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Catchment Sediment Dynamics and the Role of Deep-Seated Landslide-Dams; Waipaoa Catchment, Raukumara Peninsula, New Zealand

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Catchment Sediment Dynamics and the Role of Deep-Seated Landslide-Dams; Waipaoa Catchment, Raukumara Peninsula, New Zealand Catchment sediment dynamics and the role of deep-seated landslide-dams; Waipaoa catchment, Raukumara Peninsula, New Zealand. Richard James Taylor A thesis submitted to Victoria University Wellington in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science with Honours in Physical Geography School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences August 2011 Looking north towards the Poverty Bay Flats and Young Nick‘s Head from the southern hills of the Waipaoa catchment. "Let's think the unthinkable, let's do the undoable. Let us prepare to grapple with the ineffable itself, and see if we may not eff it after all." (Douglas Adams) ii | P a g e Abstract Sediment volumes retained by landslide-dams of the Waipaoa are small at 1.85x106m3 compared to the 24.5km3 (Marden et al., 2008b) of sediment eroded in the landscape since the last glacial maximum. Landslide-dams do however represent a major perturbation to sediment transport, although due to their mainly short life span this disruption is discontinuous representing a pulsing in the transport network. The objective of this study is to investigate the sedimentary dynamics of the Waipaoa catchment by providing insights into the role that deep-seated landslides play and asks the questions: What is the impact on sediment transport imposed by the landslide- dams of the Waipaoa catchment? and; What do the sediments impounded in landslide- dammed lakes tell us about catchment sediment dynamics through time? The Waipaoa River on the East Cape of New Zealand‘s North Island delivers volumes of sediment to the coast which are considered high by global standards. Catchment erosion is controlled by soft marine sediments, combined with a history of tectonic fracturing and frequent intense rain storms. Erosion events are driven by intense cyclonic systems rain storms which deliver ≥200mm/24hr rainfall and induce catchment wide gully erosion as well as shallow surficial landslides. Under current land covers gully erosion provides the dominant source of sediments, with high degrees of slope channel coupling and steep gradient river profiles providing for efficient delivery to the coast. Offshore in the Poverty Bay, sediments delivered by the Waipaoa River show considerable variability over a range of temporal scales. Valley slopes within the Waipaoa catchment are also susceptible to large deep-seated landslide failures, with movement depths greater than 5 metres often on internal structural failure planes. These large slope movements can be produced by both extreme storm events (≥300mm/24hr) which occur on a return periods of 1 in 5 years and seismic ground shaking of 1 in 1000-2000 years. Where these large events block channels and are able to persist for long periods, sediments accumulated upstream to provide a unique record of the catchments sedimentary history. There have been some 1100 historic large scale features which have been identified within the Waipaoa region, with this study selecting seven that have shown evidence of channel blockage. The project aims to provide insights into the age of a sample of deep-seated landslides that have dammed channels to determine how long landslide-dams survive in the landscape and quantify the volumes of sediment they have trapped. Further, the project aims to determine what the spatial and temporal distribution of these blockages has meant to sediment delivery and whether there have been changes in sediment dynamics in their upper catchments over time. The project uses the detailed mapping of the trapped body of sediments, GIS modelling of the palaeo and present landscapes and age control determinations provided by tephra and 14C dating to provide both volumes and rates of sediment delivery. iii | P a g e Acknowledgements This work is dedicated in memory of Dr Nick Preston, supervisor, mentor, role model and friend. It has largely been due to the support, encouragement and guidance that Nick provided throughout my undergraduate and then onto and including my postgraduate work which has motivated me in my research. Without doubt, no academic thesis would be possible without good academic supervision. In this I have been privileged to be under the guidance of Professors Rewi Newnham and Brent Alloway, who have with patience and good humour supported and nurtured this project. While the project was outside their individual areas of specialisation and the supervision of my work was a last minute commitment, they nonetheless have been dedicated to the cause. My scientific supervision and advisor on all things landslide has come from Mr Mike Page, who is a scientist I have looked up to throughout my short but intense academic carrier and whom I‘m very proud and privileged to be able to work with. Throughout this project Mike has been a constant source of inspiration and has challenged my thinking and understanding of the landscapes of the Waipaoa. I‘m grateful for the financial backing from GNS science and the MARGINs project team who have made the project what it is. The direction of Dr Nicola Leitchfield as project leader from the principal mission has provided constant support in terms of project resources, funding and motivation to produce the best results possible. I‘m grateful for the opportunity to be part of such an influential project at the cutting edge of research in landscape evolution. Field assistance was provided by Hamish McCoy and John Ballinger who have each in their own way helped to shape this project. I also wish to acknowledge the help that John and the others from ―The Undergraduates‖ who moved on to postgraduate study together have provided. As a close-nit team we have achieved a lot during the years of study together and have collectively developed into scientists. I wish you all well in your future careers. Above all else I‘m indebted to my lovely wife Kai, who has been my rock throughout what has been a difficult and sometimes frustrating journey of discovery. Without the unwavering support she has provided from beginning to end, from where there has been great hope and joy, through to the times when all was lost in the pit of despair, there would be no thesis. I‘m indebted for her belief in my vision and in this journey and without her love and support none of this would have been possible. iv | P a g e Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………. iii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………...…………… iv Table of Contents …………………………………………………………….…….. v List of Figures …………………………………………………………………….. viii List of Tables …………………………………………..….………………………… x Chapter 1: A view of the changing landscapes of the Waipaoa 1.0 Introduction …….………………………………………….………… 2 1.1 Project outline ……………………………………………………...… 2 1.2 Justification: Source to sink and landscape connectivity ………......... 4 1.3 New Zealand context and the ‗MARGINS‘ project ………………… 6 1.4 Research aims and objectives …………….……………….…….…... 9 1.5 Chapter outlines ……………………….....…………………...…........ 11 Chapter 2: Landslide-dams, sedimentation and landscape connectivity in review 2.0 An introduction from key studies ………….....………………....…… 14 2.1 Geomorphology and the role of large landslides ...……...…....……... 14 2.2 Sediment delivery concepts …………………………………...……. 16 2.3 Landslides and slope stability ……………….………………...….... 18 2.3.1 Landslide features, types and triggers ……….....………… 20 2.4 Landslide dams ………………………..………………..…...……… 25 2.4.1 Dam longevity and modes of failure ……..………..……… 27 2.4.2 Large landslides and landslide dams .……………...……… 28 2.5 Reservoir sedimentation …...…….….…...……………..…………… 32 2.5.1 Trap efficiency ……………..……….……….……………. 34 2.5.2 In justification of small reservoir studies …..…...…………. 37 2.6 Current and future research on sediment flux in the Waiapaoa …........ 38 2.6.1 The East Cape and Raukumara ranges ………........….…… 38 2.6.2 Totangi landslide-dam Gisborne …….........….…………… 41 2.6.3 Current and ongoing studies …………..…..….…………… 43 2.7 Chapter summary ………………………………..…….…….....…...... 44 v | P a g e Chapter 3 Factors of control for landslide-dams and rates of sedimentation in the Waipaoa 3.0 Introduction …………………………………………..….…………… 46 3.1 The Waipaoa River; a general setting …………………………..….... 46 3.2 Geology and tectonic setting ……….…...……….…….……………... 49 3.3 Climatic setting ......…………….……………………….……………. 54 3.4 Sedimentary history ……….………………………………………….. 58 3.5 Chapter summary …………………………………………….……….. 61 Chapter 4 The Waipaoa; mapping, modelling and the study sites 4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………..…… 64 4.1 Large landslides database and the site selection process …….…….… 66 4.1.1 Site selection ………………………………………………... 67 4.2 Site mapping ………………………………………………………….. 70 4.2.1 The sediment body …………………………………………. 71 4.2.2 Differential GPS ………………………………………….… 73 4.3 Coring and sediment body volume estimates ………………… 74 4.3.1 Core site selection and coring methods …………………….. 75 4.3.2 Core sampling and bulk density ………………….………… 77 4.4 Computer modelling ……………………...…………………… 79 4.4.1 DEM‘s and the palaeo-valley surface ………..…...………... 82 4.4.2 The sediment body and volumetric calculations …...………. 85 4.5 Age control …………………………………………………………… 86 4.5.1 Radio Carbon (14C) dating .………………………………… 86 4.5.2 Tephra (Electron Micro Probe) …………………..…………. 88 4.6 Individual site descriptions …………………….………………….. 89 4.7 Estimates of and possible sources for error .……………………….. 99 4.8 Chapter summary ……………….……….……...……………………. 100 Chapter 5 Towards an understanding of the sediment dynamics of a large catchment 5.0 Introduction …………………………….……………………………. 102 5.1 Mangakiore
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