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Home , Canada East, Cape Breton Island, Charles Bagot, Constitutional Act 1791, James Henry Craig, Jonathan McCully

assembly, was appointed in every . Until important reforms. The main changes, however, A BRIEF HISTORY OF 1848, when agreed to grant responsible would be imposed by the London authorities 1763-1860 government to the , the when they adopted many of the Executive Council was answerable to London recommendations in the report drafted by Lord rather than to the House of Assembly. Durham after the rebellions of 1837 and 1838 in () In 1791, Upper Canada had a population of about Upper and . One such 10 000 people. Most inhabitants were United recommendation led to the Act of Union of 1841, Empire Loyalists who profited substantially from which marked the end of Upper Canada and the From the Constitutional Act (1791) to the London's generosity. During the War of beginning of a new political era, that of United Act of Union Independence (1776-1783), subjects who wished Canada. (1841) to remain loyal to left what would later become the to settle in , The 1837 Rebellions Upper Canada, the and the Province of precursor of modern- (modern-day Quebec and Ontario). At that time, In Upper Canada (as in Lower Canada), part of the day Ontario, was Upper Canada also had significant Francophone population was critical of how the political elite created by the and Aboriginal populations. governed the colony. Matters of contention Constitutional Act of included political patronage, policies on 1791, which divided The first lieutenant- of Upper Canada, education, the economy and land grants the former Province , played an important role in (particularly clergy reserves) and the favouritism of Quebec into two establishing Upper Canadian society. He wanted shown to the Anglican Church. parts: Upper Canada to model the new territory on his native England The reformers took control of the House of and Lower Canada. and institute Anglicanism as the . The Assembly in 1828 and in 1834, but were unable to These two American invasion of Canada during the War of effect the desired changes. The arrival of were joined once 1812 was also crucial to defining the Upper Lieutenant-Governor , meant to again to form the . By taking up arms against the win over the reformers, did not achieve the Province of Canada in new republic, the former American settlers -- expected outcome. Head adopted a who made up a large part of Upper Canada's 1840 and were then Copyright/Source confrontational attitude and helped elect referred to as Canada population -- strengthened their existing ties to Conservatives. Moderate reformers like Robert West (Upper Canada, or Ontario) and England. Baldwin were defeated as a result. This played in (Lower Canada, or Quebec). The terms "Upper The that had governed the favour of and his more Canada" and "Lower Canada," in the Canadian province since the early 19th century became a radical approach. historical context, therefore refer to the period point of growing dissension in the 1820s. The between 1791 and 1841. Much of the heritage of contention culminated in the 1837 rebellions, led Initially, W. L. Mackenzie wanted to pressure the the Ontario we know today can be traced to this by William Lyon Mackenzie. Although they failed, colonial authorities and government by urging a Upper Canada period. the rebellions proved that the general population boycott of imported goods, encouraging political did not share the Family Compact's vision of unions and associating with reformers from Lower The Constitutional Act of 1791 was London's society. Influential men such as Canada. In late summer 1837, however, he answer to the with regard to and Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine -- who led a abandoned non-violent tactics and turned the administration of its North American colonies. coalition government on two separate occasions increasingly toward armed revolt. In early A lieutenant-governor, assisted by an executive (1841-43 and 1848-51) in the decade following the December 1837, W. L. Mackenzie and nearly 1000 council, a and a house of Act of Union of 1841 -- introduced a number of men met at Montgomery's Tavern in to attempt to overthrow the government. Between America. The Durham Report was therefore not a Sydenham's policy of blocking Executive Council 200 and 300 volunteers and militiamen, whom the threat to Upper Canada, quite the contrary. It was access to Francophones, Baldwin and La Fontaine government had won over to its cause, drove back thus not surprising that Upper Canada should formed the country's first coalition government. the rebels. Three days later, between 1000 and welcome the report, while it met with an angry This brief period of relative independence in 1500 Loyalists marched on the tavern and forced outcry by the French-speaking population, United Canada ended when Governor Bagot died the rebels to flee. The rebellion was almost over. primarily in Lower Canada. in 1843 and was replaced by Charles Metcalfe. A few skirmishes broke out in 1838, but none Governor Metcalfe firmly intended to put the posed much threat to the government. The people of Lower Canada protested against the reformers in their place, making co-operation Durham Report's drastic measures so loudly that between the two halves of the colony more The Durham Report and the Act of Union in 1848, seven years after the Act of Union came difficult. into effect, London was forced to recognize and Lord Durham was sent to Canada to report on the accept the use of French. The Durham Report also But Baldwin and La Fontaine were again called to reasons for the rebellions in Upper and Lower created a new political class -- moderate form a coalition government from 1848 to 1851. Canada. reformers who believed in co-operation between The "Great Ministry," as it was called, would His report contained three main Canada's two main groups at the time. In Canada contribute substantially to the legal and municipal recommendations: that West, there would be Robert Baldwin; in Canada system in United Canada. The coalition be granted to the British North American colonies; East, there would be Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine. government also adopted a number of important that Upper and Lower Canada be amalgamated to reforms that would change the colony's political form a united Province of Canada; and that French The Baldwin-La Fontaine Governments and social landscape. be assimilated. He also openly criticized the political cliques that controlled government In the election of 1841, the first under the Union, Ministerial Responsibility power in both colonies. London did what it could to favour Conservative candidates. In Canada West, 26 reformist The evolution of the political system introduced The implications of the Durham Report were much members were elected under Robert Baldwin; in by the Act of Union culminated in the granting of different for Upper Canada than for Lower Canada East, only seven true reform members responsible government to the North American Canada. Lord Durham wanted to re-establish were elected under Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine. colonies in 1848. From then on, ministers would peace in the colonies, and so recommended a Both politicians understood that they would have need the confidence of the House of Assembly or political union. He believed this peace could best to join forces to counter London's attempts to would have to resign. This concession by London, be achieved by ensuring a loyal English majority in dictate the colony's affairs. The arrangement a great step toward parliamentary democracy, , by anglicizing French offered advantages to both parties. Baldwin was partly responsible for the instability that Canadians, and by granting responsible wanted real power for the House of Assembly. marked Canadian political history in the ten years government. By making English the only official La Fontaine believed he must abandon the before in 1867. language of the Parliament of United Canada, the concept of a French state in America and play Act of Union afforded protection to Upper British politics to ensure the survival of French Canadian culture. By giving Upper Canada as many Canadians in British North America. Lower Canada (Quebec) parliamentary representatives as the more populous Lower Canada, the Act of Union Baldwin and La Fontaine worked together to make Conquest and a Fledgling Regime favoured Upper Canadian political life. By sure both became members of the House of recommending the assimilation of French Assembly and the Executive Council. Favoured by After the famous battle between the French and Canadians, the Durham Report bolstered the the presence of Governor , who the English on the Plains of Abraham of Quebec in presence of English-speaking Canadians in broke with former Governor General Lord 1759, and the capitulation of by the French in September 1760, the French regime was replaced by an English one. This period is now The American Declaration of Independence had The new constitution did not offer any solutions called the "Conquest." the effect of bringing to Canada a large number of for resolving conflicts that could arise between the The Conquest led to an entirely new regime. New Loyalists -- Americans who chose to flee the House of Assembly and the Executive Council. became a British colony, just like Nova United States to remain loyal to the King and the Therefore, the Act of 1791 brought the Scotia and New Brunswick. The British took Empire. They came to the northern British parliamentary system to Lower Canada, but it control over all the land and established their way colonies: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and clearly did not bring democracy. Freedom of of government. Quebec. Several of them settled along the upper religion was upheld, but the Act also provided for On October 7, 1763, the first constitution for the St. Lawrence and along the banks of establishing the Anglican Church. "Province of Quebec," the new name for the and . With the arrival of such a large At the time, the population of Lower Canada was colony, was introduced by Royal Proclamation. It number of Loyalists, the quickly 160 000, of which 20 000 were English-speaking. It set up political institutions modelled on British became difficult to enforce, as the Loyalists called was divided into four administrative : tradition. As had been the case under French law, for the British system of parliament and for British Gaspé, Québec, Trois-Rivières and Montréal. The the Governor of Quebec represented the King, but civil law. The British government answered the territory was also divided into 25 . under English law he had a more significant grievances of the Loyalists by proposing a administrative role, as he also replaced the compromise between their desires and those of Developments in Lower Canada Prior to the intendant. Almost 11 years later, the Royal the Canadians: the Constitutional Act of 1791. Uprisings of 1837-1838 Proclamation was replaced by the Quebec Act. This new constitution effectively increased the The Constitutional Act of 1791, or the Birth The first election campaign, with 50 seats at stake, size of Quebec by adding , the Magdalen of Lower Canada was held in 1792. There were no structured Islands, the Region, and the political parties or party leaders. The campaign Valley. Passed by the Parliament in London, the resulted in the election of 34 French-speaking and

Constitutional Act did not abolish the Quebec Act 16 English-speaking members. The House of The new act repealed the Royal Proclamation of but introduced some amendments. The new act Assembly of Lower Canada officially opened in 1763 and instituted a more realistic policy for divided the Canadian territory into two colonies, a December of 1793 at the Bishop's residence in dealing with the Canadians. It reinstituted French mostly French-speaking Lower Canada, and a Québec City. civil law, gave official recognition to the French mostly English-speaking Upper Canada. language and the Catholic religion, and allowed The first debate concerned the selection of a for the participation of Canadians of French origin To the existing offices of governor and legislative Speaker or President of the Assembly. Jean- in the civil administration of the colony. The 1774 council was added a house of assembly, which Antoine Panet was elected on December 18. The constitution also created a deeply felt upheaval in jointly held with the Legislative Council, the power language issue immediately haunted Assembly America. It enabled the Canadians to join the to pass laws for the peace, good order and healthy debates, and as a result the members were Empire, but raised the ire of the colonies to the administration of the colonies. The constitutional divided into two blocs. Although the French south. text remained silent, however, on the subject of language had no legal status in Canada, official These colonies, 13 in all, had gone through the status of the languages. In 1792, a special documents had been published in both languages considerable development, and they broke their order rounded out the act by establishing an since the Conquest. After a long and noisy debate, ties with England following the Declaration of executive council, whose members were the Assembly passed a law decreeing that both Independence of 1776. This independence was appointed by the King. This executive institution languages were official. Nevertheless, London recognized seven years later, in 1783, by the was answerable not to the elected members, but disagreed and imposed English as the only official , which recognized the 13 colonies to the governor, and the governor was answerable language of Lower Canada. French was admitted as the United States of America. only to the imperial government. only as a translation language. though poorly trained and under inept leadership. to the governor and the Executive Council to This first Parliament adopted only four laws of The war ended in 1814 after England sent 14 000 balance the budget. In 1818, the Assembly significance, covering the judiciary, the militia, well-trained soldiers under good leadership to approved the subsidies requested by the finance and highways. America. One outcome of this conflict was that it Governor, but demanded that numerous abuses enabled both English- and French-speaking be rectified, such as pensions for deceased Two parties began to take shape: the Party, citizens of British North America to discover that individuals, paying people to do nothing, salaries which brought together English-speaking they could co-operate in defending their common for non-residents, and fictitious salaries. members, and the Canadian Party, whose interests. Nothing was done. The following year, Governor members were French-speaking and were in the Charles Gordon Lennox, Duke of Richmond, majority in the House of Assembly. The bills The subsequent easing of tension between the submitted a request containing the same abuses. introduced in the Assembly by the Canadian Party two groups was short-lived, however, as both The Assembly voted on the budget section by were strongly attacked by the and, in most wanted to impose their own social structures. The section, refusing to allocate funds for abusive cases, were blocked by the Legislative Council. Tories pushed for a society cast in the British expenditures. The Legislative Council blocked the In 1805, the British business class founded The mould, characterized by political power in the effort. , a political paper that gave voice hands of the aristocracy, intense trade, to their business, national and political ambitions. unconditional attachment to royalty and the The abuses multiplied year after year, to the To show their opposition to the English, the , and a culture pervaded by benefit of a group of individuals under the Canadians founded a paper called in Protestant reform. Governor's wing. In 1827, 87 000 people signed a 1806. There were now two clearly defined classes petition denouncing the abuses perpetrated by in this new society: English merchants and In contrast, the Canadian Party preached a society this so-called "château clique." Canadians. based on local sovereignty, with power exercised While the subsidy crisis was fomenting, another on behalf of the working classes by the middle problem arose, this time concerning the Over the years, the tension increased between classes, and supported by agriculture, domestic sharing of customs duties between Upper and these two groups as each defended its own trade, the Custom of Paris, Catholicism and local Lower Canada. Due to its geographical position, interests. Some powerful Canadian spokespeople markets. Upper Canada had no seaport and was thus were already coming to the fore, notably Pierre- entirely at Lower Canada's mercy, as customs Stanislas Bédard, François Blanchet and Louis- Both coalitions, sometimes with no regard for duties were the main source of revenue for the Joseph Papineau. their own interests, fell back to stubborn, colony. intransigent positions, which effectively stymied The Canadian Party won the election of 1808 and Lower Canada's development and led to armed In 1797, it was determined that the lower immediately voted to expel two English members. conflict. province -- Lower Canada -- had to remit a share Furious, Governor prorogued of the customs duties collected according to its the House and called a new election. He also had The Patriot Insurrection (1837-1838) regulations and in proportion to the quantity of the presses of Le Canadien seized. The Canadian goods entering at Côteau du Lac. The issue was Party again won the election. Several events contributed to the rise of again raised in 1817, at which time it was agreed nationalism, which found its outlet in the that one-fifth of the customs duties collected by In addition to its internal struggles, Lower Canada insurrection of 1837. Apart from the numerous Lower Canada were to be remitted to Upper was soon under threat from outside forces. conflicts that pitted the two groups against each Canada. Motivated by expansionist fervor, the United other, a major issue worsened the situation, However, the crisis that developed in 1819 meant States declared war on in 1812. The namely the question of subsidies. Subsidies were that the necessary calculations were not made, Americans fielded a large army of 12 000 soldiers, the amounts of money that the Assembly granted and Upper Canada found itself deprived of its share. The feeling was growing that the existence statements, as well as one from Governor responsible for studying and reporting on the of two completely separate colonies was Dalhousie, who had returned to England for a Canadian question. inadequate. short stay. They decided to reject the bill, and assured the two men that it would not be studied Overall, the grievances of the delegation from The British in Montreal felt that uniting the English again during the 1823 session. Moreover, it would Lower Canada were recognized as well founded in forces of both was their only hope for never be considered again without the interested the ensuing report. In 1828, Governor Dalhousie becoming leaders of a majority, which would parties having had an opportunity to express their was replaced by Sir James Kempt. After the report allow them to develop unhindered the business views. from the House of Commons, the political climate opportunities along the St. Lawrence Valley. They improved throughout the colony. The new used the pretext of the administrative crisis to Nonetheless, Governor Dalhousie did not give up governor took advantage of the general lull demonstrate the inadequacy of the 1791 and continued to believe that union of the two created by the expectation of corrective measures constitution. Canadas was absolutely necessary to the interests from London. of British colonization. Upon his return to Canada, In 1822, the English merchants managed to make Dalhousie feared the worst for the 1824 session. In 1830, a new governor, Lord Matthew Aylmer, a secret presentation to London advocating An administrative scandal then came to light that landed in Quebec with new instructions. unification of the two Canadas. The plan called for seemed to justify the Assembly's claims regarding Meanwhile, the House of Assembly wanted to each "section" to be represented by a maximum the administration of public funds. An inquiry settle the question of subsidies, and made control of 60 members in a new, single legislature. The showed that the Receiver General John Caldwell, of all the colony's revenues and expenses a point merchants figured they could get about 20 who administered the public funds, was guilty of of principle. Governor Aylmer, however, informed members elected in Lower Canada, and therefore misappropriation. Some 100 000 pounds sterling the House that the next subsidy act would have to the 200 000 English people in both Canadas would had been used for speculative transactions and respect the requirements of the Crown. Once be represented by 80 members, compared with 40 had been lost. again the situation was deadlocked. Any hopes members for the 300 000 . At raised by the actions of 1827, the report of the the heart of the matter was who would truly hold Furthermore, Papineau was becoming an special committee of the British Commons, and power and be able to impose their law. increasingly formidable opponent to Governor the statements of the English ministers were Dalhousie's plans. Dalhousie called an election in dashed. When introducing the bill in London, the English 1827 in the hope of getting rid of this bothersome merchant asked for a quick vote to avoid a opponent. Election results were disastrous for the In February 1834, exasperated Assembly members counterproductive flood of protest. However, the English party, and Papineau was re-elected passed ninety-two resolutions that summarized opposition refused to co-operate. The bill was Speaker of the Assembly. It was too much for their requests and grievances, and sent them to withdrawn, but it was not completely dead. In Dalhousie, who refused to approve the choice and the government in London. The resolutions September, news of the manoeuvre reached the immediately prorogued the legislature. denounced all the injustices that the Assembly colonies. Meetings were called immediately and had noted, similar to the memorandum that the petitions began to circulate. The protest movement intensified. A delegation of Canadian Party -- now the Patriot Party -- had three members -- John Neilson, Denis-Benjamin submitted in 1828. This time, however, the tone Ethnic tensions mounted. Some 60 000 signatures Viger and Augustin Cuvillier -- was mandated to go was different, and the proposed solutions were of were collected, and two delegates, pro-French to London to present a petition containing 87 000 such an uncompromising nature that they rattled journalist John Neilson and Speaker of the House signatures and a series of resolutions that dealt the faith of those who had put their trust in the Louis-Joseph Papineau, were selected to go to with much more than the issue of subsidies. The wisdom of the British parliamentary system. London to present the petitions and fight against work they did led to the creation of a special Meanwhile, London had fallen into a position union. The British ministers heard their committee of the British House of Commons, where it could not intervene quickly. A domestic political crisis had caught the full attention of the House of Assembly. Protest meetings, soon to be The Durham Report (1839) imperial Parliament: in the space of 11 months, prohibited by Governor Gosford, were held there had been four different ministers everywhere. Rebellion finally broke out in the fall. After the armed uprisings, the administrator John responsible for the colonies. Despite this "Patriots," often poorly organized, took up arms Colborne dissolved the House of Assembly and overriding concern, a commission of inquiry was against the English army at St. Denis, St. Charles appointed a special council to administer Lower created to study the Canadian situation. During and St. Eustache. Canada until 1841. England was becoming worried this time, the House of Assembly of Lower Canada during this time, for riots were also breaking out in decided it would not approve any more budgets The crackdown was swift: villages were burned, Upper Canada and discontent was again on the so long as London did not accept its demands. members of the public were attacked, and women rise in its Gulf colonies. It appointed John George and children were put out of their homes just as Lambton, Lord Durham, a radical Whig, as The official response from England arrived three winter was setting in. Several Patriots who had Governor General and High Commissioner to years later, in May 1837. The British Parliament taken refuge in the United States were eager to British North America. Lord Durham arrived in was in possession of the report from the take up the struggle again. In February 1838, Quebec on May 27, 1838, to conduct an investigative commission, which rejected the under the direction of Robert Nelson, they investigation. theses of the Patriot Party and recommended that proclaimed the Republic of Lower Canada and the moderate reform begun in 1828 be continued. invited volunteer Americans to join them. The In 1839, having spent six months on the new Armed with this report, the imperial government American president did not co-operate, however, continent, Durham presented his report to the felt justified in imposing its views on the radicals and threatened to imprison anyone who English government. It dealt mainly with various in Lower Canada. compromised his government's neutrality. tactics he felt would restore peace: ensure the existence of a majority of loyal English people, As a follow-up, the British Parliament adopted the In November, the Patriots attacked English troops anglicize the French Canadians who, in his opinion, Russell resolutions, which placed an estoppel at Lacolle and Odeltown, but the operation was a had no chance of survival in an Anglo-Saxon against the demands from the Lower Canada fiasco. The second crackdown was worse than the America, and establish ministerial responsibility. House of Assembly. The Russell resolutions also first. More villages were pillaged and burned. To Durham, harmony could be re-established only authorized the colonial government to do without Almost 1000 people were arrested, twice as many by strengthening the influence of the people. the consent of the Assembly in the use of public as in 1837. Of these, 108 were put on trial, about funds, upheld the requirement for a civil list (to 60 were deported, and 12 were hanged in the The imperial government immediately rejected cover administrative expenses), confirmed the Pied-du-Courant prison in Montreal. ministerial responsibility, as it entailed broadening privileges of the British American Land Company, colonial freedoms. To put the Canadians in a state and raised the threat of unifying the two Canadas The Catholic clergy was not inactive during this of political subordination, London introduced the if they continued to get in each other's way. time of revolt. Monsignor Lartigue, the Bishop of Act of Union in 1840. Its purpose was to reunite By forcing Papineau and his followers to choose Montreal, spoke out against the insubordination the two Canadas under a single parliament and between submission and revolt, these resolutions of the Patriots and warned the faithful that those make English the only official language. only served to increase the momentum for who promoted revolt and disobedience might well Henceforth, according to the will of London, one rebellion. find themselves refused the sacraments. The was to speak only of United Canada. The English Bishop even went so far as to publish a notice that government felt that a colonial assembly Discontent peaked in Lower Canada in the spring defended the established powers. The Bishop of dominated by British elements would guarantee of 1837. Despite the repeated requests of the Québec adopted the same attitude. that ties to imperialism would be strengthened Patriot Party, London still refused to reconstitute and that British investors would be reassured. the Legislative Council as an elected body or to make the Executive Council answerable to the The Act of Union (1841) The objective pursued by England in the Act of The Atlantic Colonies Union was clear: hammer together a British-style The Act of Union was by and large based on the parliamentary system with an artificial majority, From Settlement to the Treaty of Utrecht ideas about assimilation put forward by Durham, while waiting for to run its course and who saw in the conflict a confrontation of two give the British a real majority. Such a system (1713) races and, in Francophone society, an atrophied would in all likelihood adopt policies favourable to cultural group that hobbled Canada's expansion. British colonization. So it was that French Environmental conditions and changing sea levels Canadians began their existence as a minority. have erased most of the traces of ancient human The Act of Union was passed by the Parliament in life on the Atlantic coast of Canada; however, London on July 23, 1840, and came into force on The measures of 1841 created deep wounds. In archeologists have determined that the region has February 10, 1841. It introduced numerous the Québec City region, petitions called for the been inhabited for at least 11,000 years. Evidence reforms. The two Canadas were to become one abolition of the Act. Some people suggested of European settlement dates back approximately United Canada, with one government. This United withdrawal from political life. The reaction was so 1,000 years, to when Norse explorers established Canada was to keep the institutions established by intense that, in 1848, London had to recognize a community at L'Anse aux Meadows, in present- the Constitutional Act of 1791: a governor who and accept the use of French. day and Labrador. was answerable to the British Parliament, an executive council appointed by the Crown, a At that time, the great French-Canadian champion Newfoundland captured Europe's attention after legislative council of 24 members, appointed for was Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine. During the 's voyage in 1497. The island's unique life, and a house of assembly of 84 members, half rebellion, he had developed his political geographical situation and resources continued to to be elected by Canada East and the other half by philosophy around the notion that political parties favour commercial ties with Europe long after Canada West . Officially, Canada East and Canada must be based on "opinions" instead of "origins." neighbouring Maritime colonies had become West simply replaced the names Lower Canada He felt that social peace and prosperity would provinces of Canada. Consequently, and Upper Canada. In practice, however, the happen of their own accord once racial Newfoundland and Labrador is distinguished from former names did not die quickly. distinctions were rooted out of public the Maritime provinces, a term that usually administration and institutions were given signifies Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince The implementation of political union, which freedom. Edward Island. unified the economy as well, greatly pleased the Canadian business class. However, it only made As a pragmatic politician who strongly denounced Newfoundland and Labrador and the Maritime the French Canadians angry, for several clauses of the discriminatory elements of the Union regime, provinces have in common their experience of the constitution humiliated them. For example, he invited fellow French Canadians to get involved colonization and early commercial development. Canada East, which had a larger population than in political life. Without being aware of it, European fishing and trade with the Native Canada West, was allotted the same number of therefore, Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine was urging peoples along the Atlantic and St. Lawrence coasts elected representatives -- a breach of the principle his compatriots to take the road that was to lead increased in the late 16th century. This of democracy. The civil list was raised to 75 000 to Confederation. relationship had a profound impact on Native pounds per year, and elected members no longer culture; in Newfoundland the entire had any control over it. Also, section 41 of the Act population vanished as a result of disease and a of Union decreed that English was to be the only shrinking land base. official language of the country. This was the first By the mid-17th century, whaling and fishing time that England had prohibited French in a fleets arrived regularly from England, France, the constitutional text. , Portugal and Spain, while French and British settlements were established in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and . The little choice but to accept Acadian neutrality. The following year the first Treaty of Paris was signed, uncertain territorial distinction between Nova British were preoccupied with the Mi'kmaq and transferring control of all French lands in North Scotia and Acadia was both a result and a source Abenaki populations who were attacking fishing America to Britain. of decades of conflict between France and vessels from New England. A treaty in 1725 failed England. Beginning with the settlement of Port- to resolve the situation with the Mi'kmaq and Acadian communities persisted in spite of the Royal in 1605, Acadia evolved primarily as a hostilities continued for several decades. expulsion policy, poverty and discrimination, and French colonial population. In 1621, however, contributed their unique identities to Maritime control of "New ", or Nova Scotia, was In 1744, England and France declared war again. culture. conferred on Sir William Alexander by King James I The French forces at on Île Royale of England (James IV of Scotland). were the first to learn of this development, and From the Second Treaty of Paris (1783) to they immediately launched a surprise attack on the Following a series of ineffective treaties, war Nova Scotia, achieving an easy victory at Canso. broke out between England and France in 1689 The subsequent siege of the British fortification at The first Treaty of Paris enabled the British to take and again in 1702. Control of the Atlantic colonies was far less successful, since the full control of colonial policies in former French was a central issue in both instances. During these arrival of reinforcements from New England territories. Consequently, Île Saint-Jean was years, the settlements in Acadia, Nova Scotia and caused France's allied Mi'kmaq forces to retreat. renamed the Island of St. John in 1769 and then Newfoundland endured devastating raids. Francis In 1745 the British captured Louisbourg, and only in 1799; Île Royale was Nicholson's attack on Port-Royal in 1710 signaled returned the fort following a treaty with the renamed Breton Island. The name New the conquest of Acadia, as Nicholson subsequently French in 1748. Brunswick was in use regionally in the 1750s, but proclaimed England's authority over the colony. it was not until after the second Treaty of Paris The Treaty of Utrecht followed in 1713, when War broke out yet again in the 1750s, this time that this Maritime colony was identified formally. France officially ceded part of Acadia to Great with tragic consequences for the . During

Britain. the conflict, the neutral Acadians refused to swear The 1783 Treaty of Paris followed the American an oath of allegiance to the British King. This, Revolution, which had generated violent conflict combined with the fact that they continued to Conflict in Acadia and the First Treaty of between New England and the neighbouring provide supplies to the French, led Governor Paris (1763) British colonies. Settlement in the Atlantic region Charles Lawrence to approve a mass deportation. had increased throughout the 1770s, and grew A decisive British victory at Beauséjour in 1755 The Treaty of Utrecht put the Acadian people in a dramatically with the arrival of exiles and Loyalists was followed by the expulsion of thousands of difficult situation. Under the agreement, France from the American states. The incoming settlers Acadians. Their homes, possessions and the land retained control of Île Royale (), included a sizeable Black population, even though that they had worked for generations were all and Acadians were encouraged to relocate from slavery was not abolished in the Atlantic colonies confiscated. Nova Scotia to this French territory. However, for many more decades. most of the Acadian population chose to remain in The Acadians were loaded onto ships and Nova Scotia, where they maintained a neutral The Loyalist settlers had a profound influence on scattered along the Atlantic coast from position between the interests of the British and the political, commercial and cultural life of the Massachusetts to the Caribbean. Although some the French. When the new governor of Nova Atlantic colonies. For example, the establishment Acadians escaped to parts of New Brunswick, Île Scotia, Richard Philipps, demanded that the of New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784 Royale and Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Acadians swear an oath of allegiance to the British was primarily the result of a Loyalist lobby effort. many individuals were separated from their crown in 1720, the Acadians refused. The Loyalist became the first families, or did not survive the forced voyage. The This was not the last time such an oath would be governor of New Brunswick in 1784, in spite of expulsion of Acadians continued until 1762. The rejected, though in this case the governor had protests against the division from the government grew increasingly dissatisfied with absentee of Black Loyalists. Saint John was the largest city in at Halifax and Governor John Parr. landlords and their associates, who ruled the with about 42 000 inhabitants, Legislative Assembly. Like Prince Edward Island, comparable in size to Québec City or Toronto at The and the first decade of the 1800s were Newfoundland had to struggle to free local that time. Fredericton, the provincial capital, was anxious but prosperous times in the Atlantic government from the influence of European far inland and considerably smaller, with 6200 region. Renewed war between England and stakeholders, particularly in relation to the fishing people. France boosted the shipbuilding and timber industry, which remained subject to early treaties markets, and commercial ties with England were between the British and French. The colonial economy was strong, based primarily further strengthened when the United States on timber and spin-off industries such as declared war on Britain in 1812. The prosperity of Political reform movements gained momentum in shipbuilding. (The importance of timber was the war years was reflected in the growth of urban the and 1850s, as individuals called for symbolized on the Confederation Medal, struck in centers such as Halifax, Saint John and St. John's. increased governmental accountability, improved 1867, on which the female figure representing However, the achievement of peace was equally voting and administrative practices, and more New Brunswick holds a lumberman's axe.) The momentous, as it brought a period of economic diverse official representation. Responsible province had close trading ties with the United depression and a new wave of immigration from government arrived in the Atlantic colonies, States, and benefited from the Reciprocity Treaty. Ireland and Scotland. The colonies were entering beginning in 1848 with Nova Scotia. Within a few into a new phase of profound social and political years the other colonies followed Nova Scotia's Government and Politics change. example. Prince Edward Island achieved responsible government in 1851, New Brunswick The colony achieved responsible government in in 1854, and Newfoundland in 1855. Toward Responsible Government 1854. While men enjoyed nearly

and a secret ballot, women did not have the right Political accountability did not necessarily mean As commercial, religious and cultural patterns to vote. The terms "Liberal" and "Conservative" political stability, however. Volatile governments, became more complex in the Atlantic region, the were used to distinguish parties, but official the American Civil War, commercial risks and political environment also gained complexity. affiliations mattered little, and voting in the regional ambitions all served to guide the Atlantic Some of the key challenges were built into the legislature frequently departed from party lines. colonies toward Confederation. local systems of government. For example, while Temperance was an explosive issue in the 1850s, New Brunswick's achievement of colonial status leading to new, unofficial political classifications: had represented a victory for its upper class -- New Brunswick "Smashers" -- generally Liberals -- supported mainly Loyalist officers and prosperous abstinence; whereas "Rummies" -- generally merchants -- the general population did not feel Pre-Confederation New Brunswick Conservatives -- were against the prohibition of that their interests were represented in the alcohol. The premier in 1864 was Samuel Leonard Legislative Assembly. Tilley, a respected politician and dedicated In the 1860s, New Brunswick had a population of teetotaler. Other major figures in New Brunswick In Nova Scotia, a similar divide between the urban approximately 270 000, concentrated mostly politics included Governor Arthur Hamilton and rural population had been growing since the along the north shore and throughout the Saint Gordon, John Hamilton Gray, and Edward Legislative Assembly was established in 1758. John River Valley. Those of English descent made Chandler. Prince Edward Island (then called the Island of St. up the majority of the population. There were also large minorities of Acadians, Irish and Scots. As John) achieved official colonial status in 1769, and within a decade its elite citizens had formed a well, many inhabitants traced their roots to the Legislative Assembly, though the Island's Loyalists who had come north during the population was only about 1,500. That population American Revolution, including a small community Nova Scotia based part of his 1863 election platform on the promise to call a conference on the matter. The collapse of negotiations with the Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia Province of Canada for an extension of the (ICR) has been suggested as Nova Scotia before the time of the Confederation a factor in the issue's prominence -- it was felt debates was a prosperous colony of that the region would have more influence approximately 350 000 people, spread around the bargaining as one large group instead of three coastline and throughout the . small ones. During its spring session, the Nova The population included people of British, Irish, Scotia legislature considered a resolution calling Scottish, German, Mi'kmaq and Acadian descent. for the appointment of delegates to a Maritime The largest community was the city of Halifax; union conference. However, interest then other major centres included Yarmouth and Truro. languished, possibly because of renewed Canadian interest in the ICR. The economy was based on the traditional industries of fishing, shipping and shipbuilding, It was not until the summer of 1864, when the agriculture, and natural resources such as timber. Canadians expressed interest in the proposed However, the newer industries of manufacturing conference, and requested permission to attend in and the railway were beginning to make an order to make a presentation regarding a full appearance. The region had a close trading British North American union, that discussion of relationship with New England, aided by proximity the matter was renewed. The colonies were and the Reciprocity Treaty. The sea-based forced to actually organize a conference for the economy of the region, combined with Halifax's Canadians to attend, and to appoint delegates. It function as a garrison city and its relative isolation was decided (after much deliberation) to hold the from , helped to forge a close discussions at , Prince Edward relationship with Great Britain. Island, beginning September 1, 1864.

The colony was one of the first to be given responsible government, in 1848. While men had almost universal suffrage, no women had the vote. The major political parties were the Conservatives and Liberals; their leaders were Charles Tupper and , respectively. Other major figures in Nova Scotia's political and public life included , Jonathan McCully and William Annand.

Maritime Union

The spring and summer of 1864 saw discussion of a possible union of the Maritime colonies. In fact,