from the top to bottom and vice- versa. For example, staff meetings at division level are irregular or non-existent. Ministerial bulletins and newsletters are no longer in circulation. Electronic networking through e-mail is also non-existent and many officers are not fully computer literate. Computers are normally available in offices that manage projects and in senior managers offices; however, they are rarely used for communications, but merely for typing.

6.28 Information and communication to the provincial and district offices is usually through circulars and letters; however, those two offices normally receive a single circular from the headquarters and are expected to produce adequate numbers for circulation. This practice has proven ineffective. In most cases, provincial and district offices lack equipment and financial resources to facilitate dissemination of data. The headquarters also requires the provincial and district offices to convey urgent messages to headquarters through fax and telephone, but very few field offices have this equipment.

6.29 Data collection on school enrollment, facilities, teachers, and other educational personnel are also coordinated at district level. At the headquarters, the data on teachers are sent to TSC for analysis; however, there are no proper channels for feeding back the results of the analysis to the ministry headquarters and the field offices. The data on school enrollment and availability of facilities are sent to the Planning Department in MoEST for analysis. Sometimes, it never reaches the Planning Department and when it does, the results of the analysis are not disseminated to all pertinent divisions and offices. Besides, the Planning Department does not analyze all the information collected. For example, school facility data was processed for the first time this year. In addition, some key Planning Department personnel are from the Ministry of Planning and are often called for other tasks without reference to MoEST. Finally, information- sharing among the various specialized agencies of the ministry and within the ministry itself is also hampered for lack of established channels. For example, the examination results for KCPE and KCSE are rarely linked to school census for analysis. Indeed, the school coding systems are different at MoEST and KNEC, which makes data-merging a prohibitive task.

6.30 The weaknesses in communication can be traced to a dysfunctional Education Information Management System (EMIS). It is clear that the current system does not assist the decision-malung process in the ministry. Strategies for improving communication will require not only a well-designed EMIS at the center, but also regular data updating and analysis at district and school levels.

72 Human Resource Management 6.3 1 Human resource management in the sector covers recruitment, deployment, promotion, discipline, transfer, and capacity building of the education managers and teaching force. The recruitment of education managers rests with the Public Service Commission (PSC), which sets the criteria and selects the personnel in accordance with the MoEST requirements; and in tandem with the approved establishment. The responsibility for deploying recruited personnel rests with the Director of Education and the relevant heads of the department. There are no adequate procedures and guidelines for deployment and utilization of human resources in the sector. Neither a data bank or skill inventory exists within the ministry to guide the deployment of officers to their areas of specialization, nor are there criteria and staffing norms for deploying staff.

6.32 The Kenya Education Staff Institute (KESI), is charged with training education managers; however, its human and financial capacity to undertake this task is severely limited. Consequently, the majority of education managers have not been exposed to sufficient management training to enable them to manage education institutions efficiently. There is no effective official policy in place for providing in-service training to education managers. School management bodies such as PEBs, DEBs, BOGS and school committees have a crucial role in education management. However, the appointed members are usually neither inducted nor trained to carry out their respective roles. The case can be made that their recruitment is political in some cases and some recruited personnel lack the capacity to carry out their respective responsibilities.

6.33 The Provincial and District Education Offices were created to decentralize decision making in the MoEST. However, in most cases the offices at these levels act as transmittal agents from the field to the headquarters, and are not in a position to make final and binding decisions. The officers lack the power and authority to make conclusive managerial and administrative decisions. In addition, some district level personnel lack adequate professional training to carry out their managerial duties.

6.34 The TSC was established through an act of parliament in 1968 and mandated to register, recruit, transfer, promote, and discipline teachers. To perform these tasks, it relies on the Boards of Governors in secondary schools, PDEs, and DEOs, and DCE, MEOs, and DEBs in primary schools as its agents. These agents are empowered through the TSC Act to transfer and discipline teachers on behalf of the commission. The agents are also empowered to recommend to the commission suitable teachers for appointment to higher positions of responsibility, such as head teachers. The process has improved the transparency to identify commendable candidates for promotion. However, inefficiencies still exist since appointment and deployment not based on professional competence still exists.

6.35 The deployment of teachers by TSC used to follow the practice of deploying primary school teachers in their home districts. However, an argument was made that this affected the delivery of education services since it creates conflicts of interest in relation to professional commitment and personal motivation. This practice was also believed to lead to the politicking of the teaching profession and contributed to the inbreeding and promotion of certain ethnic groups. This practice has now changed and teacher management has been decentralized to the district and school levels. This process was started in 2001, and since then teacher recruitment for both primary and secondary schools has been conducted at the school level. However, this process has not been fully institutionalized. Various issues have been raised by the public regarding accountability, transparency, professionalism, and in some cases, politicking of the process.

73 6.36 There also exists an unbalanced distribution of teachers since most teachers prefer to work in urban and settled areas where facilities are available. The current policy of recruiting teachers where vacancies exist is geared towards evening out this unequal distribution. However, the current staffing norm of 1.025 teachers per stream at the primary level needs to be further re- evaluated for greater efficient utilization of teachers. For example, in areas that are sparsely populated, the sizes of the schools and streams are small, which generates demand for teachers to teacher in smaller classrooms with fewer pupils. Measures such as multi-grade teaching that have been proven be successful in other countries to manage this issue need to be evaluated for Kenya. The need to revise staffing norms is even more urgent at secondary level, especially if Kenya is to expand secondary enrollment‘ as rapidly as planned.

6.37 Various strategies can be employed to address the problems cited above relating to human resource management in the education sector. Actually, some capacity-building activities have taken place, particularly following the implementation of the FPE in 2003. For example, capacities of School Management Committees have been enhanced through focused training in financial management, procurement of instructional materials, and for school operation using public funds. Such capacity-building activities should be built into the system on a regular basis. Strengthening system management should also entail selecting and appointing education managers on the basis of professional training and merit. Such managers must be properly inducted into their respective roles and put through structured in-service training programs.

Funds Flow 6.38 Financing for education and training is provided by the Central Government, local authorities, communities and parents, the private sector, NGOs, and development partners. As indicated in Chapter 5 on public sector expenditure and finance, in 2000/2001 MoEST received about 35 percent of the total Central Government-voted budget. In 2003, due to the implementation of the FPE policy, an even larger proportion of public budget has been allocated to the education sector. The recurrent budget for education has accounted for 39 percent of the total voted public expenditure in 2002/2003.

6.39 The public funds are allocated to various departments and SAGASof MoEST, provincial, district offices, and individual institutions. For years, the percentage allocated to O&M was inadequate to finance education and training services at the provincial and district levels where administration and supervision services for primary and secondary schools were concentrated. The government’s insufficient resources to fund PDEs and DEOs offices have often resulted in the practice of levying funds from schools to run these offices’ services, including the provision of administrative and inspection services. Levying such funds from schools places a burden on households that leads to low enrollment and participation rates in education. Furthermore, there is no institutionalized mechanism for auditing funds levied from parents.

6.40 In the context of FPE policy, levies on parents at the primary level have been abolished, although reportedly some primary schools continue to raise funds from parents to meet needs that cannot otherwise be supplied, for example to hire relief teachers when faced with heavy overcrowding. The Central Government has increased public funding most importantly as a capitation grant to primary schools to replace fees in paying for books, materials, and operation and maintenance. These funds are managed by school committees. In the mean time, there is also largely increased funding at the district level to strengthen the management and inspectorate in order to provide adequate support to as well as monitor primary education delivery. At the secondary level, schools currently receive small grants for bursaries. The bursaries at the secondary level are managed by constituency committees, in which the Member of Parliament plays a large role. A large percentage of funds is still paid by parents to finance school facilities,

74 purchase of equipment, teaching and learning materials, and even occasionally personal emoluments. These funds are managed by the Boards of Governors. For primary schools, parents, who make up the majority members of school committees, participate in decisions regarding the utilization of funds. However, this is not the case for secondary schools where the parents who act as financiers of school activities are hardly represented on the BOGs. This has been a source of conflict within BOGs. In the light of the fact that parents are key financiers of education, they need to be fully incorporated in the management and decision-malung processes. This may call for a revision of the Education Act in order to incorporate the new roles and status of PTAs into management of secondary schools. The TVET Institutions are also faced with the issue ofTrustees and BOGs, whose roles need to be clearly stated in the Education Act.

6.41 Some perennial issues about institutional finances relate to the charged fee level and the capacity to manage school funds. Many school heads and accounting officers lack the competency in accounting and management. Furthermore, some of the school committees and BOGs lack the capacity to oversee the proper utilization of funds. This calls for training and or appointment of institutional administrators with relevant skills in institutional management. It also calls for the appointment of capable members of school committees and BOGs. It has been found that the auditing of secondary school finances is weak as a result of unqualified school auditors. Until 2001, there was no auditing of primary schools, which is the major task of auditing since the primary schools constitute the largest proportion of education institutions.

6.42 The amount of fees charged at all levels varies widely between regions and institutions. The MoEST has been issuing standard fees guidelines with a view to rationalizing the fees charged by various secondary school categories. However in most cases, these fee guidelines have not been adhered to. It has also been pointed out that these guidelines do not take into account regional disparities in resource endowment and the peculiar needs of individual schools. This has resulted in schools accumulating large deficits, which most BOGs’ are unable to clear, which, in turn, negatively affects the quality ofeducation services these institutions could deliver.

The Legal Framework 6.43 There are multiple Acts of Parliament governing the management of education and training in Kenya. These include the following:

The Education Act Cap 211 of 1968, revised in 1980, provides for the development of schools, management and administration, development of curricula, and teacher education. The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) Act Cap 212 of 1967 provides for registration, recruitment, deployment, remuneration, and discipline of teachers for schools, colleges, and middle-level vocational training institutions. The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) Act Cap 225A of 1980 regulates the management and conduct of public examinations, certification in schools, and institutions other than the universities. The Universities Act Cap 210B of 1985 establishes the Commission for Higher Education (CHE) to accredit private universities and to maintain quality assurance in higher and university education and training. Acts of Parliament and Charters establish and manage Public and Chartered private universities, respectively.

75 0 Higher Education Loans Boards (HELB) Act Cap 213 of 1994 which establishes HELB to manage and provide loans and bursaries to university students.

0 The Board of Adult Education Act Cap 223.

0 The Local Government Act Cap 265.

0 The Children’s Act of March 2002. 6.44 Other Acts that govern the provision of specialized aspects of education and training are the Industrial Training Act Cap 237 for the training and certification of artisans, the Accountants Act Cap 53 1 which established KASNEB for examinations and certification in some professional and business spheres and governs several GoK Ministries to provide sector-related training, examination, and certification.

6.45 It has been observed that the legislation governing the sector has not kept pace with new developments and emerging issues in education. For example, there is no established framework regarding the expanded role of parents and communities in education management and financing; the role of NGOs and private sectors in the provision of education; and foreign bodies involved in examination and certification in the country. The slow pace of response to emerging developments and issues is particularly questionable; and internal efforts by the ministry to address the legal constraints have not been successful.

6.46 The Education Act continues to regard local authorities as key actors in financing and management of primary education in spite of their lack of capacity, and weak financial and management base. The seven municipalities the act recognizes play a role in the form of professional supervision of schools, teachers, and deployment of teachers in collaboration with TSC. The act also assigns the management of secondary schools to Boards of Governors and primary schools to school committees; but does not specify the role of parents and communities in the management of schools and resources, nor their relationship with the management bodies.

6.47 The Teachers Service Commission Act established a highly centralized system of teacher management, which creates a top-heavy Secretariat and allows only limited decentralization to PDEs and DEOs as TSC agents to deploy and discipline teachers. Current efforts by TSC to decentralize its functions must, therefore, find expressions within the TSC Act. This would call for further revisions of the Act.

6.48 Each public university is established by an Act of Parliament. The private universities are established through charters awarded according to the provisions of the Universities Act. Concerns have been expressed with regard to the linkages of the charters to public universities acts, since they tend to constrain the role of the Commission for Higher Education in its coordinating role.

6.49 The Board of Adult Education is mandated to provide Adult Education and to regulate the provision of education, including the registration of Adult Education Centres. Some Adult Education Centres have admitted children under fifteen years of age and yet the Board of Adult Education is not mandated to provide education to children under fifteen. In addition, adult education providers are not trained to provide formal education to children.

Decentralization ofEducational Management 6.50 Decision-making in the education sector in Kenya is highly centralized at the ministry headquarters. The actual delivery ofeducational services takes place at the institutional level; but at this level the decision-making authority is lacking. For example, the curriculum is centrally

76 managed. The school national examinations are also centrally-set and administered. The teachers, who are the most important resource, have been deployed and managed mostly centrally by the TSC, with assistance of DEOs at the district level. Moreover, educational institutions do not have complete authority over the management of public resources and some resources are even mobilized locally. Decentralization is justifiable considering the vast coverage of the education sector in terms of the number of students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers.

6.5 1 The major problems that are directly attributable to the current centralized management system include:

0 Decision-making being vested on a few senior officers. This has led to a situation where a majority of the senior officers are not in a position to make decisions that are commensurate with their schedule of duties and responsibilities in terms of planning, financial allocation, and monitoring education activities;

0 Concentration of decision-making at headquarters at the expense of the field offices where service delivery is concentrated. Consequently, feedback from the field takes too long to arrive, resulting in lagging solutions to problems in service delivery;

0 Due to the concentration of power in a few offices at headquarters, field officers tend to report directly to these offices. This direct link from the DEOs to headquarters leaves the PDEs in ambiguous roles with limited responsibilities;

0 Many highly qualified and experienced officers are concentrated at MoEST Headquarters. The function of the field offices’ is neglected, as reflected in the lack of qualified personnel, sufficient finances, and adequate equipment, particularly at district level;

0 The local level structures established to oversee the management of institutions such as PTAs and school committees do not have sufficient authority to perform their functions. For example, in the urban areas, the local authorities have the legal mandate to oversee development of education services in their respective areas of jurisdiction. The centralized institutional arrangement does not release sufficient resources to those structures for the development of the sector. As a result, the local government structure is not in accord with the priority it deserves. 6.52 Decentralization of the management of the education sector would first require a clear definition and specification for the scope of authority at each management level. The requisite legal framework, which will vest the lower level structures with an adequate mandate will also need to be put in place. Some proposals on the decentralization process have already been under discussion. For example, it was recommended that the process be piloted in some districts with adequate capacity. Lessons will be learned prior to the subsequent introduction of the process countrywide. The piloting process would also help identify the types of authority to be devolved to lower level structures, and assess the response ofthe existing structures to the process.

6.53 The hope is that under a decentralized system, some administrative and financial authority would be vested at the district level. However, the decentralized arrangement would not be complete without improved authority at the school level, where teaching and learning take place. It is imperative for its ultimate sustainability that the decentralization process be anchored at the lowest level in the educational system. This would imply vesting the institutional managers, Boards of Governors, and the school committees with administrative and financial authority to manage financial as well as personnel resources.

77 Provincial Level Management 6.54 At the provincial level, the PDE is in charge and coordinates all education services that take place in the province. However, the functions of the PDE are constrained because the Provincial Education Board (PEB), the legal instrument for facilitating PDE’s activities, has no specific terms ofreference.

6.55 Although the PDE is also expected to coordinate district level activities, the office is not empowered to make conclusive decisions, particularly on policy issues. Consequently, DEOs tend to link directly to the headquarters. In addition, the PDE does not have the mandate of overseeing education services offered in cities and municipalities. Furthermore, the functions, which are specifically within the PDEs’ purview, including coordinating the admission of Form 1 students, coordinating curricula activities, disciplining secondary school teachers and students, and overseeing inspection, are mostly carried out at the district level. Inadequate resources also hamper the efficient performance of the above functions at the provincial level. The role of provincial level management needs to be further evaluated.

District Level Management 6.56 The main management structure at the district level is the District Education Board (DEB), currently chaired by the District Commissioner. The District Education Officer (DEO) is the secretary to the DEB and head of the District Education Office. The functions of the Board include:

0 Receiving and administering grants or grants-in-aid in respect to schools in accordance with the approved estimates of expenditure.

0 Developing plans for development or promotion of education in their area ofjurisdiction for approval by the minister.

0 Superintendingthe management ofpublic schools.

0 Advising on the establishment ofnew schools.

0 Submitting statistical, financial, and other reports the minister may require. 6.57 There are no formal requirements set for the appointment of DEB members, which in some cases leads to appointment based on unclear criteria. According to the Education Act, the DEB has no power to superintend private schools or to coordinate education activities by communities and other actors such as the NGOs or private sector providers. This often results in lack support as well as insufficient regulations for these important players in the sector.

6.58 For the management structure at district level, the chairman of the DEB is not appointed by the Minister of Education, but belongs to the Provincial Administration. The DE0 also reports to the District Commissioner. The leadership for education development at the district level needs to be further strengthened.

6.59 The DE0 is functionally required to relate to other professionals in the field, and is expected to coordinate education activities by other players, such as private service providers and NGOs. A major weakness of the DEOs is that many have low qualifications and insufficient experience relative to those they are expected to supervise. There is a need to adhere to minimum competences and qualifications in the appointment ofDEOs.

6.60 The districts require financial allocations commensurate with the functions vested upon them. The operations and maintenance budgetary allocations (O&M) for this critical level are, in

78 most cases, inadequate. This is because the function of budgeting is done at the center and the requirements of outlying structures are not realistically captured. As a result, the district is usually under-funded to the detriment of service delivery. For example, some inspectors rarely travel to schools for school inspection due to lack of funds for travelling. In some cases, to fill the financial gaps for their operations, the DEB levies parents through primary schools to finance field operations. Under FPE policy, the situation will be alleviated by increased funding at both school and district level.

6.61 The issue of staffing is crucial if the District Education Office is to satisfactorily carry out its mandate. The most severe area of staffing shortages is for the inspectors, whose current number is not adequate to cover the service units of all zones. The current staffing profiles also do not take into account the workload pertaining to the unique nature of the districts. Districts are staffed uniformly in accordance with their anticipated schedule of duties. The staff shortage becomes more severe in recent years following a trend in which most districts are losing staff to the teaching service as a result of far more attractive training and compensation package for teachers. Whether these inspectors can function effectively as teachers again is one issue. On the other hand, it is more important to ensure adequate compensation packages and career paths for education officers so as to attract more capable candidates for many crucial positions at the district level.

6.62 At the district level, the smallest management and service units are the zones that are staffed by Zonal Inspectors and TAC Tutors. The functions of TAC Tutors, who are currently paid and deployed by the TSC to perform non-teaching tasks, sometimes overlap with that of the inspectors. Furthermore, a majority of TAC tutors have primary school teacher training with a secondary school academic background. There is little value-added to put them out of the teaching force with few professional functions.

Registration of Educational Institutions 6.63 The Education Act Cap 211 mandates the Minister of Education to establish and maintain a registry of all schools unaided by the govemment. However, the act does not specify any registration procedures for public, community-based public schools, tertiary institutions, or other postsecondary institutions.

6.64 The process of registration involves malung an application to the Minister of Education stating the classification, including the number of classes in each Form and the physical facilities. Before submission of the application for registration, proprietors of private schools seek registration of business names. However, it has been noted that once business names are acquired, schools begin to operate even before the official registration.

6.65 If a new school meets all the requirements, it is granted a provisional registration for 18 months. After one year, if all required conditions are met it is given a full registration and the school can apply for an order establishing a board of governors. The act further allows the minister to request verification, which if not provided within six months, will close the school.. The school will also be closed if urgent matters arise but no consultations with the MoEST are conducted. If the school remains closed for six months, it is then removed from the register. Once a school is registered, it may require re-registration to accommodate any changes, including putting up additional facilities, changing the classification of the school and ownership, transferring the school to a new site, and often re-opening a school that has closed.

79 6.66 The requirement that schools must have title deeds before registration has constrained the registration of schools. Many newly-established schools do not have title deeds and others are established on public land or land owned by clans. Land acquisition has been seen as a hindrance to the establishment and registration ofprivate schools.

6.67 Many nonformal schools are not regulated by the MoEST, but by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Heritage and Sports, or NGOs Council. When community groups or charitable organizations do not meet the requirements of formal school registration, they often go this route. However, many of these schools still offer formal school curriculum. The fragmented school registration system makes it very difficult for MoEST to regulate and keep a record of all schools, monitor the overall quality of education service delivery, and more importantly, to support schools that provide complementary education.

Management of Inspection of Services 6.68 The principal role of school inspectors is to assure the quality of teaching and learning with sustained efficiency at the school level. The establishment, maintenance, and improvement of educational standards can only be achieved through a functional inspectorate, which forms the important channel between policy makers and implementers. Through inspection, the appropriate physical facilities, leaming resources, quality and adequacy of teachers’ backgrounds and the total environment are monitored regularly.

6.69 The Public Service Commission appoints school inspectors using requirements set out by MoEST. The Education Act mandates the Minister of Education to appoint officers with authority to enter and inspect any school. The Chief Inspector of Schools carries out the responsibility of deploying inspectors to schools. There are about seventy districts, 146 divisions, and 1,052 zones, excluding municipalities. The distribution of inspectors is confined to district service units and the zones with none at the divisional level. The shortage of school inspectors is a distinctive issue in the field. TAC tutors sometimes carry out inspectorial functions, although they have limited experience and training. The unattractive of the Scheme of Service for inspectors does not provide adequate incentive for recruitment and retention. The number of inspectors leaving the inspectorate to join TSC is alarming. In addition, in cities and municipalities, inspection functions are undertaken by Education Advisors, who have no legal mandate for these duties. This further constrains the registration of schools in the cities and municipalities.

6.70 To effectively perform inspectoral functions, inspectorate requires adequate funding for travel and accommodation, report compilation, and data processing. Currently, inspection services are constrained by inadequate budgetary allocations. The inspector’s mobility and access to office machines is almost non-existent in the field. The issue is further exacerbated by a fast growing inspectorate with respect to staff size. Given the budget constraint, needs also arise to optimise staffing, particularly in the context of the decentralization of more inspection function to the district level, with emphasis on strengthening school level quality assurance.

6.71 From time to time, the ministry communicates policy decisions through directives and circulars. The enforcement agency of the ministry is, in many cases, the inspectorate. In addition, organization of co-curricular activities, planning, and implementation of funded projects also takes a lot of the inspectors’ time. These administrative functions have distracted inspectors from their professional quality-assurance responsibilities.

80 6.72 Other issues also include: the instrument governing the appointment of inspectors does not state the subject requirements for secondary level inspectors, which hampers subject-based inspections; and placing the inspectorate function within the Directorate ofEducation has limited its operational independence and decision-malung.

Conclusions 6.73 Adequate institutional arrangements and capacity are necessary conditions for effective service delivery. At the central level, weaknesses are found in the areas ofsector analysis, policy and planning, and overall system monitoring. Coordination is also lacking between the MoEST and other central technical agencies, including Teachers Service Commission, Kenya Examination Council, and Kenya Institute of Education, which is reflected by irregular information flows and communication across and within the agencies. The management of human resources, including both education officers and teachers, and the management of financial resources are also weak at central level.

6.74 Kenya’s education system is highly centralized. Decentralization is justifiable given the vast coverage of the education sector in terms of the number of students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers. Weak district-level and school-level capacity, however, is a barrier to the effective decentralization of education service delivery. These weak areas include limited local authorities’ involvement, district- and school-level planning and reporting, school inspection, and teacher support as well as financial management and other day-to-day functions for service delivery.

81 Chapter 7 Policy Directions and Sector Development Projections

7.1 Kenya has an impressive record of expanding access to education during the last three decades. However, the gains made in the first two decades after Independence appear to have eroded or stalled since the late 1980s. The slowing down of the sector expansion is often seen as closely related to the overall economic condition. The deteriorating economy and increased poverty put tight constraints on the amount of public and private resources invested in education. In the meantime, shrinking demand for skilled labor with a smaller modem sector also curbed the incentives to invest in education. Gross enrollment rates have fallen at both the primary and secondary levels during the 1990s.

7.2 The education and training sector in Kenya is experiencing a historical moment right now, In December 2002, a new Government was formed after a democratic election, ending 24 years of political domination by the party that had ruled Kenya since independence. The new Government has already made a clear break from the past by its policy actions. In education, a FPE policy was announced and implement in school year 2003. Expansion ofprimary education has now been jump-started with close to a 1 million enrollment increase between the 2002 and 2003 school years. However, in the meantime, the government has also recognized that the sector is now facing the more critical challenges of keeping up the momentum for continuous and more equitable expansion, improving education quality, enhancing the system management and public spending efficiency as well as setting strategies for the development of other subsectors.

Critical Challenges Equitable Expansion ofEnrollment Remaining issues of FPE 7.3 Under the “Free Primary Education” policy, all school fees and levies that used to be charged to the households are abolished. Instead, the central government has provided public funds to school directly. Each school receives 1,020 Kenyan shillings for each enrollee. This Ksh. 1,020 would cover the basic cost of instructional materials, as well as general school administration and operation activities.

7.4 Following the implementation of the FPE policy, although the overall GERZ4at the primary level has reached 104 percent in 2003, regional disparities still widely exist. For example, among the eight provinces, the primary GER this year reached 120 and 119 percent in Nyanza and the Western Province, respectively, compared with as low as only 25 percent in the Northeastern Province and 62 percent in Nairobi. This further brings two distinctive issues. The first is that monetary cost of schooling is not the only factor that affects household decision of sending their children to school. Other socio-economic breakdowns as well as varied supply constraints, such as availability of and distance to schools could also contribute to the disparities. The secondary issue is related to the equity in education participation. Further investigation for effective education provisions and participation calls for special attention to northern ASAL and urban slum areas. Government needs to rethink policies for these areas and develop programs built on successful experience.

7.5 The second important issue is the sustainability of the FPE policy. Primary schools need to delivering education of adequate quality, and in the mean time to keep the border-line kids in

24 Including all public schools and registered non-public schools.

82 school. There is need for careful analysis of what additional needs to be done particularly in the areas ofin-service teacher training.

7.6 The great increase ofpublic expenditure on primary education has put much pressure on the continuous expansion at this level. The sustainability issue is particularly distinctive as the expansion at primary level will be likely to lead to increased demand for education at higher levels, thus increased resource requirement for the expansion of other sub-sectors. In this respect, there is immediate needs for the Government to develop strategies at secondary and higher level, mobilizing other resources including voluntary community contribution is still valid. However, public subsidy would be essential for disadvantaged communities in order to reach a more equitable education coverage and participation.

Expansion at secondary level 7.7 Currently, the gross secondary enrollment ratio is still estimated at a level of below 30 percent. The access to secondary education is a particularly serious issue given that the large cohort of increased enrollment at the primary level is expected to exit that level and enter the secondary level in a few years.

7.8 Large scale demand-side response to the abolition ofprimary school fees is evidence that one of the main hurdles to education access is the cost burden on households for basic education. Although the cost-burden at the primary level has shifted to the public sector, households still finance a large part of the high cost of secondary level. They have had to take on the development cost of construction and maintenance of physical facilities and equipment, and the recurrent costs for teaching and learning materials, school boarding, and general school administration, sometimes even including inspection fees. There is also evidence that these costs have increased sharply over the last ten years. Alleviation ofthe cost burden, particularly on poor households, is critical to increasing education coverage beyond primary education.

7.9 The disparities in school enrollment at the secondary level are closely related to household wealth. The poorest 20 percent of the rural population have a gross secondary enrollment rate of less than 10 percent, whereas the richest 20 percent of the urban population have a GER rate of 77 percent. Gender balance is to a large extent maintained in primary schooling opportunities. Male and female enrollment rates at the primary level are broadly similar, and the gender difference among secondary school enrollment rates is not as large as in other developing countries. Kenya’s ability to close the gap between male and female enrollments in Africa is particularly impressive. However, analysis of household data suggests that, with economic growth and rising household incomes, the gap between male and female enrollments at the secondary level will likely widen. This shows that the Government must avoid complacency and work to actively close the gender gap in secondary enrollments to keep it from widening in the future.

Infernal efficiency 7.10 The high repetition and dropout rate is also an indication that there is significant waste in the system. Only 52 percent of primary school entrants complete the 8-year primary cycle after spending an average of 9 years at this level. At the secondary level, although 81 percent of the entrants manage to complete the 4-year cycle, it takes an average of 5 years to finish. The transition from primary to secondary is very low, less than 50 percent.

Quality ofEducation 7.1 1 Improving school retention and completion also requires greater enhancement of education quality, including improving learning achievement as well as strengthening educational

83 inputs. Although the current leaming outcome is relatively better than some other SSA countries, there is a huge gap compared with the international standard. The current curriculum reform is streamlining the curriculum design to improve the academic performance in the core courses. However, provision of instructional materials, improvement of teacher’s competence in classroom teaching, and improvements in the learning environment, including classrooms and other school facilities all will contribute to the improvement of overall education quality. In addition, the factors that contribute to the classroom effectiveness including classroom leaming time, student grouping, as well as various pedagogical issues also need to be further investigated for quality improvement.

Costs and Financing 7.12 At the same time that access and quality indicators appear to be deteriorating, the Govemment is facing an unprecedented financial crisis in the education sector. The education sector is already getting a much larger share ofnational resources than most other sectors. Today, education accounts for 39 percent of total Govemment-voted recurrent expenditures and over 6 percent of Kenya’s GDP. These shares are significantly higher than in other countries with income levels comparable to Kenya. The challenge for the Govemment will be to address the problems of poor access, inequity, low quality, and heavy household financial burdens in the sector with little additional resources to spend on them. Also, the current expansion begun at the primary level will not be sustainable at the current high unit cost level on both primary and secondary levels.

7.13 Fortunately, there is substantial scope for increasing the effectiveness ofpublic spending on education. Indeed, when compared to other countries in Afiica, Kenya is currently not getting its money’s worth from the high levels of public spending on education. The sector strategies below will focus on improving the efficiency across all areas offuture sector development.

Sector Strategies 7.14 Further development of the education system in Kenya requires sizeable investments in all critical areas, including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift of some ofthe household burden ofeducation cost to the public sector will also put much pressure on the public resource allocation to the sector. Given the current high public spending on the education sector, efficiency improvement will be the key for the overall sector strategy. It will benefit all areas of sector development, including expanding enrollment, improving quality, lowering the unit cost, and strengthening system management. Strategic policy options should also be designed and evaluated comparing the impact versus cost under the focused sector development objectives.

Expand Enrollment Targeting 7.15 There are many ways in which targeting public spending on education in Kenya would help achieve access and equity goals more cost-effectively. Spending additional public resources on poor and underserved districts would not only be more equitable but would also increase the effectiveness ofpublic spending on education.

7.16 As noted earlier, there are huge, unacceptable differences in enrollment rates across provinces and districts. While some provinces enjoy universal primary enrollment, there are some that have primary enrollment rates of only 25 percent. If the Government’s goal is to raise the gross primary enrollment rate to at least 75 percent in all the provinces in the country, it

84 would have to target extra resources for primary education to the Northeastern Province and the Nairobi slums. Targeting can also be at the district, or even zonal, level. Generally, the finer the geographical targeting, the more effective it is.25 Indeed, the disparities between districts within one province is sometimes quite large. As Table A. 1 shows, in 2003, within the Coastal Province, the Tana River and Mombasa districts have GERs below 60 percent, compared with Taita Taveta’s at over 100 percent. Other districts with GER below 65 percent include the Eastern Province’s Marsabit and Isiolo districts, Nairobi, the Rift Valley’s Turkana, Samburu, and Kajiado districts, and all four ofthe districts in the Northeastem region.

7.17 In addition, some districts have more out-of-school children than others as a result of both the size of school-age population and the GER level. The current (incomplete) data shows that Mombasa, Nairobi, Turkana, Nakuru, Garissa, and Wajia are among the districts with more than 50,000 out-of-school children in each one.

7.18 Targeting could be an effective way of utilizing limited resources to achieve a more equitable increase of school enrollment. Instruments for targeting include both supply- and demand-side public funding (Textbox 7.1). The current process by which new schools are established in Kenya works contrary to the principle of targeting. The TSC and MoEST provide teachers to cater to initiatives by local communities. This often results in greater allocation of teachers (and thereby public subsidies) to better-off areas where local communities have the resources to establish or expand schools.

incomehouseholds or other Textbox 7.1 :Demand-Side versus Supply-Side Financing specific demographic groups such as orphans is another One of the policy choices government has is whether to link resourcing to schools or to individual students. Resourcing approach to achieving greater institutions rather than students provides the government with a education participation. very direct and administrative straightforward mechanism for Although every primary school- influencing the level of resources used in the sector. Resourcing age child has benefited from the the students, however, has other desirable effects in that it: FPE policy, there is also a need Permits precise targeting so that resourcing can more to put in place clear and accurately reflect the diversity ofstudent circumstances transparent mechanisms for Enhances the bargaining power ofparents since schools exempting the poorest students know that failure to deliver on student needs directly from user fees in secondary translates into lower resourcing; and schools and malung available to Encourages schools to be responsive to the needs of them bursaries and scholarships students and accountable to parents that help their families pay for other school costs (such as textbooks and uniforms). While there appears to be some (largely informal) exemption mechanism in place, it appears to be arbitrarily applied and does not adequately shield the poor from high user fees.

7.20 Unsatisfactory sector performance combined with high public expenditure in the sector indicates that system management efficiency needs immediate improvement to ensure the sustainability of any public policies for further sector expansion. The potential efficiency gains in the following areas are in particular need further exploration.

25 This is an area where data generated from the Management Information System of the MoEST can be used effectively. The timely availability of information on educational indicators at disaggregated levels can be useful in developing and fine-tuning targeting options.

85 EfJicient utilization of classrooms 7.21 Expansion of the system also calls for increased classroom capacity. However, classroom construction planning should be conducted in a longer timeframe. Policies to stimulate increased enrollment usually cause an enrollment surge in the first a few years, which overshoots the steady-state enrollment level. Over-building classroom capacity would cause unnecessary waste if a greater number of existing classrooms can be used more efficiently.

7.22 Double-shifting the use of classrooms is not common in Kenya. However, after the primary enrollment increase this year, many schools have successfully adopted the practice of double-shifting the use of classrooms, particularly for lower grades with shorter learning hours. This practice could potentially save substantial resources that would have otherwise gone into new building, which usually constitutes a significant part of sector resources.

Public-private partnership in education 7.23 Greater private sector participation in the education sector is inevitable for the future expansion of education, particularly at the secondary level. There is a range ofways in which the private sector can participate in the education sector. These include the traditional form ofprivate participation - namely the delivery of education services through privately owned schools and higher education institutions. But there are a number of other ways that the private sector participates in education. These include:

0 Private sector management and operation ofpublicly owned schools under contract to the state 0 Government or private sector provide education vouchers or scholarships to students to attend private schools 0 Private sector supply of inputs or provide services to the education process

7.24 An effective public-private partnership would also require a clear definition of the roles of the govemment. The ultimate justification of government involvement is to correct the market imperfections in education due to information asymmetries, capital market constraints, the existence of externalities, and the equity objective. These lead to the four principal policy instruments available to governments: (a) funding through both supply- and demand-side financing (See Textbox 7.1) (b) ownership; (c) regulation; and (d) information.

Improve QualiQ Efficient allocation and utilization of teachers 7.25 At primary level, redeployment of teachers to the areas with inadequate numbers of teachers will be essential to the improvement of education quality, particularly in those disadvantaged areas. Furthermore, there are large PTR differences among zones with districts and among districts within one province. For example, within the Coastal Province, the Malindi district has a PTR of 54: 1, while the Tana River’s PTR is 29: 1, Within Kiambu District, Tigoni Zone has a PTR of 48:1, whereas the Nagariana Zone has a PTR as low as 31:l. Therefore, redeployment of teachers is not infeasible given that within-district and within-province redeployment are relatively low-cost and less stressful for redeployed teachers. Further enrollment expansion will also require an increased teaching force to ensure education quality. However, the new hiring and deployment of teachers should be based on the need at the school level.

86 7.26 At the secondary level, it is expected that teacher need will be reduced under a streamlined curriculum. These extra teachers can be absorbed by the further expansion of the secondary education, although many ofthe teachers need to be retrained to adapt to the reformed curriculum and teaching core courses. This would also to some extent attend to the existing deficiency ofteachers in certain core subjects.

Ongoing Implementation of curriculum reform 7.27 The 8-4-4 system started in 1980s features a broad-based practical curriculum at all levels, which was meant to radically reorient educational policy to make it more relevant to the world of work and the need to produce skilled and high-level manpower to meet demands of the economy. However, the curriculum is too diversified, leaving little time for the basics. This curriculum orientation has draw much attention in recent years, particularly with regard to its cost-effectiveness in terms of reaching the basic objectives of general education. Having these extra subjects for which there is little demand imposes an unnecessary cost burden on schools and on the Kenya National Examination Council. The introduction of many practical subjects into the curriculum, while well-intentioned, is not effective, since many schools lack the equipment, facilities, and specialized teachers needed to effectively teach them. Sometimes these overly- specialized teachers have very few instructional hours because too few pupils register for their courses.

7.28 After a series of curriculum evaluations were performed, curriculum reform is currently underway to re-align curriculum design and learning objectives on each level. The revised curriculum is being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5, and Form Iin 2003, Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1in 2004, Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006. Teaching subjects at the primary level have been reduced from 7 to 5. The curriculum content has been revised to focus on teaching and learning essential core skills. However, arguably, the reform at the secondary level has been less effective. While the number of subjects examined in Form IV has been reduced, the number of subjects which schools can teach is still large, and TSC is expected to provide a teacher where there are at least 8 students wishing to study a subject. The overall effects of the curriculum reform on core course learning achievement as well as on lowering the overall cost should be under continuous monitoring and evaluation.

In-service teacher training and other teacher professional support 7.29 The ongoing curriculum reform also requires a great deal of in-service training of teachers and extensive teacher professional support to allow the teachers to adapt to the new curriculum. This is particularly crucial at the secondary level where many teachers may have to be re-trained to teach core courses within the streamlined curriculum with fewer subjects. The roles of Teacher Advisory Centres will have be re-evaluated and strengthened to provide needed professional support to transitioning teachers.

7.30 There are various ongoing teacher training programs financed by donors. Although they target primary schoolteachers in general, valuable lessons can be learned from these programs. The DFID financed distance education course could be further evaluated, strengthened and expanded to improve the pedagogical skills of key resource teachers in maths, English, and science. Under the World Bank financed FPESP, further teacher training programs are under preparation particularly to train teachers in the use of textbooks, managing large classes, and multi-grade teaching.

87 7.3 1 MoEST needs to develop comprehensive in-service teacher training and teacher support programs to improve the quality of the teaching force. Teacher training emphasis needs to move away from pre-service to in-service. Furthermore, the in-service teacher training should also move away from donor-driven, designed project by project, towards a continuing ministry owned operation.

Provision of teaching and learning materials 7.32 Until 2002, teacher salaries account for over 95 percent of the recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary level. As a result, there are hardly any public resources left for other school inputs, such as learning materials and textbooks. The generally poor provision of complementary inputs means that the effectiveness of teachers is significantly reduced. Instead of teaching, instructors spend their time copying material from their textbooks onto the blackboard, and students waste their time recopying the blackboard material into their exercise books. This is hardly the proper environment in which student learning can take place26.

7.33 Starting in 2003, the Government began giving school grants for textbooks and other teaching and learning materials. At the primary level, the spending on school materials has increased to close to 20 percent oftotal recurrent expenditure.

7.34 At the secondary level, to raise the effectiveness of public spending on education, the Government will have to continue to reallocate resources from teacher salaries to other recurrent inputs at the secondary level. To make the most of limited resources, there is need for the Government to develop policies and strategies with regard to splitting the financing burden between the Government, communities or households. Better-off students and communities who are able to pay for textbooks and learning materials may have to continue to finance these inputs themselves.

Improvement of school facilities 7.35 Overcrowded classrooms with an insufficient number of desks and benches also have negative effects on teaching and the classroom learning environment. Improving the conditions of school facilities may not only include new constructions but also emphasize the maintenance of school facilities, which is more cost-effective in general, particularly under double-shifting use ofclassrooms.

7.36 The distribution of classrooms relative to enrollment is also uneven across districts. As new schools and classrooms are generally constructed as a result of community initiative, poor communities usually face more severe shortage of classrooms. Targeted development funds should be considered. In the meantime, more populated areas also face the constraint of land availability to expand with new construction. For example, Kisume Municipality has a pupil- classroom ratio at over 70:l at primary level. Efficient utilization of classrooms is particularly crucial to ensure education quality in these areas.

26 Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu (2002) analyzed information fiom the project conducted by the Dutch NGO, International Christelijk Steunfonds (ICs), that provided funds for uniforms, textbooks, and classroom construction in the districts ofBusia and Tesoto thereby reducing the financial burden placed on families. They constructed a model to explore tradeoffs between student-teacher ratios, non-teacher inputs, and the costs ofattending school by observing the impact of the Dutch intervention, versus non-intervention and the transfer of students from one school to another. They found that the reduction in costs to families offset the negative effects of increased class size. Additionally, dropout rates declined and test scores were not affected. They recommend that the costs of textbooks and other inputs be financed by the Kenyan government through the cost savings of employing fewer teachers to teach larger classes.

88 Improvement of classroom effectiveness 7.37 There has not been much information so far in Kenya regarding the process through which educational inputs produce leaming outcome27. The research findings in other developing countries have shown that it is one the most important determinants of effective leaming and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis is needed in the areas of classroom leaming such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Enhance Efficiency ofResource Allocation and Utilization Rationalization of teacher compensation for better incentive scheme 7.38 The factors that determine the total teacher wage bill include both the average teacher salary and the pupil-teacher ratio. According to the 2003/2004 GoK budget estimates, the average annual earnings of P1 teachers, who constitute the majority of Kenyan primary-school teachers, is about 3.5 times as large as the country’s per capita GDP, while the average graduate I secondary-school teacher’s salary is 5.5 times the per capita GDP. Teacher costs are however high since benefits constitute a large proportion of their overall compensation package. Including all the benefits, the average teacher’s compensation would be 6 and 9 times that of the GDP per capita at the primary and secondary levels, respectively. Comparing these numbers with those of other developing countries shows that average teacher compensations in Kenya are now much higher than expected for a country ofKenya’s level ofper capita income.

7.39 Although the overall teacher salary bill has grown larger over the years, the PE composition in the overall MoEST recurrent budget has shown a declining trend since 2000. However, this mainly reflects that the overall allocation to MoEST has increased significantly in the recent years. For example, the recurrent allocation for Vote 31 of MoEST overall total increased from 35 percent in 200/2001 to 39 percent in 2003/2004. Therefore, the proportion of the teacher salary bill over the total GoK budget envelope still shows an increasing trend if it increases faster than the voted total of the recurrent budget. In this respect, the overall fiscal impact needs to be taken into consideration for future teacher salary increases.

7.40 There are also arguments in Kenya that teacher qualification need to better match their teaching positions. Teachers are paid by their qualifications, which does not necessarily reflect the job they are actually doing. For example, although usually only P1 teachers are needed at the primary level, graduate teachers are still teaching at this level and earning a graduate teacher’s salary. For these graduate teachers working at the primary level, the extra years of pre-service training are not fully utilized. The foregone cost is even higher given that these extra years in teacher training institutions could be better spent teaching, thereby gaining greater experience for more effective classroom teaching. In this regard, the need may also arise to streamline teacher training system to eliminate the inefficiencies of these “over-qualified” teachers.

Adjust pupil-teacher ratio 7.41 Kenya used to have one of the lowest pupil-teacher ratios in Africa. It is particularly low considering its per capita GDP. Furthermore, this ratio had been declining steadily over time - from 39 at primary level in 1963 to 33 in 2000. In 2003, following the enrollment jump, the current PTR has reached 39:1, although there are major variations from school to school and

27 The activities in this area sponsored by Aga Khan Foundation will provide valuable experience. However there is very limited information currently.

89 district to district. At the secondary level, the PTR dropped fiom 26 in 1983 to a mere 16 now in the case of secondary education. While pupil-teacher ratios are often used as a measure of school quality in the school effectiveness literature, it is not clear that the falling PTRs in Kenya have been associated with an improved quality of education. One reason for the inability of falling PTRs to improve student performance may be that declining pupil-teacher ratios have been accompanied by the reduced provision of other inputs like textbooks, which has tended to further reduce the effectiveness of teachers. The decline in the pupil-teacher ratio has also been a supply-driven phenomenon with teaching seen as a source of employment for an increasing number ofKenyans.

7.42 In the past, TSC was required to provide employment to all graduates of the teacher training colleges. This supply-driven approach has been replaced by a demand-driven approach in recent years with a freeze on hiring. However the deployment ofteachers over the years under the supply-driven approach has resulted wide variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across schools and communities. Currently, the overall PTR of 39:l at the primary level is quite adequate. If teachers could be re-deployed fieely nationwide, there would be no need for extra teachers except for replacing normal attrition, to the extent that enrollment increases further. Although there may be social or cultural barriers for a full range of teacher redeployment, it is still the first option one needs to consider for efficiency gains under a tight budget.

7.43 Curriculum-related overstaffing has been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. Due to the broad curriculum and few registrants for many selective courses, many teachers do not have a high enough teaching load. This situation should improve with the ongoing implementation of curriculum reform. However, this may also require re-training of many teachers because the training they received to teach certain subjects may not be useful for teaching core courses. The TSC recognizes the need to revise the norms which it uses to evaluate the number of teachers needed, and the study is to be undertaken shortly to provide basis for staffing schools, talung into account both educational needs and resource constraints.

7.44 In many cases, low pupil-teacher ratio is related to small schools with small class size in areas with very sparsely distributed populations. Alternative teaching methods, such as multi- grade teaching can be explored to increase ofteacher utilization.

Adequately allocate public resources between sub-sectors 7.45 The effect of nearly one million increase of primary enrollment in 2003 on the demand for secondary education and other levels of education and training will be seen in a few years. There is immediate need to plan ahead for the expected expansion. Given an improved economic perspective, it is envisaged that there will be increased resource demand at secondary and higher levels.

7.46 On the other hand, the GER for secondary education in Kenya cannot be compared with the average for SSA since most SSA countries have only 6 grades of primary education. Thus, while coverage stagnated during the 199Os, and there is no doubt a need for increased coverage, decisions on how much publicly--named upper general secondary education a country such as Kenya should provide at its present stage of economic development is not an easy one. For example, depending on labor market conditions, such resources could altematively be put into e.g., short-cycle tertiary education geared towards meeting labor market demands. Labor market considerations should play an important role in determining the priorities for public financing. How to efficiently allocate public resources among sub-sectors will be a major challenge ahead for a balance growth of the education sector to meet the needs of poverty reduction and economic recovery.

90 Strengthen Institutional Arrangement and Capacity for Service Delivery 7.47 Strengthening institutional capacity should focus on two major areas. The first involves management and planning functions at central level. The second area is the implementation capacity at the school and district level.

7.48 In addition to necessary review and revision of existing education legislation to cater for emerging issues and policies, at central level, there is need for (1) better coordination of central agencies including KIE, TSC, and KNEC for overall sector policy and standards, with (2) clear accountabilities of various agencies. There is also need for (3) enhanced the capacity of monitoring and evaluation function at the central level, which would further require (4) an improved EMIS and, (5) better Research and Development (R&D) function at this level.

7.49 In accordance with GoK public sector reforms, particularly within the context of the FPE policy in the education sector, major administrative and resource management functions have devolved to district and school levels. Therefore, there is need to strengthen the capacity at this level for the management of service delivery and financial accountability. The range of management issues at this level not only covers student flow management, but may also include hiring teachers, school-based teacher development, curriculum implementation, school level financial management, and monitoring and reporting.

7.50 Another important area is the decentralization of education service delivery with regard to the roles of Local Authorities. The involvement of Local Authorities would ensure quick decision-making to respond to the needs on the ground, and great improvement of the efficiency in service delivery. For the Local Authorities to perform the education functions effectively, both human resources and financial resources requirement need to be evaluated. In the meantime, the functions of DEOs shall be strengthened in the areas of pedagogical support and guidance to schools, maintenance of education standards, education quality assurance, and monitoring and evaluation of educational outcome.

7.51 Kenya currently lacks the prerequisites of a legal framework with specific mandates for Local Authorities in education service delivery. Nonetheless, with the discussion of the local government reform underway, this would be an crucial area for future education sector development.

Sector Development Projections 7.52 This section Provides the cost implications of sector policies, with particular interest in the evaluation of efficiency gains from choosing different policy approaches.

Primary Level 7.53 The size of the total enrollment is one of the most important determinants of the required resources. In general, a large amount of invested resources will also provide better capacity and quality of education to attract more enrollees. The total school enrollment is determined first by the school-age population, which is currently affected by declining population growth. CBS projections for the primary age group is at 1.33 percent p.a. declining to 0.80 percent p.a. by 2006. The implication of the trend is that Kenya will not be faced with a rapidly growing school- age populations in the coming years. Preliminary population projections, together with enrollment projections, are shown in Table 7.1.

7.54 According to the February 2003 school census, the total enrollment this year at the primary level has increased to 7.2 million from last year’s 6.3 million, including both public and non-public schools. The model here uses public school data as the basis for projection, since

91 funding for public schools constitutes a major part of public expenditures in the sector. The intake rate is estimated at 125 percent in 2003, following the FPE initiative.

7.55 The enrollment projection at the primary level uses the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the target, with the primary cycle completion rate reaching 100 percent by 2015. This requires that a universal intake rate together with a zero dropout should start in 2007 at the latest. To reach this target, the projection further assumes that the dropout rate would be reduced to one- half ofthe current level between 2003 and 2005, and later to zero.

7.56 Due to increased public investment in the primary subsector, particularly in improved educational inputs such as textbooks and other instructional materials, it is envisaged that there will be significant improvement in intemal efficiency. In the projection model, we assume that the repetition rates drop to two-thirds ofthe current levels between 2003-2005, and further to one- third of the current levels starting in 2006.

7.57 However, because many out-of-school children have enrolled in 2003, the intake rates in later years will not be as high as 125 percent. The projection assumes that the effect of the FPE will keep the intake rate at over 100 percent in the following two years, but gradually reduce it to a steady-state level of 100 percent. The model shows that the “FPE bulge” works its way through the system. By 2012, the last cohort of the “FPE bulge” will reach the last grade of primary cycle. The system reaches a steady-state in 20 13, with 100 percent NER and 103 percent GER.

Recurrent costs 7.58 Table 7.2 to Table 7.5 present recurrent and development cost projections at the primary level based on two scenarios. The “lower-bound” scenario assumes that the uneven distribution across districts and schools can be solved via complete redeployment of teachers. Classroom utilization can be intensified in areas where there are more than 40 pupils in one classroom on average. In this scenario, the national average will determine the total cost at this level. This scenario provides the lower bound of the cost estimation as it assumes maximal efficiency gains. However, due to some rigidity of teacher redeployment, and the capacity constraints of intensified classroom use in some schools and districts, the efficiency gains cannot reach this point in reality. Therefore, an upper-bound estimation is also presented that assumes complete rigidity of teacher redeployment and classroom utilization.

7.59 The number of teachers employed at the primary level drives the costs of the primary system to a large extent, which is the most important part of the whole recurrent education budget. International experience indicates that a class of about 50 is the maximum desirable for one teacher to handle, and that an average PTR of between about 1:40 and 1:45 is reasonable for maximum efficiency of teacher capacity. Low PTR before 2003 has been a distinctive characteristic of primary education in Kenya. The enrollment surge in 2003 has pushed the PTR to 39:l in public schools. Further increase in enrollment in later years could push it closer to the efficiency frontier.

7.60 The PTR under the lower-bound estimation remains below 43. The slight fluctuation over the years will ensure the number ofnew teacher hires per year remains stable so as not to put extra strain on the teacher training institutions or the supply of new teachers. If teachers cannot be re-deployed, it is estimated that about 9,700 new teachers will be needed in 2003. This figure is the total of new teachers needed in districts with PTRs higher than 40:l. By the end of 2003, every district would have a PTR lower or equal to 40: 1. This would result a nation average PTR of 38:l. In the following years, additional number of teachers needed will be calculated by dividing the enrollment increase by 40. It should be noted that the PTR will remain below 40:l

92 during the next decade or so. This estimation also provides an upper-bound teacher cost in the sense that the number of extra teachers needed fi-om 2004 onwards should be lower since many districts with a PTR below 40 do not need extra teachers for increased enrollment.

7.61 The other large component of recurrent cost at the primary level is school grants to provide textbooks and other leaming materials, and school operations including registration, examinations, school-based teacher development, minor repairs, and other school maintenance costs. Although economy of scale may vary the cost for these items, they are closely linked to the size (total enrollment) of each school. Under the current project of public provision of textbooks, it is estimated that 850 Kenyan shillings is needed for each child in school to have a minimum package of textbooks and other leaming materials during the 2003 school year (see Table A. 9 for details). In the following years, the unit cost is estimated as shown in Table A. 10 using the basic parameters summarized in Table A. 9. The variation from year to year is mainly due to the gradual introduction ofnew curriculum as well as various lifecycle of different components of the package. In addition, it is estimated 200 shillings per pupil per year should cover other areas of school operations costs.

7.62 Overall, the allocation of recurrent costs between salary and non-salary components would change from 96:4 in 2001. With maximum efficiency gains of teacher redeployment, the ratio could reach 75:25 in year 2003 at the primary level, compared with a ratio of around 85: 15 without teacher deployment.

7.63 The FY03/04 recurrent budget for MoEST has reached 39 percent of the GoK’s total discretionary budget. This share is not likely to increase significantly in the future. The increase in the domestic resource to the sector will largely rely on the economic and total budget envelope growth. Assuming a 3 percent growth rate in the coming years, the graphs below indicate no financing gap for this subsector. Indeed, there is significant surplus that could be used for other subsectors.

Development costs 7.64 Using 40 pupils per classroom, the number of existing classrooms seems to be adequate for the current enrollment. However, the distribution of classrooms is also uneven. Using district-level data, it is estimated that 11,600 extra classrooms need to be built to cater to 2003 enrollment. In the same vein as the recurrent cost projection, this provides an upper-bound estimate of construction needs. The projection results are presented in Table 7.5. The lower bound estimation is presented in Table 7.3. The unit cost for classroom construction is estimated at $5,000 per classroom, including sanitary facilities and basic classroom furniture.

7.65 The future cost-sharing relationship between communities and the state for building and rehabilitation investments is unclear following the introduction of FPE. The MoEST circular of January 8, 2003, stresses the importance of making full use of existing facilities, including double-shifting of schools (although it mentions only double shifts for classes 1-3 where enrollment expansion is the greatest). As far as the community role in providing facilities is concerned, it merely says, “While the Government is undertaking school mapping, there is need to expand the existing facilities. In this respect, communities and District Education Boards are therefore advised to put an embargo on emergence ofnew schools. . .. The Government initiative towards free education encourages community initiative as long as there is consensus by stakeholders.. .”. According to the experience in other countries, community involvement is essential to resource mobilization, which may include voluntary financial contribution, but more importantly, should promote greater community participation through in-kmd contribution such as volunteer work.

93 7.66 The comparison between lower-bound and upper-bound estimation provides the maximum gains for efficiency improvement. It is estimated that between 2003 and 2015, the total savings would reach US$600 million and $150 million for recurrent and development resources.

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+Development cost (lower bound) -." Development cost (upper bound)

100 Secondary Level 7.67 Secondary level enrollment is determined by the Standard 8 enrollment of the year before in the primary cycle, together with the transition rate from the primary to secondary cycle. Provided here are two cases of enrollment projections. The first is the baseline case, with the transition rate constant at the current level of 40 percent. It should be noted that even without an increasing transition rate, the gross enrollment ratio would increase from 23 percent to 38 percent in 2015, depending on capacity increase. This is mainly due to the expansion of primary education, producing more graduates from the primary cycle. The second case shows an expansion of secondary school enrollment, with the transition rate of 70 percent starting in 2007, together with a gradual increase in the GER from 23 percent in 2003 to 67 percent in 2015.

7.68 Due to the lack of information on school facilities at this level, the focus is on recurrent costs projection. The final result includes three scenarios for comparison, with particular attention to efficiency gains from teacher utilization. The baseline scenario is based on the base case enrollment without efficiency improvement of teacher utilization. Scenario one presents the recurrent resource requirement with constant transition rate but great efficiency improvement through increasing Pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 34: 1. Scenario two presents the recurrent resource requirement with secondary enrollment expansion together with more efficient utilization of teachers. All three scenarios keep constant the unit cost of school-level expenditure, ie., bursaries and other school expenditures under Head 800 of Sub-vote 316 of the MoEST budget.

7.69 Comparison of the cost projections under the three scenarios shows that there is tremendous saving potential from more efficient utilization of teachers. The projected domestic resources would not be sufficient to sustain the system without efficiency improvement ofteacher utilization. In contrast, Scenario one shows that with the same enrollment growth, but increasing pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 34: 1, this system can be largely self-sustained. Scenario two further shows that, with more efficient utilization of teachers, and even below the amount of financial resources required under the baseline scenario can largely finance a much expanded secondary enrollment with 70 transition rate starting in year 2007, resulting a total enrollment of close to over 2.6 million insteand of 1.5 million by 2015.

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&baseline scenario -' scenario 1 --t scenario 2 -x-domestic recurrent resources

Issues ofSpecial Attention for Further Sector Planning Teacher Demand And Supply for Primary and Secondary Education Expansion 7.70 Financial resource is not the only constraint for sustainable sector development. As teachers are the most important human resource in the sector, producing sufficient number of teachers in an efficient manner need a well-balanced planning process taking into account both the demand for teachers versus the teacher training capacity and structure in a longer time frame.

7.71 Current annual supply of teachers from teacher training institutions and programs is about 10,000 at primary level, and 800 at secondary level. According to the projections above, at the primary level, in addition to the existing capacities of teacher training institutions that are not fully utilized, the annual supply of teachers has also exceeded the demand for teachers. However, at the secondary level, although the demand for teachers can be eased through increasing pupil- teacher ratio for the first a few years, the annual output of less than 1,000 secondary school teachers can no longer meet the needs in the long term. As illustrated in Scenario 1, which has the lowest level of teacher demand among the different scenarios, there is still need of around 2,000 graduates a year by year 201 1. As secondary school teacher training takes a minimum of 3 years, expanding enrollment of teacher training for secondary education will need to be planned well ahead.

7.72 An effective planning based on teacher demand and supply would also require a more accurate estimation ofthe annual teacher attrition rate, particularly taking into account the impact of HIV/AIDS. The current rough estimate of 3.3 percent ofthe average teacher attrition rate may need to be further adjusted to reflect the situation.

107 Teacher Pay Award 7.73 The teacher pay award granted in 1997/1998 is envisaged to be implemented fully in 5-6 years. The fiscal implications of this pay award has yet to be evaluated to ensure the sustainability of education sector development.

Costing and Inclusion of Other Sector Development Measures 7.74 It also needs to point out that the current projection does not include all the sector development measures recommended. The main purpose of the projection model shown here is to provide a useful tool for strategic planning of the sector. In addition, detailed costing of each investment option needs the involvement of all the stakeholders, and in close linkage with the evaluation of implementation feasibility. This process is underway with the MoEST’s leadership in the development of a sector strategic plan and the preparation of a sector-wide development program.

7.75 As any planning is facing the constraints of financial resources and physical and humac capacity, evaluation and prioritisation of investment options is particularly important for strategic planning. This is in general a process of cost-benefit analysis. The benefit would be evaluated with respect to the impact on education access and equity, quality and internal efficiency, as well as in system management and institutional arrangement for effective education service delivery. The cost does not only include financial cost, but also the political cost and risks.

Further focused studies needed 7.76 The major objective of this report is to provide an analytical base of sector issues, and broad sector policy directions. To develop a strategic plan for the sector development, further focused studies are needed in the following areas: (1) determinants of the participation of basic education particularly in urban slums and nomadic areas, with attention to both demand and supply-side factors; (2) detailed teacher demand and supply study for the rationalization of teacher training capacity; (3) TSC staffing norms study; (4) study for the designs of effective in- service teacher training programs (5) institutional arrangement for effective service delivery, with special attention to decentralization and teacher management; (6) system monitoring and evaluation with capacity for Education Management Information System (EMIS); (7) current status of, development potentials and incentives for the private provision ofeducation particularly at the secondary level; (8) labor market study with close linkage with the development of secondary, TVET, and tertiary education. Conclusions . 7.77 Further development of the education system in Kenya requires a major investment in all the critical areas including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift of some of the household burden of education costs to the public sector will also put much pressure on the public resource allocation to the sector. The implementation of the “Free Primary Education” policy has pushed the education recurrent expenditure up to 39 percent of the total government discretionary spending in 2002-2003. Given the extremely high public spending on the education sector, improvement of efficiency will be the key for the overall sector strategy. The efficiency improvement would benefit all the areas of sector development including expanding enrollment, improving quality, and lowering the unit cost as well as strengthening the management of the system. The efficiency improvement in the allocation and utilization ofresources is particularly vital to the sustainability of the overall sector development.

108 7.78 The other crucial factor for sustained sector development is the balance between the sub- sectors. The enrollment bulge at primary level, together with quality improvement at this level will ripple through the system and lead to the increased pressure on the expansion of general secondary, technical and vocational education and training, as well as tertiary education. Overall planning is needed well ahead to prepare for the most effective sector-wide development strategies with close relation to Kenya’s poverty reduction and economic recovery efforts.

7.79 Further operationalizing the policy directions with sequencing and the design of investment mechanisms would require wide discussions among stakeholders under the development of a comprehensive sector strategic plan.

109 Annex I Additional Tables

Table A. 1: Primary GER by District, 2003 PROVINCE DISTRICT NAME ENROLL 2003 POPULATION GER (6-13 YRS) (YO) 1 Coast TANA RIVER 23,877 46,657 51.2 2 Coast MOMBASA 62,131 107,634 57.7 3 Coast KWALE 107,538 125,133 85.9 4 Coast KILIFI 124,660 139,398 89.4 5 Coast LAMU 16,249 17,357 93.6 6 Coast MALINDI 63,978 66,817 95.8 7 Coast TAITA TAVETA 62,736 58,443 107.3 Coast Total 461,169 561,439 82.1 8 Central KIAMBU 137,196 152,539 89.9 9 Central THIKA MUN. 13,128 95.5 10 Central THIKA DISTRICT 120,888 140,314 95.5 11 Central KIRINYAGA 95,957 95,510 100.5 12 Central NYERI 146,585 145,616 100.7 13 Central NYANDARUA 13 1,702 124,613 105.7 14 Central MURANGA 93,997 86,884 108.2 15 Central MARAGUA 111,931 98,614 113.5 Central Total 851,384 844,090 100.9 16 Eastem MARSABIT 16,047 3 1,229 51.4 17 Eastem ISIOLO 16,097 25,279 63.7 18 Eastern MOYALE* 12,249 15,134 80.9 19 Eastem MERU CENTRAL 102,483 105,223 97.4 20 Eastern EMBU 61,750 60,392 102.2 21 Eastern MERU N. (NYAMBENE) 159,585 155,598 102.6 22 Eastern MERU S (NITHI) 50,021 48,647 102.8 23 Eastern MBEERE* 51,211 44,594 114.8 24 Eastern KITUI 163,107 138,90 1 117.4 25 Eastern MAKUENI 249,528 2 11,627 117.9 26 Eastem MACHAKOS 272,635 229,244 118.9 27 Eastem MWINGI 103,727 84,124 123.3 28 Eastem THARAKA 31,589 25,179 125.5 Eastern Total 1,290,029 1,175,171 109.8 29 Nairobi NAIROBI 194,013 315,434 61.5 Nairobi Total 194,013 315,434 61.5 30 Rift Valley TURKANA 36,594 112,324 32.6 3 1 Rift Valley SAMBURU 24,05 1 38,957 61.7 32 Rift Valley KAJIADO 66,775 96,582 69.1 33 Rift Valley NAROK 80,193 97,699 82.1 34 Rift Valley WEST-POKOT 72,784 82,354 88.4 35 Rift Valley TRANS-MARA 43,127 48,215 89.4 36 Rift Valley LAIKIPIA 73,425 78,231 93.9 37 Rift Valley ELDORET MUN. 28,155 100.2 38 Rift Valley UASIN GISHU 118,812 146,611 100.2 39 Rift Valley BARING0 73,670 73,007 100.9 40 Rift Valley NAKURU MUN. 40,885 102.5 41 Rift Valley NAKURU 244,915 278,741 102.5 42 Rift Valley BOMET 113,129 106,277 106.4 43 Rift Valley KITALE MUN. 13,090 113.6 44 Rift Valley TRANS-NZOIA 156,993 149,708 113.6 45 Rift Valley KERICHO 134,787 117,177 115.0 46 Rift Valley BURET1 93,634 80,750 116.0 47 Rift Valley NAND1 169,962 145,781 116.6 48 Rift Valley KOIBATEK 43,103 34,141 126.2

110 49 Rift Valley MARAKWET 47,809 36,998 129.2 50 Rift Valley KEIYO 49,488 36,003 137.5 Rift Valley Total 1,725,381 1,759,560 98.1 51 Westem BUTEREMUMIAS 134,389 123,566 108.8 52 Westem BUSIA 108,869 97,452 111.7 53 Westem TESO 53,046 46,789 113.4 54 Westem KAKAMEGA 181,430 155,096 117.0 55 Westem VIHIGA 159,028 134,311 118.4 56 Westem LUGARI 70,601 57,851 122.0 57 Westem BUNGOMA 292,524 228,377 128.1 58 Westem MT ELGON 48,335 36,623 132.0 Western Total 1,048,222 880,065 119.1 59 Nyanza NYAMIRA 131,807 134,114 98.3 60 Nyanza KISII 130,062 128,518 101.2 61 Nyanza GUCHA 125,686 123,345 101.9 62 Nyanza KISUMU MUN. 64,229 101.9 63 Nyanza KISUMU DISTRICT 55,460 117,453 101.9 64 Nyanza SUBA 45,057 38,790 116.2 65 Nyanza KURIA 46,803 39,940 117.2 66 Nyanza SIAYA 149,251 125,632 118.8 67 Nyanza BOND0 7 1,990 60,153 119.7 68 Nyanza MIGORI 157,855 127,355 123.9 69 Nyanza NYANDO 94,912 74,509 127.4 70 Nyanza HOMABAY 93,580 73,263 127.7 71 Nyanza RACHUONYO 116,195 82,059 141.6 Nyanza Total 1,282,887 1,125,13 1 114.0 72 North Eastem GARISSA 16,654 106,705 19.6 73 North Eastem WAJIR 18,724 96,184 19.5 74 North Eastem IJARA 4,299 19.6 75 North Eastem MANDERA 24,771 74,982 33.0 North Eastern Total 64,448 217,871 23.2 TOTAL 6,917,533 6,938,760 99.7

111 Table A. 2: Classroom-Pupil Ratio at Primary Level by District, 2003 Pupil DISTRICT ENROLMENT GER # of Class Classroom ratio 1 Coast MALINDI 63,978 95.80 973 65.8 2 Coast KILIFI 124,660 89.40 2,153 57.9 3 Coast MOMBASA 62,131 57.70 1,366 45.5 4 Coast KWALE 107,538 85.90 2,409 44.6 5 Coast TAITA TAVETA 62,736 107.30 1,779 35.3 6 Coast LAMU 16,249 93.60 493 33 7 Coast TANA RIVER 23,877 51.20 891 26.8 Coast Total 461,169 82.10 10,064 45.8 8 Central MARAGUA 111,931 113.50 3,070 36.5 9 Central KIAMBU 137,196 89.90 3,791 36.2 10 Central THIKA DISTRICT 120,888 95.50 3,480 34.7 11 Central THIKA MUN. 13,128 95.50 382 34.4 12 Central NYANDARUA 131,702 105.70 3,929 33.5 13 Central KIRINYAGA 95,957 100.50 3,250 29.5 14 Central MURANGA 93,997 108.20 3,609 26 15 Central NYERI 146,585 100.70 5,944 24.7 Central Total 851,384 100.90 27,455 31 16 Eastem MOYALE* 12,249 80.90 25 1 48.8 17 Eastem MERU N. (NYAMBENE) 159,585 102.60 3,758 42.5 18 Eastem MARSABIT 16,047 51.40 403 39.8 19 Eastem MACHAKOS 272,635 118.90 7,040 38.7 20 Eastem MWINGI 103,727 123.30 3,042 34.1 21 Eastem EMBU 61,750 102.20 1,854 33.3 22 Eastem KITUI 163,107 117.40 5,299 30.8 23 Eastem MAKUENI 249,528 117.90 9,078 27.5 24 Eastem MERU CENTRAL 102,483 97.40 3,793 27 25 Eastem MBEERE* 51,211 114.80 2,008 25.5 26 Eastem ISIOLO 16,097 63.70 661 24.4 27 Eastem MERU S (NITHI) 50,021 102.80 2,187 22.9 28 Eastem THARAKA 31,589 125.50 1,515 20.9 Eastern Total 1,290,029 109.80 40,889 31.5 29 Nairobi NAIROBI 194,013 61.50 4,087 47.5 Nairobi Total 194,013 61.50 4,087 47.5 30 Rift Valley TRANS-NZOIA 156,993 113.60 2,657 59.1 31 Rift Valley ELDORET MUN 28,155 100.20 522 53.9 32 Rift Valley NAKURU MUN. 40,885 102.50 796 51.4 33 Rift Valley KITALE MUN. 13,090 113.60 289 45.3 34 Rift Valley TRANS-MARA 43,127 89.40 1,100 39.2 35 Rift Valley NAKURU 244,915 102.50 6,281 39 36 Rift Valley KERICHO 134,787 115.00 3,603 37.4 37 Rift Valley BOMET 113,129 106.40 3,033 37.3 38 Rift Valley WEST-POKOT 72,784 88.40 2,062 35.3 39 Rift Valley UASIN GISHU 118,812 100.20 3,469 34.2 40 Rift Valley NAROK 80,193 82.10 2,485 32.3 41 Rift Valley LAIKIPIA 73,425 93.90 2,313 31.7 42 Rift Valley MARAKWET 47,809 129.20 1,514 31.6

112 43 Rift Valley SAMBURU 24,051 61.70 784 30.7 44 Rift Valley KEIYO 49,488 137.50 1,617 30.6 45 Rift Valley KOIBATEK 43,103 126.20 1,461 29.5 46 Rift Valley BURET1 93,634 116.00 3,381 27.7 47 Rift Valley NAND1 169,962 116.60 6,604 25.7 48 Rift Valley BARING0 73,670 100.90 3,026 24.3 49 Rift Valley KAJIADO 66,775 69.10 2,861 23.3 50 Rift Valley TURKANA 36,594 32.60 1,649 22.2 Rift Valley Total 1,725,381 98.10 51,507 33.5 51 Westem BUNGOMA 292,524 128.10 4,725 61.9 52 Westem LUGARI 70,601 122.00 1,329 53.1 53 Westem MT ELGON 48,335 132.00 924 52.3 54 Westem TESO 53,046 113.40 1,038 51.1 55 Westem BUTEREVMUMIAS 134,389 108.80 2,701 49.8 56 Westem KAKAMEGA 181,430 117.00 3,862 47 57 Westem VIHIGA 159,028 118.40 3,968 40.1 58 Westem BUSIA 108,869 111.70 2,752 39.6 Western Total 1,048,222 119.10 21,299 49.2 59 Nyanza KISUMU MUN. 64,229 101.90 906 70.9 60 Nyanza SIAYA 149,251 118.80 3,035 49.2 61 Nyanza MIGORI 157,855 123.90 3,584 44 62 Nyanza KURIA 46,803 117.20 1,171 40 63 Nyanza SUBA 45,057 116.20 1,148 39.2 64 Nyanza HOMABAY 93,580 127.70 2,387 39.2 65 Nyanza NYANDO 94,912 127.40 2,459 38.6 66 Nyanza BOND0 7 1,990 119.70 1,886 38.2 67 Nyanza GUCHA 125,686 101.90 3,44 1 36.5 68 Nyanza KISII 130,062 101.20 3,695 35.2 69 Nyanza NYAMIRA 131,807 98.30 4,2 18 31.2 70 Nyanza RACHUONYO 116,195 141.60 4,090 28.4 71 Nyanza KISUMU DISTRICT 55,460 101.90 2,177 25.5 Nyanza Total 1,282,887 114.00 34,197 37.5 72 North Eastem MANDERA 24,771 33.00 562 44.1 73 North Eastem GARISSA 16,654 19.60 405 41.1 74 North Eastem WAJIR 18,724 19.50 494 37.9 75 North Eastem IJARA 4,299 19.60 129 33.3

North Eastern Total 64,448 23.20 1,590 40.5

TOTAL 6,917,533 99.70 191,088 36.2

113

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DISTRICT1 2000 Enrollment 14-17 Year oooulation Enrollment rate PROVINCE Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total COAST TAITA TAVETA 4,491 4,352 8,843 13,285 13,131 26,416 33.8 33.1 33.5 KILIFI 4,034 3,239 7,273 27,063 26,261 53,324 14.9 12.3 13.6 MALINDI 1,584 575 2,159 13,012 12,249 25,261. 12.2 4.7 8.5 TANA RIVER 1,130 989 2,119 9,289 8,957 18,246 12.2 11.0 11.6 LAMU 539 47 1 1,010 3,706 3,515 7,221 14.5 13.4 14.0 KWALE 3,012 2,839 5,851 24,167 23,900 48,067 12.5 11.9 12.2 MOMBASA 3,086 2,741 5,827 24,027 27,580 5 1,607 12.8 9.9 11.3 TOTAL 17,876 15,206 33,082 114,549 115,593 230,142 15.6 13.2 14.4 CENTRAL NYANDARUA 8,263 7,876 16,139 26,822 24,681 51,503 30.8 31.9 31.3 NYERI 16,727 16,556 33,283 36,002 35,193 71,195 46.5 47.0 46.7 KIRINYAGA 7,556 7,887 15,443 25,458 24,175 49,633 29.7 32.6 31.1 MURANGA 7,537 9,989 17,526 21,218 20,339 41,557 35.5 49.1 42.2 MARAGUA 7,977 8,370 16,347 22,310 20,960 43,270 35.8 39.9 37.8 THIKA 8,965 8,682 17,647 30,485 3 1,784 62,269 29.4 27.3 28.3 KIAMBU 14,841 15,660 30,501 33,848 36,238 70,086 43.8 43.2 43.5 TOTAL 71,866 75,020 146,886 196,143 193,370 389,513 36.6 38.8 37.7 EASTERN MACHAKOS 13,842 14,703 28,545 52,740 49,334 102,074 26.2 29.8 28.0 KITUI 6,736 6,539 13,275 27,915 27,304 55,219 24.1 23.9 24.0 EMBU 4,844 5,682 10,526 15,154 15,170 30,324 32.0 37.5 34.7 MAKUENI 13,011 12,083 25,094 44,761 41,913 86,674 29.1 28.8 29.0 MERU CENTRAL 7,186 7,315 14,501 27,078 26,710 53,788 26.5 27.4 27.0 MARSABIT 706 184 890 5,960 5,550 11,510 11.8 3.3 7.7 ISIOLO 700 381 1,08 1 5,401 5,210 10,611 13.0 7.3 10.2 MOYALE 177 177 3,06 1 2,960 6,02 1 0.0 6.0 2.9 MBEERE 2,732 1,746 4,478 9,682 9,349 19,03 1 28.2 18.7 23.5 MWINGI 2,249 94 1 3,190 15,895 16,391 32,286 14.1 5.7 9.9 MERU NORTH 2,940 3,332 6,272 30,463 32,837 63,300 9.7 10.1 9.9 THARAKA 929 496 1,425 5,506 5,645 11,151 16.9 8.8 12.8 MERU SOUTH( NITHI) 3,191 4,600 7,791 10,636 10,663 2 1,299 30.0 43.1 36.6 TOTAL 59,066 58,179 117,245 254,252 249,036 503,288 23.2 23.4 23.3 NAIROBI 9,745 8,281 18,026 64,441 88,191 152,632 15.1 9.4 11.8 RIFT VALLEY NAKURU 13,305 10,438 23,743 58,447 58,745 117,192 22.8 17.8 20.3 KERICHO 5,366 4,939 10,305 25,057 24,840 49,897 21.4 19.9 20.7 BURET 5591 3986 9,577 16,770 16,434 33,204 26.0 20.3 28.8 BOMET 4,356 3,344 7,700 21,105 2 1,256 42,361 33.6 27.3 18.2 NAND1 7,094 5,802 12,896 30,629 30,448 61,077 23.2 19.1 21.1 LAIKIPIA 4,098 3,542 7,640 16,873 16,392 33,265 24.3 21.6 23.0 KAJIADO 2,601 1,256 3,857 18,697 18,455 37,152 13.9 6.8 10.4 NAROK 1,881 1,711 3,592 16,63 1 15,682 32,313 11.3 10.9 11.1 BARING0 3,555 2,188 5,743 15,035 14,997 30,032 23.6 14.6 19.1 KOIBATEK 2,482 1,842 4,324 7,334 7,301 14,635 33.8 25.2 29.5 MARAKWET 2,281 1,393 3,674 7,651 7,390 15,041 29.8 18.8 24.4 KEIYO 3,820 4,232 8,052 7,559 8,000 15,559 50.5 52.9 51.8 UASIN GISHU 5.753 5,432 11,185 30,551 3 1.345 61,896 18.8 17.3 18.1

118 TURKANA 1,537 830 2,367 24,892 22,043 46,935 6.2 3.8 5.0 SAMBURU 1,059 391 1,450 7,410 7,267 14,677 14.3 5.4 9.9 TRANS MARA 1,056 612 1,668 8,289 8,255 16,544 12.7 7.4 10.1 TRANS NZOIA 4,693 4,544 9,237 30,876 30,013 60,889 15.2 15.1 15.2 WEST POKOT 1,910 1,492 3,402 15,394 14,659 30,053 12.4 10.2 11.3 TOTAL 72,438 57,974 130,412 359,200 353,522 712,722 20.2 16.4 18.3 WESTERN BUSIA 4,334 2,331 6,665 19,897 19,163 39,060 21.8 12.2 17.1 BUNGOMA 14,174 12,136 26,310 46,326 47,517 93,843 30.6 25.5 28.0 KAKAMEGA 6,732 6,801 13,533 33,630 33,431 67,061 20.0 20.3 20.2 MT. ELGON 1,689 1,237 2,926 7,533 7,309 14,842 22.4 16.9 19.7 LUGARI 4,070 5,181 9,251 12,143 12,008 24,151 33.5 43.1 38.3 TESO 2,108 1,634 3,742 8,975 9,132 18,107 23.5 17.9 20.7 VIHIGA 10,630 1 1,684 22,3 14 28,630 29,814 58,444 37.1 39.2 38.2 MUMIAS 4,087 2,852 6,939 25,238 25,037 50,275 16.2 11.4 13.8 TOTAL 17,824 43,856 91,680 182,372 183,411 365,783 26.2 23.9 25.1 NYANZA KISUMU 6,504 3,908 10,412 26,689 28,164 54,853 24.4 13.9 19.0 KISII CENTRAL 10,040 8,538 18,578 28,879 29,708 58,587 34.8 28.7 31.7 MIGORI 6,560 2,348 8,908 29,021 29,005 58,026 22.6 8.1 15.4 GUCHA 9,341 7,465 16,806 27,893 27,920 55,813 33.5 26.7 30.1 HOMABAY 3,087 2,015 5,102 16,581 15,979 32,560 18.6 12.6 15.7 NYAMIRA 13,322 11,619 24,941 30,526 30,979 61,505 43.6 37.5 40.6 SUBA 1,393 442 1,835 8,891 8,673 17,564 15.7 5.1 10.4 RACHUONYO 4,233 1,963 6,196 18,450 17,145 35,595 22.9 11.4 17.4 KURIA 1,197 1,045 2,242 8,131 7,541 15,672 14.7 13.9 14.3 BOND0 2,284 2,164 4,448 13,673 12,545 26,218 16.7 17.2 17.0 NYANDO 3,975 3,446 7,421 17,549 16,753 34,302 22.7 20.6 21.6 SIAYA 5,919 5,674 11,593 27,784 25,761 53,545 21.3 22.0 21.7 TOTAL 67,855 50,627 118,482 25 4,O 67 250,173 504,240 26.7 20.2 23.5 NORTH EASTERN WAJIR 1,257 566 1,823 2 1,422 16,275 37,697 5.9 3.5 4.8 MANDERA 1,029 330 1,359 16,081 12,699 28,780 6.4 2.6 4.7 GARISSA 1,361 559 1,920 25,124 2 1,323 46,447 5.4 2.6 4.1 TOTAL 3,647 1,455 5,102 62,627 50,297 112,924 5.8 2.9 4.5 GRAND TOTAL 350.317 310.598 660.915 1.487.651 1.483.593 2.971.244 23.5 20.9 22.2

119 Table A. 8: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and District, 2000

District/ Std 8 ( 1999) Form 1 (2000) Transition rate (%) Province Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

COAST Kwale 4,922 2,100 7,022 829 810 1,639 16.8 38.6 23.3 Kilifi 3,499 2,484 5,983 1,099 815 1,914 31.4 32.8 32.0 TaitaTaveta 2,905 2,907 5,812 1,136 1,130 2,266 39.1 38.9 39.0 Lamu 425 3 64 789 156 134 290 36.7 36.8 36.8 Tana River 687 536 1,223 323 266 589 47.0 49.6 48.2 Mombasa 2,736 2,750 5,486 795 751 1,546 29.1 27.3 28.2 Malindi 1,455 766 2,221 441 147 588 30.3 19.2 26.5 Total 16,629 11,907 28,536 4,779 4,053 8,832 28.7 34.0 31.0 CENTRAL Kiambu 7,009 7,239 14,248 3,996 4,183 8,179 57.0 57.8 57.4 Muranga 4,591 5,560 10,151 2,019 2,673 4,692 44.0 48.1 46.2 Nyeri 7,927 8,828 16,755 4,450 4,491 8,941 56.1 50.9 53.4 Kirinyaga 4,225 4,675 8,900 1,797 2,205 4,002 42.5 47.2 45.0 Nyandarua 5,895 5,874 1 1,769 2,195 2,052 4,247 37.2 34.9 36.1 Thika 5,281 5,402 10,683 2,342 2,352 4,694 44.3 43.5 43.9 Maragua 3,979 4,556 8,535 2,225 2,393 4,618 55.9 52.5 54.1 Total 38,907 42,134 81,041 19,024 20,349 39,373 48.9 48.3 48.6 EASTERN Machakos 8,835 9,153 17,988 3,639 4,023 7,662 41.2 44.0 42.6 Kitui 5,055 5,124 10,179 1,891 1,741 3,632 37.4 34.0 35.7 Meru 5,526 6,506 12,032 1,886 1,702 3,588 34.1 26.2 29.8 Embu 2,698 3,313 6,011 1,365 1,466 2,831 50.6 44.2 47.1 Isiolo 499 343 842 151 88 239 30.3 25.7 28.4 Marsabit 371 174 545 151 46 197 40.7 26.4 36.1 Makueni 7,606 7,864 15,470 3,603 3,281 6,884 47.4 41.7 44.5 Tharaka Nithi(M/S) 2,826 3,316 6,142 1,103 928 2,031 39.0 28.0 33.1 Mwingi 2,578 2,405 4,983 703 375 1,078 27.3 15.6 21.6 Nyambene 3,249 3,919 7,168 820 917 1,737 25.2 23.4 24.2 Moyale 393 151 544 49 49 32.5 9.0 Mbeere 1,797 1,940 3,737 725 457 1,182 40.3 23.6 31.6 Total 41,433 44,208 85,641 16,037 15,073 31,110 38.7 34.1 36.3 NAIROBI 7,733 7,994 15,727 2,472 2,191 4,663 32.0 27.4 29.6 RIFT VALLEY Kericho 4,197 3,737 7,934 1,363 1,420 2,783 32.5 38.0 35.1 Baringo 2,726 2,658 5,384 891 583 1,474 32.7 21.9 27.4 Nakuru 10,087 10,165 20,252 3,673 2,990 6,663 36.4 29.4 32.9 Laikipia 2,983 3,028 6,011 1,024 904 1,928 34.3 29.9 32.1 Kajiado 2,054 1,550 3,604 644 326 970 31.4 21.0 26.9 Narok 2,004 1,294 3,298 514 480 994 25.6 37.1 30.1 Samburu 538 342 880 238 109 347 44.2 31.9 39.4 Turkana 926 511 1,437 444 244 688 47.9 47.7 47.9 Trans Nzoia 3,825 3,705 7,530 1,343 1,394 2,137 35.1 37.6 36.3 Uasin Gishu 4,603 4,790 9,393 1,629 1,603 3,232 35.4 33.5 34.4 Nandi 5,283 5,103 10,386 1,958 1,649 3,607 37.1 32.3 34.7 Keiyo 1,784 1,833 3,617 986 1,108 2,094 55.3 60.4 57.9 West Pokot 1,466 906 2,372 551 48 1 1,032 37.6 53.1 43.5

120 Bomet 4,862 4,143 9,005 1,174 897 2,071 24.1 21.7 23.0 Trans Mara 1,048 657 1,705 287 158 445 27.4 24.0 26.1 Marakwet 1,535 1,234 2,769 599 544 1,143 39.0 44.1 41.3 Koibatek 1,564 1,744 3,308 611 474 1,085 39.1 27.2 32.8 Buret 2,785 2,853 5,638 1,402 1,095 2,497 50.3 38.4 44.3 Total 54,270 50,253 104,523 19,331 16,459 35,790 35.6 32.8 34.2 WESTERN Kakamega 2,264 2,822 5,086 1,859 1,938 3,797 82.1 68.7 74.7 Bungoma 7,241 7,146 14,387 4,034 3,528 7,562 55.7 49.4 52.6 Busia 2,722 2,288 5,010 1,139 638 1,777 41.8 27.9 35.5 Vihiga 4,285 4,842 9,127 2,721 3,086 5,807 63.5 63.7 63.6 Mt Elgon 1,093 1,007 2,100 419 355 774 38.3 35.3 36.9 Lugari 3,601 3,690 7,291 1,128 1,349 2,477 31.3 36.6 34.0 Butere/Mumias 2,808 2,764 5,572 1,035 811 1,846 36.9 29.3 33.1 Teso 1,265 885 2,150 557 466 1,023 44.0 52.1 47.6 Total 25,279 25,444 50,723 12,892 12,171 25,063 51.0 47.8 49.4 NYANZA Kisii 5,391 5,097 10,488 2,677 2,272 4,949 49.7 44.6 47.2 Kisumu 6,856 5,605 12,461 2,952 2,145 5,097 43.1 38.3 40.9 Siaya 5,654 4,837 10,491 1,566 1,554 3,120 27.7 32.1 29.7 Homa Bay 2,893 1,750 4,643 857 635 1,492 29.6 36.3 32.1 Nyamira 5,824 5,749 11,573 3,418 3,139 6,557 58.7 54.6 56.7 Migori 4,575 2,747 7,322 1,763 699 2,462 38.5 25.4 33.6 Kuria 1,076 788 1,864 318 300 618 29.6 38.1 33.2 Suba 1,589 923 2,512 408 138 546 25.7 15.0 21.7 Rachuonyo 3,541 2,339 5,880 1,125 569 1,694 31.8 24.3 28.8 Gucha 3,386 2,957 6,343 2,352 2,007 4,359 69.5 67.9 68.7 Bondo 1,448 1,046 2,494 668 665 1,333 46.1 63.6 53.4 Total 42,233 33,838 76,071 18,104 14,123 32,227 42.9 41.7 42.4 NORTH EASTERN Wajir 662 263 925 371 135 506 56.0 51.3 54.7 Mandera 651 273 924 247 91 338 37.9 33.3 36.6 Garissa 842 291 1,133 361 180 541 42.9 61.9 47.7 Total 2,155 827 2,982 979 406 1,385 45.4 49.1 46.4 GRAND TOTAL 228,639 216,605 445,2441 93,618 84,825 178,4431 40.9 39.2 40.1

121 Table A. 9: Composition of Standard Instructional Materials

life (year)

textbooks1 4 3 6 1 200 textbooks2 4 3 6 2 200 textbooks3 4 3 6 3 200 textbooks4 4 3 6 4 200 textbooks5 4 2 8 5 230 textbooks6 4 2 8 6 230 textbooks7 4 2 8 I 230 textbooks8 4 2 8 8 230 teaching-guide1 4 50 6 1 250 t-guide2 4 50 6 2 250 t-guide3 4 50 6 3 250 t-guide4 4 50 6 4 250 t-guide5 4 50 8 5 190 t-guide6 4 50 8 6 190 t-guide7 4 50 8 I 190 t-guide8 4 50 8 8 190

stationery 1 1 1 1--8 1501280 package chalk 1 50 5 1--8 150 register 1 50 1 1--8 45

Eng suppl. Reading. 3 1 1 1-4 801140 Kis. Suppl. Reading 3 1 1 1-43 1301140

atlas 4 10 1 6-8 365 Eng dictionary 4 10 1 6-8 400 kis dictionary 4 10 1 6--8 450

teacher prep. book 4 50 1 1-8 120 map world 5 400 1 1--8 1500 map Africa 5 400 1 1-8 1500 map East Africa 5 400 1 1-43 1400 map Kenya 5 400 1 1-8 1400 science kits 4 400 2 1-4 2000

122 -m d 22ON CN N2 r-W 3 3 P CN

m m w - '? '" CN r- mN mW

m 2 09 0N WN

r- t- d P- -c '? r: NC 0 t-2 m8 mN d0 W

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Cm hlC

N m Coc CN 2 N2 z 0. r W C - % NR 2N -0

\s N 0 C oq CN r: *z m

lr m w o! Ns m2 m d

P P 0 W CN od mr- xm Nx

c C CN Annex I1 Kenya at A Glance

Sub- POVERTY and SOCIAL Saharan Low- Kenya Africa income Development diamond' 2002 Population, mid-year (millions) 31.3 688 2,495 Life expectancy GNI per capita (Atlas methcd, US$) 360 450 430 GNI (Atlas method, US$ billions) 11.3 306 1,072 Average annual growth, 1998-02 Population 1%) 2.3 2.4 1.9 GNI Gross Labor force 1%) 2.9 2.5 2.3 per primary Most recent estimate (latest year available, 1996-02) capita nroliment Poverty (% of population below national poverty line) Urban population (% of total population) 35 33 30 Life expectancy at birth (years) 46 46 59 Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) 80 105 81 Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 22 Access to improved water source Access to an improved water source 1% of population) 57 58 76 Illiteracy (% ofpopulation age 75+J 16 37 37 Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population) 94 86 95 .YIII-* Kenya Low-income group Male 95 92 103 Female 93 80 87 KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS and LONG-TERM TRENDS 1982 1992 2001 2002 Economic ratios' GDP (US$ billions) 6.4 8.0 11.4 12.1 Gross domestic investmenffGDP 18.2 13.7 12.8 14.8 Trade Exports of goods and services/GDP 25.0 26.9 26.0 25.5 Gross domestic savings/GDP 14.5 13.7 4.2 8.7 Gross national savings/GDP II .8 9.7 9.6 13.1

Current account balance/GDP -4.7 -2.3 -2.8 Domestic Investment Interest payments/GDP I.3 2.5 0.7 0.5 savings Total debffGDP 10.0 86.2 49.5 51 .I Total debt service/exports 14.5 31 .I 13.9 9.0 Present value of debffGDP 30.7 Present value of debffexports 146.6 Indebtedness 1982-92 199242 2001 2002 2002-08 (average annual growth) GDP 4.4 2.1 1.1 1.8 3.5 Kenya Low-ncome group GDP per capita 1.0 6.4 -1 .o -0.2 1.8 - Exports of goods and services 5.9 1.1 6.0 1.9 6.9

STRUCTURE of the ECONOMY

1982 1992 2001 2002 Growth of investment and GDP (Oh) (% of GDPJ Agriculture 33.4 26.6 19.0 19.1 '5 T I industry 19.9 18.9 18.2 18.3 Manufacturing 12.2 11.1 12.5 12.7 Services 46.7 54.5 62.9 62.6

~ Private consumption 67.1 70.2 79.0 81.1 'i I General government consumption 18.4 16.1 16.8 10.2 Imports of goods and services 28.7 26.9 34.6 31.6

1982-92 199242 2001 2002 Growth of exports and Imports (Oh) (average annual growth) 1 Agriculture 2.7 1.6 1.2 1.o 20 Industry 4.3 1.6 0.7 1.4 10 Manufacturing 5.1 1.8 0.8 3.5 0 Services 4.9 2.9 1.3 3.6 -10 Private consumption 5.1 2.2 -4.4 0.0 General government consumption 3.6 6.6 4.3 6.2 -20 Gross domestic investment 1.5 4.3 2.3 3.0 Imports of goods and services 5.7 5.5 -1.2 2.9

Note: 2002 data are preliminary estimates. This table was produced from the Development Economics central database. * The diamonds show four key indicators in the country (in bold) compared with Its income-group average. If data are missing, the diamond will be incomplete.

124 Kenya _____ ~

PRICES and GOVERNMENT FINANCE 1982 1992 2001 2002 Inflation (%) Domestic prices (% change) T Consumer prices 27.3 3.9 5.0 15 Implicit GDP deflator 11.7 17.5 11.3 4.9 10 Government finance 5 (% of GDP, includes current grantsJ 0 Current revenue 25.1 27.5 22.5 22.4 97 98 99 oc 01 02 Current budget balance -1.5 1.3 1.5 2.4 Overall surplusldeficit -10.2 -3.3 -0.9 -0.9 i --GDP deflator "O'CPI

TRADE 1982 1992 2001 2002 Export and Import levels (US$ mill.) (US$ millions) Total exports (fob) 894 1,013 1,732 1,742 Fuel 223 69 115 101 4'000 T I Coffee 227 128 88 97 Manufactures 107 144 274 310 Total imports (cio 1,415 1,866 3,182 3,137 Food 83 156 290 300 Fuel and energy 523 412 810 809 Capital goods 250 41 1 756 803 1 96 97 98 99 00 01 Export price index (1995=100) 77 76 74 74 O2 1 Import price Index (1995=100J 112 91 100 104 I Exports H IWOrtS I Terms of trade (IG95=100) 69 84 74 71

BALANCE of PAYMENTS 1982 1992 2001 2002 Current account balance to GDP (%) (US$ millions) 1 Exports of goods and services 1,715 2,149 2,966 3,001 Imports of goods and setvices 2,030 2,152 3,939 3,850 Resource balance -315 -3 -973 -848 Net income -254 -355 -80 -70 Net current transfers 83 68 761 576 Current account balance -305 -1 80 -318 Financing items (net) 139 255 509 Changes in net reserves 167 -75 -191 256 Memo: Reserves including gold (US$ millions) 248 182 1,097 1,174 Conversion rate (DEC, /oca//US$) 10.9 32.2 78.6 78.7

EXTERNAL DEBT and RESOURCE FLOWS 1982 1992 2001 2002 (US$ millions) Composition of 2002 debt (US$ mill.) Total debt outstanding and disbursed 64 1 6,898 5,644 6,207 IBRD 0 656 24 13 A: 13 IDA 0 1,411 2,263 2,447 I G: 863 Total debt sewice 258 670 417 299 IBRD 1 159 26 13 IDA 0 16 51 60 B 2,447 Composition of net resource flows Official grants 143 378 252 0 Official creditors -15 155 62 1 Private creditors -136 20 -103 -1 8 Foreign direct investment 13 6 5 0 0 Portfolio equity 0 0 0 D 528 World Bank program Commitments 0 176 93 2 A - IBRD E - Bilateral Disbursements 0 92 116 66 B - IDA D - Other multilateral F ~ Private Principal repayments 0 104 58 54 C-IMF G - Short-tern Net flows 0 -12 58 12 Interest payments 1 71 20 19 Net transfers -1 -83 39 -7

Note: This table was produced from the Development Economics central database. 8/20/03

125 Bibliography

1. Education Sector Issues, Challenges, Policies, and Strategies, Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, February 200 1. 2. Master Plan on Education and Training, 1997-2010, Republic of Kenya 1998. 3. Education Statistical Booklet, Ministry ofEducation, Science, and Technology, Republic of Kenya, April 2000. 4. Report on Headcount of Teachers and Survey ofPublic Educational Institutions, Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development, Republic ofKenya, March 1998. 5. Primary and Secondary Education in Kenya: A Sector Review, Ani1 B. Deolikar, April 1998. 6. Setting Staffing Standards for Secondary Schools in Kenya, by Ian Halliday, Consultant. October 2000. 7. Efficiency ofPrimary Education in Kenya: Situational Analysis and Implications for Educational Reform, by Okwach Abagi and George Odipo, Institute of Policy Analysis and Research, 1997. 8. Labor Structures and School Enrollments in Developing Societies: Thailand and Kenya Compared, by Claudia Buchmann and Dan Brakewood, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 44, no. 2. 2000. 9. Public and Private Investment in Primary Education in Kenya: An Agenda for Action, by Okwach Abagi, Institute ofPolicy Analysis and Research, 1997. 10. Implementing the Report ofthe Commission ofInquiry into the Education System ofKenya (The Koech Report): Realities, Challenges and Prospects, by Okwach Abagi, Wasunna Owino, D.N. Sifuna, Margaret Waga, Charles Ngome, David Aduda and g. Karugu, Institute ofPolicy Analysis and Research, July 2000. 11. Education for the Next Millennium: A Demarcation ofImperatives, by Okwach Abagi, Institute of Policy Analysis and Research, April 1998. 12. Cost of ImplementingKenya’s Master Plan on Education and Training 1997-2010, by Githongo & Company, July 1998. 13. The Effects of Primary School Quality on School Dropout among Kenyan Girls and Boys, by Cynthia B. Lloyd, Barbara s. Mensch, and Wesley H. Clark. Comparative Education Review, vol 44, no. 2,2000. 14. Decentralization of the Teachers Service Commission, by Benjamin K. Sogomo, Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, 1997. 15. The Implications of The Civil Service Reform Programme on the Staffing Norms in the Teaching Service, by Benjamin K. Sogomo, Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, 1997. 16. Issues on Teacher Education and Management in the 2 lstCentury, by Benjamin K. Sogomo, Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, 1999. 17. The Determination of Unit Cost of KNEC Examinations, The Kenya National Examination Council, May 2000.

18. Economic Policy Framework Paper for 1999/2000 - 2001/2002, Republic of Kenya, 1999. 19. Public Expenditure Review, Ministry ofEducation and Human Resource Development, 2003.

126 20. Report on Formal and Non-formal Education in Parts of Samburu, Turkana, Marsabit and Moyale Districts, Ministry ofEducation, Science and Technology, November 1999. 2 1. Public Expenditure Review, Republic of Kenya, 2003. 22. Economic Recovery Action Plan, Republic of Kenya 2003. 23. Country Economic Memorandum (Kenya), The World Bank, 2003. 24. The Political Economy of School Finance in Kenya, Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu, 2002. 25. Decentralization of Education: Demand-Side Financing, Harry Patrinos and D. Ariasingam, 1997

127