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AUSTRALIANM ,.1i11,,, ,, � MUSEUM , 11-.1'' OANrA oll Micf"OSCft' NewSclentlst \\am 1 Nature ustralia up tront SUMMER 2001-2002 Volume 27 umber 3 Published by the Australian Museum Trust 6 College Street, Sydney. NSW 20 I 0. Phone: (02) 9320 6000 Fax: (02) 9320 6073 Web: http:// www.amonline.net.au Trust President: l3rian Sherman .ve ,lw.ays had , soft spot foe wombats. l don't really know why, but l find Museum Director: Michael Archer I them interesting and they definitely have the cute, furry factor working for .\ /a11<1<�i11g Ediwr JE IFER SAUNDERS, B.SC. them. But they also represent a bit of a conundrum. Why does such a large email: jennys ausrmus.gov.au herbivore living a predominantly single ljfe choose to live in a complex Scic11r!fic Ediwr GEORGINA HICKEY, B.SC. underground burrow system, and how can a wombat, living on such a poor email: [email protected] diet, afford the energy to dig such a burrow P/1010 Edi10r KATE LOWE system? In an attempt to answer these email: [email protected] questions, a group of scientists decided to Desi 11 & Prod11aio11 WATCH THIS! DESIGN calculate whether the effort of building a .,!dvenisi11g burrow outweighed the energy saved by Phone: (02) 9320 617 S11bscrip1io11s living in one. Answering this involved some LEONORA DALTRY outhern Hairy-nosed Wombats from South Phone: (02) 9320 61 19 Toll-free (1800) 028 558 Australia, a Jot of digging and crawling about Fax: (02) 9320 6073 email: [email protected] in tunnels (and not just by the wombats), Annual subscription (4 issues) PVC piping and the use of a 'porthole' Within Australia A36.30 Other countries A45 camera. For the inside story on what they A Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat at Two-year subscription (8 issues) the entrance to its burrow. Within Australia SA69.30 Other countries A83 discovered read "Life in a Wo mbat Burrow". Three-year subscription (12 issues) Some scientists definitely like to get up close and personal with their study Within Austraha A97.90 Other countries SAi 16 Pnces mdude GST where applicable. subjects. Chris Surman, author of "ln Pursuit of the Gurge", has to wait in Proudly printed in Australia by Mock.ridge Bulmer the dark on a wind-swept atolJ for his seabirds to return to their nests with 1ew subscnpaons can be made by crecLt card on the Nature Australia toll-free hotline (1800) 028 558 or use the form 111 this their stomachs fulJ of food so that he get them to vo1Ttit. He admits it's a messy magazine. If It has been removed, send cheque, money order or credit card amhonsat,on to the address above, made payable to business, but it's worth it because his research may help save not only the the 'Australian Museum' m Australian currency. seabirds but our fishing industries as welJ. On the other hand, Ingrid Visser has All material appearmg m Nature Australia is copyright. Reproduction m par1 or whole 1s 1101 permwed tvi1lio111 wri11e11 spent eight years studying and photographing Ki!Jer Whales off the coast of aruliorisa110,i from 1he Almwg111g Ed11or. New Zealand. She can now recognise many of these whales on sight and one l\'A11JREAUSTRALIA welcomes amclcs on the:: natural and cultural heritage of the Australian Region. Opnuons expressed in particular seems to recognise her. lngrid's research may prove vital in the by the authors are their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the Australian Museum conservation of Killer Whales and the oceans they inhabit. All :nudes m are peer-reviewed. l\'ATURL AUSTRALIA When it came time to select the photos to accompany Alison Downing and SATURE AUSTRALIA 1s printed on arch1val-quahty paper smtable for library coUecoons. Ron Oldfield's article on limestone mosses, Ron suggested it would be easier Published 2001 ISSN-1324-2598 if we came to him. So with lupes in hand, we set off to Macquarie University NATU!li AUSTRALIA not quite knowing what to expect. To our delight we were presented with an ,. i� proud winner of the 1987, '88, '89, amazing array of material to look through because l�on is a prolific ® '90, '91, '92, '93, '99 & 2000 Whitley Awards for Best Periodical, and the photographer with a passion for bryophytes. After sorting through hundreds of 1988 & '90Australian Heritage Awards. photos of hornworts, liverworts and mosses, we made our selection. Ron's FRONT COVER work is so good we've decided to feature some of his best in a future Photoart. An adult male Yellow-footed We also take a look at why native plants can become pests, how the ielsen Antechinus Park She-oak was saved from extinction, what lurks beneath the mosr (A 11tec/1i1111s jlavipes). Photo by C. Andrew beautiful harbour in the world, and why sex is death to male antechinuses. Henley/Larus. -J ·NNIFER SAU DER.'.

NA"l URI: AUSTRALIA SUMMER 2001 2002 contents

In Pursuit of the Gorge lt·s a messy business studying vomit, but you can get a lot of vital information from the stomach contents of a seabird. BY CHRISTOPHER SUR.MA 26 Kiwi Killers limestone Mosses New Zealand has the dubious honour For diversity and abundance, no other The Serpent Dreamtime of having one of the highest rates of moss flora can rival those found on Australia is notorious for its venomous Killer Whale strandings in the world. eastern Australian limestones. snakes, but 20 million years ago, things And, according to Ingrid Visser's study, BY AUSO DOWN! G were very different. Find out how it may have something to do with the & RO OLDFIELD different in the "Serpent Dreamtime". peculiar behaviour of this population 54 BY JOH SCA LO of whales. & MICHAEL LEE BY INGRID N. VISSER. 36 46

2 NA\ URI AU\ l \\,1\\ l \ \l .\\�\\·\\. 'tl(l\ ctHlc rtARE & ENl)ANCLll..ED Nielsen Park She-oak In one of the most densely populated areas of Sydney, the Nielsen Park She-oak was only ten trees away from extinction. BY CRAIG SHEPHAR.D 22

WILD TI IINGS Growing Native Weeds Tim Low gives some sound advice on the dos and don'ts of growing native plants. BY TIM LOW 24

PI-IOTOART Catching the Harbour Discover life beneath the most beautiful harbour in the world , life in a Wombat Burrow Sydney Harbour. BY AKOS LUM ITZER How do wombats on a low-ea! diet THE BACKYARD ATUR.ALIST afford co build their renowned massive Sex to Die for 70 warren complexes? For male ancechinuses sex is THE LAST WORD BY GLE HIMMI ,JAY E a double-edged sword. SKI ER & RUSSELL Native Pets: An Unnatural Disaster BY STEVE VA DYCK BAUD! ETTE ick Mooney argues against 20 usino- native animals as pets. 62 b BY NICK MOO EY 84

COLUMNS

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6 Nature strips News of the latest discoveries of our natural world. 76 Reviews

80 societv page Club and sociccic, around Amtrali,1.

82 Q&A Your quc,uom ,111,,H'rcd.

NAIUJU AUSlltAIIA SUMMElt 2001 2002 3 livestock fro111 ri11derpest, the disease co11ti1111es to ravage letters l,erds of b11.ffaloa11d k11d11, i11c/11di11,R those i11 Tsavo. T'l,e last outbreak of this 111orbilli11ims there was i11 Man-eating and Rinderpest savanna landscape. public and conservationists 1993. 811/ there was no Bruce Patterson and Ellis Historically, the savanna had do not realise is that it was correspo11ding increase in eiburger attributed the been open grassland with only a temporary 111a11-eati11Jt Lions. abandonment of the scattered Thorn Bush (Acacia environment created by a 'Bad teeth' a11d rinde,pest Ugandan railway rortilis) trees. By the 1920s, devastating disease. are j11st /1110 possible reasons for -!<..OBERT O FRAY construction in 1899 to when the ungulates had 111a11-eati11,R by the Tsavo Lions. PENGUI ' TAS. man-eating Lions with sore developed resistance to Others i11c/11de the proximity of teeth (1\'ar11re A11sr. Autumn rinderpest, the savanna had the Tsa,10 ca111p to the slave Ri11derpest 111ay 1ell have /,ad 200 I). Surely Lions have become a Thorn Bush 11 camva11 trail, 1111safe camping so111ethi11,R to do wit/, tl,e attacks always had sore teeth. so woodland. During this time a11d burial practices, and i11 Tsavo, b11t ri11derpest first why then hasn't there been a Europeans arrived and they opport1111ity. All of these wrote about these peculiar reacl,ed s11b-Sa/1ara11 Africa record of continuous attacks l,ypotheses are diswssed in my umbrella-shaped trees that 111itl, (1 ship111eut of I11dia11 cattle on humans of the scale book The lions of Tsavo: dominated the landscape. to the Italia11 {11'1/IY at 1\lfassa111a recorded at Tsavo River? explori11,� the legacy of Africa's This image of the African (Eritrea) i11 1887. It swept The more plausible reason 11otorio11s 111a11-eaters, which is savanna became indelibly tl,ro11gl, Kenya i11 1890-91, for the fatal attacks was due scheduled for p11blicatio11 by to the introduction of etched into our passed the Za111bezi River by McCra111-Hill ( ·ew York) in rinderpest in 1895. This consciousness. I 896, a11d destroyed 11p to 90 a11t1111111 2002. The book also cattle disease caused Today as national parks in per ce11t of 11ative cattle herds. treats la11dscape clia11ge i11 catastrophic mortality the e area begin to revert J-10111eve1; there was (111otl,er Tsavo, i11 111/,icl, Eleplia11ts play among native and to the more natural open ri11de1pest epide111ic i11 Ke11y(l a 111ajor role, bot/, historically as introduced hooved animals grassland, managers are i11 1898, 111ore localised i11 its 1vcll as today. (ungulates), the main source pressured to provide a effects 011 the mi/road li11e itself, -BRUCE PATTERSO of food for Lions. landscape with more trees­ that 111as triggered by i,ifected FIELD MUSEU I OF The real story to be told is simjlar to the one people cattle desti11ed for Uganda. the changes the disease had read about from earlier Alt/1011,�I, there are 110111 ATUR.AL HISTORY, caused to the east African this century. But what the 11acci11es that protect i11owlated CHICAGO

A thorn bush just after sunrise in Amboseli National Park, Kenya.

4 NA/'URI' AU�IRAll1\ \Ul\\1\\/lt 2001 21111' Native Pseudopets the rest of the world has lost resources such as vegetation 111011ey at stake in to11rism. in the past 500 years. We can and endangered mammal People concel'l/ed abo11t the It's people with views like keep on arguing against species can be recorded as euvironment sho11ld e11gage in Julie Murphy's (Letters, sustainable use and in favour living assets in annual e ,\',u11re/l11sl. Autumn 2001), political actio11 to stop tre of the old ways, or we can accounts. This system about not keeping native clearing, protect 111etla11ds, restore try another strategy. rewards enterprises that wildlife in captivity, that will ri11erjlo1vs, preve11t Horton postulates that demonstrate an increase in eventually lead to wildlife's ivoodchipping, and to establish placing a dollar value on natural resources. 111ore 11on-comrnercial national downfall. Admittedly, many f wildlife "would quickly Yes, ESL is a profit don't lllake good pets. parks and ivildemess areas. i complete the devastation of enterprise, but its core especially hand-raised males t/1ey 1va,1t to preserve partiwlar the Australian environment business is conservation, and of some species. but captive­ bits ef the e1wiro11111e11t, they begun in 1788". it uses the marketplace as a bred. parent-raised species co11/d give 111011ey to 11on-profit Unfortunately, he fails to tool to help reverse the can. There are so many Bush Heritage. note that this devastation has destructive effects of a SlllalJer species like bettongs, There are 110 q11ick fixes for occurred under a sy stem system that assumed people potoroos. bandicoots. the desperate e1wiro11111e11tal where natural resources have would do the right thing. ln possums, gliders, quolis and straits 111e fi11d ourselves in. not been valued! the view of many dunnarts that breed v ry -DAVID HOR.TO The statement "As the Australians, ESL and similar readily in captivity, pose no GUNDAls.00, NSW exploitation develops and companies are providing threat to anybody and make numbers decrease... " implies leadership in the field of very enjoyable animal Thankvou Readers an inevitable decline in conservation, and hope for a compa111ons. On behalf of the numbers, even where better future. One thing we should do is Queensland Frog Society, sustainable use is the -Ci-lEll..YL MCEGAN stop looking at them as pets l wish to thank Nature principal aim of enterprises STIIUING, SA in the conventional sense, Australia magazine for utilising natural resources. but more like pseudopets inserting for free our Public The rest of the article is There are doze11s, probably from \\·hich we and others Trust Fund brochure in the predicated on this fatal flaw. hundreds, of exa111ples all over can watch and learn. The Autumn 2001 issue. The Horton writes the 111orld, of the dangers of fact that most are active at tax-deductible donations we " ommercial imperatives co111111ercially exploiting ivildlife night is also good. Most have received so far are an and the e11viro11111e11t i11 general. people \York all day and don't encourage diversity of indication of the concern The prognosis co11ld be don't spend enough time breeds". This ignores the public and scienti ts have s11111111arised i11 111y three laivs. with their companion organisations like Earth for our native amphibians. Horton's First Laiv: animals. That's where the Sanctuaries Ltd (ESL) whose The Society wishes to vV/1ere11er the e1111iro11111e11t is problems start. aim is to save wildlife in the publicly thank your readers Many Australians wouldn't context of the entire co111111ercialised a11d there is a for making our aim­ know half the animals we biodiversity. ESL uses co11jlict bet111ee11 the 11eeds of funding further research into have in Australia, let alone income from ecotourism to profit 111aking and co11servatio11, the decline in native frogs­ have seen them. If we are to ensure both environmental the de111ands for profit 111ill a reality. protect these animals, people and economic sustainability prevail. Horto11's Seco11d La111: -JE NY HOLOWAY have to realise they need for its sanctuaries. The Where11er the e1wiro11111e11t is QLD FROG SOCIETY IN protection. Conservation strategy of this approach co111111ercialised there 111ill tarts in our own backyard. involves educating people inevitably be a co,iflict bet111ee11 about Australia's co11servatio11 needs and profit If more people kept native Nature Australia requests leners animals, we would learn a environmental issues and needs. Horto11's Third La111: be llmlted to 250 words and tvped lot more about them. And offering them the f;flhere11er the e1111iro11111e11t is education is the greatest opportunity to fund the co111111ercialised the co111111ercial If possible. Please SUPPIV a weapon against extinction. solution through the activity, 110 111atter ho111 s111all it 1 davtlme telephone number and -DEAN Ewan purchase of shares in the is at the begi1111i11g, 111ill gro11 JOHANNA, VIC. company. rapidly a11d ove1whel111 the tvpe or print vour name and Actually saving the w11servatio11 interests. address clearlv on the lener. The Conservation through Profit environment means The rece11t Fraser Island David 1-!orton's Last Word achieving measurable tragedy see111s a classic cxa111ple best lener In this Issue will article "Not So Easy Being outcomes. ESL was

NATURE AUS'I llAI IA SUMMloll 2001 2002 nature strips COMPJLED l3Y GEORGI A HI KEY

Blocked Noses this ide,1 co the test. in Sleepy Lizards is inhibited for Sleepy lizards Their study was made up by zinc sulphate, but ic leepy or Shingleback of two parts. First they had returns within 30 days S Lizards (Tiliq11a rugosa) co detcr111ine whether a nasal without any ill effect. maintain the sa111e home rinse with zinc sulphate, For the next part of their ranges and pair bonds year which is known to prevent study, the researchers ,1fcer year, despite being the detection of che111ical monitored 50 Sleepy Lizards active for only four 111onchs cues in other ani111als, works in the wild co determine on Sleepy Lizards. Untreated their home ranges. They DA JELLE CLOD!:, RICHARD of each year. Given the sheer lizards and lizards treated then treated them with zinc FULLAGAR.. KARI A size of the range (up co six sulphate, saline solution or HOLDE . /\\ICHAEL L EE, hectares) ,111d the ani111al's with saline solution were JASO1' \AJOR, KAR.EN lower-·11-a-lizard's-belly able co detect food hidden in nothing, and released chem M(GHEE, RACHEL SULLIVAN outlook, it was thought that perforated bags, showing back to where each had Ai':D Al3131E THO,\\AS ARE they co111pensaced for their increased tongue-flicking originally been caught. The REGULAR CONTRll3UTORS low visual horizon by and gaping near the bags but researchers fully expected TO NATURE STRIPS. orienting themselves with a ignoring bags filled with just the lizard with 'blocked' finely tuned chemorecepcion water. Once created with noses co become disoriented system (using their nose zinc sulphate, however. they and co wander away from and/or their vomeronasal spent equal time congue­ home, but the treatment organ located in the roof of flicking over the water and made little difference to the the mouth). ldo Zuri and food bags, indicating they r could no longer smell the Mike l3ull fom Flinders How do Sleepy Lizards maintain the University decided to put food. !early, chemoreception same home ranges year after year?

6 N i\ I U IU \ l , I ll \ I I \ , L \\ \\ I it 'Lill I 'l1 l ' King Penguins have some clever parenting tricks to cope with unpredictable food supplies.

lizards' performances. Zuri and l3ull conclude that, while che111oreception is important for finding food and mares and for recognising offspring, it is not e senti,11 for home-range maintenance. Insread, rhe lizards must rely on visual recognition of permanent landmarks and other signals associated with home boundaries. For Sleepy Lizards, the view may not be great, but there· no place like home. -R..S.

Penguins Prepare for Parenting ost penguin fathers are M dutiful and attentive parents. King Penguin dads, however, give new meaning to the term 'parental devotion' according to new research by Michel Gauthier- Clerc (C S, France) and colleagues. King Penguins (Apte110- dytes patago11ica) breed in colonies on the barren coasts of ub-Antarctic islands during summer. Each breeding pair produces a single egg, which the parents take turns in incubating. One holds it raised above the ground on the feet while the other takes off to the ocean to feed on fish, often travelling hundreds of kilometres in the process. Usually the male is in found, however, that the egg from a foraging trip any it's needed to feed the chick charge of the eggjust before males aren't powerless to time between three weeks before the mother's return. hatching and when the respond. Indeed, the father before and ten days after The King Penguin's ability female returns she penguins seem to have a hatching is due, he will do to store food in the stomach regurgitates the chick's first kind of internal clock that so with food still in his belly. without digesting ir, and feed. But, in such an allows them to actually The closer to the due also ro know when the unpredictable environment prepare for such a scenario. hatching date that he chick is likely to h,1rch, the where long and perilous In a study of birds arrives, the more food he rese,1rchcrs ,uggest, is an journeys are involved, things breeding on the rozet has retained in his stomach. adapt,1tion ro the don't always run smoothly Archipelago, the researchers Not only this, he' ll hang unprcdict,1ble fr)od supplies and the female can often found that when a male onto this food in his belly of" the Southern Occ,m return late. The researchers I

NAIURL AUSIRALIA '>UMMLI� 2001 2002 7 capable of infecting all mammals, but its definitive host is the pussycat. That means that, in order to complete its life cycle and reproduce sexually, the parasite must be transmitted to the gut of a Cat. Manuel l3erdoy and colleagues from Oxford University have been examining the behavioural differences between healthy lab rats and those infected with "Joxoplasma gondii. By marking separate corners of an enclosure with Eau de l<..at, Cat, R..abbit and Fresh Air, the researchers could test the lab rats' preference for and avoidance of the different smells. The healthy rats showed a defensive reaction to Car's Corner, but rats infected with T go11dii di played a fatal attraction to Cat scent and none of the usual anxiety brought about by the enemy. There was no Not amused? This Impala IAepyceros melampus) may be providing more than just ticks to the Red-billed Oxpecker. difference in the reactions to the other smells by healthy or uninfected rats. Ticked Off found there were no less more complex than they How doe the parasite any species do rh_ings ticks on the exposed oxen first appear. In climates M rum a scaredy rat into a that seem to benefit char those with no bird where tick infestations are daredevil1 The researcher themselves and another contact. He also found in higher than in the area uggesc chat the parasite is species at the same time. A two out of three field studied, the relationship may able to change the cognitive classic example is the Red­ experiments that the be more beneficial for the perceptions of its inter­ billed Oxpecker (Buphagus wounds on oxen exposed to host. But for these Bonsmara mediate host. It makes its erythrorhynch11s), which picks the birds were more likely to Oxen, it's more a case of home on the brain of the ticks off large African persist or recur. It turns out "You scratch my back, but mammals. Because ricks that the birds actually spent I'd rather you didn't". animal, forming large cyst drain blood and cause most of their time (85 per -A.T. that seem to block the infections, it has always been cent) drinking blood from anxiety receptor so the rat assumed the host benefits as wounds, not picking off Fatal Attraction becomes fearle s of its much as the bird. But is this ricks. Even when they did, ars hate ats; everyone predator. Although the really so? Paul Weeks from they would generally go for R knows that. They will parasite won't directly kill Cambridge University fully engorged ricks, scamper away at the slightest the r,lt, it will manipulate its f decided to test this old suggesting that the blood, whif of a feline predator. behaviour until it falls victim assumption. rather than the insect, was Yet every so often a fearless to ,1 ,at, ensuring the He studied two groups of the real attraction. rat emerges, one so bold and parasite's own surviv,11. -K.H. Bonsmara Oxen over four Weeks argues char a bird daring it won't run away and weeks at a ranch in eating a tick full of blood hide. One that will actuall The Skink link Zimbabwe. Both groups hardly benefits the host-the play Tom and Jerry. What l if'c is tough Oil top of were equally exposed to tick has already taken the gives that rat pluck? The I Iob.m� Mount \ dlingron. normal tick infestations, but blood and passed on any answer is '/i,xoplas,1111 go11rlii. Temperatures frc'qucntly oxpeckers were kept away disease it might have. He 'Ji,xop/11s111<1 go11rlii is a drop belo\\' zero. bittt'r-cold entirely from one group. cautions that mutualisric protozoan commonly found winds blow ye.1r round. ,111d Despite the birds, Weeks relationships may be far in rn popu larions. It is snow c.rn fill ,rny time. Ir's

1" 8 N/\1Ulll /\U\ I Jl ,\11,\ \Ll\\\\l ll 2lllll 2lil 110 wonder that 011e little The Tasmanian Honey Bush relies on resident plant known as the the Snow Skink to expose its reproductive organs. Honey Bush (Rir/1er1 scoparia) carries its delicate unpredictable weather, it's reproductive orga11s inside best for mature calyptra to be secure capsules formed by opened when conditions are fused petals (calyptra). mildest. That is exactly when While that's great for lizards and insects , being protection against the 'cold-blooded' ectotherms, elements. it has a couple of are out and about. And, not critical drawbacks: insects surprisingly, lizards can ·t get in co pollinate the overwhelmingly prefer plane, and seeds can't get mature calyptra (brown and out. However, research by laden with nectar) to those Mats Olsson, now at that are unripe (pinkish red weden ·s University of in colour and offering much Gothenburg, and colleagues less of a reward). has revealed how the Honey -K.McG. Bush ingeniou ly overcomes however, they feed almost the seeds that later develop. this problem with the aid of exclusively on Honey Bush The researchers found that, The Lazv Cannibal a small reptile, the Snow nectar, which they obtain by by varying the amount o( he monstrous pincers and kink (1Yiveosci11ws 111icro­ ripping open the calyptra nectar offered, Honey T venomous sting of the lepidor11s). along the plant's flower Bushes have quite a degree scorpion can send terror Snow Skinks occur in spikes. In so doing, the of control over their coursing through the veins of large numbers on Mt skinks expose the Honey relationship with now people who suffer Wellingcon where, for most Bush's reproductive organs kinks. To optimise arachnophobia. Yet it may of the year, they scavenge co pollinating insects and pollination in a place help these sufferers co know mainly insects. In summer, provide an escape route for with such severe and that scorpions have all the

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NA1 URE AUSTltAI IA '>UMMl:lt 2001 2002 9 Cannibalism is rife in scorpion in a long list of modern society. behaviours, Mcl3rearty and bloated stomachs for nest Brooks point out that mates to feed on. By production of stone blades, gr producing excess young to points, indstones and use eat at a later date, scorpions of ochre is older than have found a unique life 200,000 years; by 100,00() strategy that allows them to years ago there is evidence sit back and relax into for fishing, exchange, desert life. delicate bone tools, barbed -K.H. points and other decorative items; and microlithic tooh, Becoming Human beads and artistic images appear between about n contrast with the early 40,000 and 70,000 years evidence of anatomicalJy I ago. modern humans out of Does the evidence Africa by J 00,000 years ago indicate gradual behavioural (and some would argue into evolution within Africa Australia by 60,000 years and more of a revolution ago), the first convincing outside1 McBreaty and and widespread trace of modern human behaviour Brooks argue that the out of Africa seems to sudden changes chat appear arrive in an archaeological less than 50,000 years ago instant. About out of Africa did not emerge -1-0,000-50,000 years ago, an indigenously but are a extraordinary burst of consequence of rapid artistic activity and new tool nugrations. Therefore this kits flood the older and cannot be called a revolution highly stable technologies of at ail. The researchers earlier human groups. In suggest that the apparent Europe, so rapid and time lag between dramatic were the changes anatomically and that many scientists believe behaviouralJy modern the older human groups, humans in the Middle the Neanderthals, simply East and else\\'here is more vigour of a zombie: their of desert dune. Bad news for could not compete and a reflection of the metabolic rate ticks over at arachnophobics planning a became extinct. In a discontinuous and limited only a quarter of the rate of desert holiday. Bad news also meticulous review of nature of che archaeologic,1! other arthropods the same for the smaller scorpions­ African archaeology, SalJy record. For example. ic is size. This means it's unlikely for there's a sting in the tail McBrearty (University of almost impossible to a scorpion will have the of this story. Connecticut) and Alison distino-uish the scone cool energy to scuttle after a Cannibalism is rife in Brooks (George kits of anatomically modern nervous human to attack. scorpion society and, what's Washington University) and archaic hum,111, from rhe Indeed, scorpions are sit­ more, much of the argue that the rapid changes I 00,000-year-old sires in and are 111 -wait predators, and a cannibalism is kept in the in Europe, the Middle East Middle ast, bur there reduced metabolism makes family, as the young don't and elsewhere obscure the face rare traces of modern them r extremely successful scurry far fom home. John very long and gradual human behaviour ,111iong desert dwellers. Lighton (University of history of modern human the first earliest modern Because scorpions use Nevada) and colleagues behaviour in Africa. humans to esc,1pc from very little energy to stay of rhL' explain this unusual strategy African archaeology chal­ Afric1. A recenr ,md\' alive, they can invest more · J" 1 r\ as "transgenerational energy lenges the idea of a modern hand bones 111u1c.ire, r\ H lL' energy into producing d storage". That is, the young "human revolution" (in the modern hum,111 group, u,t' young. Consequently scor­ scorpions act as an energy sense of behaviour) and hafted rool� in 111ore pion populations can 'tr reach storage organ for the suggests more gradual and sophisric1tcd ".1y, rh.in r\ll phenomenal densities of up population as a whole, in episodic phases of tech­ co11tcrnpor.1ry ,1rch.H, to 50 kilograms of scorpion Cnp the same way Honeypot nological and arti�tic cou�in� (',cc ··Ccrr111c •1 biomass over every hectare Ants store sugar in their . development. For example, 011 ::.irly I lu111.H1 71,,,b .. 10 page I ..J. this issue). colleagues found that, before been showered with What Makes And what about the mating, male moths forage alkaloids. a Wallabv Jump? Australian evidence? An on b1pntori11111 wpillifoli11111 The moth's sperm also angaroo Island has been early human colonisation of and possibly other plants that contains alkaloids and so the virtually free from Australia (a modern act in contain high levels of female gets an extra mammalianK predators since itself because it required sea alkaloids. Alkaloids as a protective close during rising seas isolated it from crossing and language) by group arc generally nasty copulation. This she leaves as the Australian mainland 60,000 years ago appears to tasting (they include caffeine, a legacy for her offapring (see 9,500 years ago. Yet a new be out of whack with the nicotine and quinine) and are also "Moths & STDs", Nature study has revealed that, timing of 111oder11 human strong deterrents for spiders. A11st. Winter 2000). Analysis despite living in such idyllic b haviour elsewhere As the moths feed, these of moth eggs shows they too conditions for thousands of (although perhaps consist nc bitter chemicals become contain alkaloids passed on generations, the island's with the chronology of concentrated in filaments in by the mother, conferring Tammar Wallabies (Macropus r other modern anatomical two modified pouches in the protection fom 111arauding e11gc11i1) can still distinguish data). Many are therefore moth's abdomen. When the ants and other predators. friend from foe-but only cautiou ly sceptical of an male is drawn to the Experi111ents show males on sight, not sound. early hu111an arrival in irresistible pheromone of a that didn't shower their bride Daniel Blumstein and Australia (see "A Matter of receptive female, he flies with the poisonous confetti colleagues from Macquarie Time .., J\:at11re A11s1. Spring about her then explodes the only got to mate about half University were curious 2000). Others argue for an alkaloid-laden pouches over as often as males chat failed about the degree to which earlier presence of apparently her, covering her in a bridal to shower chem at all. anti-predator behaviour archaic humans (who 111ay veil of poison and providing However, other data seem to persists over time in a have been a lot smarter than her with immediate indicate chat females cannot predator-free environment. previously thought). tiU protection from spiders. in fact discriminate between They tested the response of others believe that all of Alkaloid-laden males and alkaloid-laden and alkaloid­ a captive population of these contemporary archaic females caught in a web are free males and chat it may be Tammar Wallabies to the and modern human groups quickly cut free by the the act of showering that sight of a molded foam really formed a single wide­ spider, far more often than secures a mate. Thylacine (an historical spread interbreeding moths that haven't eaten or -A.T predator), and to caxiderntic population. The trouble is, until about 50.000 years ago, definitive evidence for the earliest of modern human behaviour out of Africa remains archaeologically elusive. -R.F.

Confetti with a Punch Florida moth may have A found the ultimate form of safe sex. Male Scarlet­ bodied Wasp Moths ( Cos111osoma myrodora) copulate for up to nine hours and lose a fifth of their body weight in the process. It's a big investment but these spectacular insects have evolved a way to assure safety from predators for both partners, and even for the ofEpring. William onncr (Wake Forest University) and

The male Scarlet-bodied Wasp Moth showers his 'bride' with bitter tufts.

NA I U JU AUS -r RA I I A SUM M I R 2 O O I 2 O O 2 1 .,..

Predators of Tammar Wallabies are seen but not heard. mounts of a Red Fox and howl of a Dingo (an Monkevs Make Medicine A team of scientists led by Cat (evolutionarily novel evolutionarily novel he lush tropical jungle of anthropologi,t Ximena predators). The wallabies predator), the wallabies made T South America may look Valderrama ( olumbia reacted strongly to both the no response, reacting onJy to like paradi e, but pity the University) obserwd this Fox and the Cat. They the playback of wallaby foot poor animals that have to behaviour in \\'ild capuchin stopped foraging and became thumps with reduced live there. Unrelenting monkeys in Venezuela. The more watchful and, in the foraging and increased rainfall and suffocating monkeys anointed them­ case of the Fox, thumped vigilance behaviours. humidity may be unpleasant selves only during the r,1iny their feet much more when The researchers suggest to live with, but ferocious season when mosquitoes are compared with control that the foot thumps act as biting insects and tropical abund;int ,rnd the ri,k of stimuli (which included the a generalised anti-predator disease make life unbearable. bot-fly infection incre,1,e,. cart on which all mounts alarm signal in Tammar Yet Wedge-capped Capuchin Croups of capuchin, \\'ould were presented). There was Wallabies, and that the Monkeys (Ceb11s oli11ace11s) share rnillipedes the\· fi.rnnd no real response to the wallabies reacted to the have found an ingenious way during foragi11g out111gs. model Thylacine, however, mounts because of a general to deal with the discomforts with e;ich rnonkn t.1ki11g similarity in predator size, rill' which made the researchers of rainforest life. By rubbing turns to vinorou,h::, rub wonder about the shape and forward­ the oozing discharge of live rnillipedt· through 1r, importance of fur and other placement of the eyes. But certain millipedes co;it before it ,,,h L'n·11nr.1ll\' 'natural' features for predator while predator morphology ( Ortlropoms dorso11ittat11s) throw11 .J\\',l)'. recognition. is convergent, vocalisations through their fur, the The rc,c.1rchn, ,, L'l'l' When played sound are not, hence the wallabies' monkeys w;ird off the intrigued to I L'.1r11 nH)!'t' recordings of a Wedge-tailed inability to recognise any constant irritation of ,1bout the 111rllrpcdL , de Eagle (an historical and predator's call, new or old. mosquitoe with .1 n,1tur.1lly ft·11,ivl' co111pou11d, h.ll till' current predator) and the -R.. S. derived insecticide. 1110111-..cys ft)u 11d ,p t rr.1cr11·c

1 12 NA I Ulll AU'\ I It \11 \ '\l \\\\Ill 'lltll , \ They discovered chat by rough surface and sticky chameleon's tongue, association has been rapping the body of a mucous coating arc enough enabling them to catch prey reported. J11illipcde they could lllilk co snare small prey such as up to 15 per cent of their When Guillermo copious quantities of the insects and other body weight. Amico and Marcelo Aizen dark fluid from the animal's invertebrates up to five per The suction cap is (Universidad Nacional fl111ks. Chemical analy sis cent of the lizard's body controlled by a pair of del Comahue, Argentina) revealed the n1illipedc weight. 13uc one group of muscles that run along either discovered strings of secretion co be a pure lizards, the chameleons, have side of the tongue. l3y mistletoe seeds clinging to mixture of cwo benzo­ gone a step further. They cutting the nerves that act the trunks of their host trees, quinones. chemicals known can catch much larger prey, on these muscles, the they were intrigued because co be both potent insect even small birds and other researchers showed chat, normally birds defecate the repellents and disinfectants. lizards, and they do this by while the chameleons could seeds onto the branches of There have been adding some last-minute still project their tongue, trees while perching. Since numerous anecdotal reports suction to their repertoire. they could not actually deposition on a vertical tree on the medicinal use of Anthony Herrel capture prey, instead only trunk would require a feat planes and animals by non­ (University of Antwerp, managing to knock it offits of unlikely bird acrobatics, human species, even one of Belgium) and colleagues perch. and the green colour of r Madagascan Black Lemurs unravelled the chameleon's -J.M. mature f uits would be more (E11/e11111r 111arnco) biting a secret with the aid of high­ attractive to a mammal than millipede and then rubbing speed cinematography. Just Marsupials and Mistletoes a bird anyway, they looked its "·ounded body through before they strike their prey, wo things come co mind in. tead fora mammal vector. their fur. However, the chameleons contort the tip when I think of They found that the small, capuchin study is the first co of their tongue into a cup­ Tmistletoe: stolen kisses at endemic, nocturnal Monico isolate the specific chemicals like shape resembling a Christmas and the birds that del Monte (Dro111iciops in\'olved and, as such, is the bathroom or kitchen sink distribute their seeds. But a11stralis) is a highly efficient best evidence yet of a non­ plunger. This produces a just as kissing doesn't enjoy disperser of mistletoe seeds. human animal using organic suction effect, with the cup an exclusive relationship le consumes large quantities material for medicinal engulfing the entire head of with mistletoe planes, birds of fruit, then, shortly after, purposes. large prey, or the entire prey aren't the only animals to defecates 98 per cent of -K.H. if it is small, and the tongue disperse the seeds of these seeds, undamaged, on trunks (with prey ) is then pulled parasitic plants. ln fact, the and branches. Les than ten Chameleons Suck back into the mouth. The seeds of one South per cent fall co the ground, aving a long prehensile researchers estimate that American species (1hsterix glued to the uneven smface H tongue seems an suction accounts for more cory111bos11s) are

Chameleons, such as Chameleo oustaleti, suck for their supper.

NA I UIU AUS I RAI IA \UMMLR 2001 2002 13 emigrant human group marsupial's rapid digestion is early s hy the stone tool kits of around that time appea also essential for the plane's W are r to have adopted the local gerinination: without of humans so similar to those materials and foreign passing through the animal's cultures. Under such gut. the seeds fail co develop rthal populations? Neande conditions, the so-call a holdfast. the disc-like ed 'modern humans' might swelling char helps the seed eanderthals and early single main axis, whereas have been wimps at many acrach co its new host. modern humans were modern humans preferred tasks and could have been Amico and Aizen say, practically the same. But using grips chat transmitted at a real behavioural though. that this newly Wesley iewoehner from force at an oblique angle. disadvantage for thousands discovered relationship is the University of New These grips are required for of generations. Again, actually old news. Both Mexico has found clues in manipulating the different perhaps the artistic and Dro111iciops r111srrc1'i, and the hand skeletons that kinds of hafted cools (tools technological skills of Th,1crix cory111bo.rns are uphold an argument for with handles) that are only the European Upper thought co ha,·e Gond\\·anan distinct behaviours in the common much later in the Palaeolithic arc a consequence origins, so the marsupial's two groups at this time. archaeological record. The oflong­ term interaction ance cors may have been iewoehner created hands of these early modern ifnot r interbreeding helping the plant co find a three-dimensional computer humans fom Israel arc between the different mistletoe-hold for more models of the hand joints of indeed more like those of homjnid populations. than 70 n1.illion years. early modern humans the later human populations -R.F r -R..S. excavated fom the I 00,000- of Upper Palaeolithic year-old sites of khul and Europe (35,000 years ago) Earlv Bird Catches the Warm Getting a Grip on Earlv Qafzeh (both in Israel), and than their contemporary hen to return north to Human Tools compared these with similar Neanderthal cousins. o, Wtheir summer breeding ost of us could probably models of contemporary why are the stone cool kits grounds is an important M pick a robu t eanderthals. Te lltale signs of early humans so similar co decision for European Barn eanderchal out of a crowd of bone grO\vth on the ends those of eanderthal wallow (Hin111do r11stica). of anatomically modern of the metacarpals (the populations? Arrive coo early, and the humans, but we would have bones in the palm of the Even though modern birds risk being snap frozen y more difficult picking one hand) showed that the two human behaviour (as by a lingering cold winter; on the basis of the garbage groups tended co grip the indicated by scone cools) has arri\'e too lace, and the or cools left behind. In terms same sorts of tools now been traced beyond prime breeding sites and of the material culture that differently. eanderthals I 00,000 years in the partners will all be taken. survives in the u ed a powerful, palm­ archaeological record of and the chance co rear nrn archaeological record cupped, stabbing grip that Africa (see "Becoming broods in the one ,eason l 00,000 years ago, transmitted force along a Human", page I O this issue), disappears. A recenc tudy has re,·ealed ch,1r rmung of migration is a calculated o-amble ba,ed on both �1dividual deci,ion and generic predisptNnon. Anders Moller (U111wrs1te Pierre et Marie Curie. J >,nis) showed chat 111,1k B,1!'n wallows rend to \\·,1ir until rhev haYe ,1ccu111ul.1ted suH�cient cnerg, rt·,cn·t·, (,l' 1' ind1c.1ced by wl kngth, · only 111.ilc, 111 prune r.ul) to co1;d1t1011 h,1,·c ,1 lt)ng -,·1\l'" tht' en,1 l1 I c I r lt'lll ro ,lll ,HdllOll'- fl1ghr ,111d ,Ill\ t',lrlicr u n,t'.1,011.1 bh cold " . ' '. ht ,1],t1 Oil ,11"1"1\',ll. I ]O\\ t \ t I. ' ol , I H1\\·euJ r 1,1t,I rcg.11'. i]c,, - b1nh cn11d1no11, p.1rn, 11 I •11 lld tin' Signs of earlymodern human behaviour can be found in the 100,000-year-old hand skeleton from Oafzeh, Israel (left) tended w lh .Il ,11t)ll when compared with the similarly-aged Neanderthal hand (right). , · 1 11d ,,lllll' (lllll' l'\l'l\ \t.ll.'

'(I l lll � ' 14 N '\ I l ll I \ l \ I ll \ I I \ '- l \I \II l close relatives (brothers, sons) Barn Swallows with ·early-migrating' tended co fly at similar times. genes will benefit with global warming. A poorly fed male. therefore, can only delay migration for Bonobo Back-flip a short interval beyond its n amiable vegetarian chat ·preprogrammed' time Auses sex to nurture a before its genes prolllpt him harmonious existence is how co fly away. science has come to regard With summer starting the 13onobo (Pa11 pa11iscus), a earlier due co global rainforest-dwelling cousin of warming. Moller notes char the himpanzee (P troglodytes). chose birds genetically Studies of zoo populations predisposed ro arrive early during the past two decades will be at an increasing suggest Bonobos live in a ad\'antage. and will begin to matriarchal society in which oucbreed and replace their intercourse and genital < lace-arriving kin. Thus, by fondling strengthen bonds � inducing changes in global and alleviate tensions - weather patterns, humans are between individuals. inadvertently altering the They have been observed generic makeup ofBarn engaging in sexual activities � Swallows and. no doubt, for the sheer pleasure of it � ; many other animals and and in just as many different ! planes. positions and permutations -M.L. as our own species. As a

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Are Bonobos really as peace-lovin and sexually receptive 9 as they are touted to be?

not as different as previously thought. The research suggests wild female Bonobos are no more hedonistic than their Chimp counterparts and that, like most other mammals, tend to be most sexually receptive when in oestrus (on heat). 13011060 societies also endure their fair share of aggression but more so from female towards males rather than the other way around. -K.McG. littleBov Bass ave you ever been H disconcerted by the unexpected appearance of a throaty, deep-voiced radio announcer when you finally get co ee him on TV? If you found your image of a tall, handsome, hirsute, older man displaced by a rather smaJJ, ordinary-looking bloke, don't be surpri ed­ you r mistake is a common one. Research by arah Collin from the Institute of Evolutionary and Ecological Sciences in the etherlands has found chat women consistently rated men with deeper voices co be older and heavier, more likely to have a hairy chest ,rnd be more attractive and mm­ cular, than men with higher voices. Unforwnateh, de,pite strong consemm bet\\·een result, the Bonobo has 111ales. Furthcr111orc, sex for Stanford from the University the women on cl1e,e become known as both the Chimps occurs only when ofSouthern California. The predictions, they ,\'t'rc 'peaceful pr i111atc' and the fc111alcs are 'on heat' and is problem is that the popular generally quite \\Tong. 'sexy ape'. li111ited to the sa111c 'doggic' picture of l3onobo society is While male bod, ,w,ght In stark contrast, Chi111p­ style adopted by 111ost based almost exclusively on did correl,He "ith some anzces are widely regarded mammals. zoo popul,1tions, \ hile vocal char.1neristtc, none t)f a111ong ani111al bchaviouralists Although our Chimpanzees have been the other ,w,u111pt1011, "·1' as 'brutal apcs'-ruthless understanding 01 extensively studied in the correct. So "h, ,ll"t' ,n1int'll warmongers and aggressive Chimpanzee behaviour and wild. so lTrt,1i11 th.H deep n)iced predators with a patriarchal social strucurc is probably n es... ult� emerging from men are go111g ro bt 1110re society structure in which accurate, our view of ,Ludie, on r wild l3onobo, in ,Htr,1ni,·t'. bigger ,lllt h.une fe111alcs arc subjugated and 13onobm i, flawed, according the Congo indicuc th,H than their hwher n1 t't'd to anthropologi,t Craig ,-. often brutalised by dominant 13onobos and Chimps ,ire

16 i\lLJlll \l1\IR\ll\sl'\i\ilR 'll'I 'tll' that people mjght simply Ozzie Kiwis possibility has been raised: be present on New Zealand carry the rule they use to hile Australia and New that New Zealand kiwis are when it floated away from discriminate between men's WZealand are close really Australian. Gondwana about 80 million and women's voices too far. neighbours as the 'l<...ussell The southern continents years ago. After all, as lnstead of just categorising Crowe' flies, they remain each have one or more large flightless birds they had deep and high voices into fierce rivals, with a well­ flightless birds, the so-called limited choices about how men and women respect­ developed sense of one­ ratites: Emu and cassowaries to get there. ively, we assume that the upmanship in many aspects in Australasia, rheas in South A recent study, however, has deeper a voice, the more of life. Australia has always America, the Ostrich in turned much of this on its ·male' its producer. It is also been happy to 'steal' public Africa. New Zealand has the head. Alan Cooper possible that males may be figures from New Zealand most dimjnutive members, (University of Oxford) and taking ad,·ancage of this and then claim them as its the kiwis (Apteryx spp.), as colleagues supplemented incorrect assessment to own, whether these be well as a vast array of now­ DNA sequences of the living enhance their reproductive actors, racehorses or State extinct moas. It is generally ratites with some from potential. Producing thicker premiers. considered that living ratites subfossil moa remains. The and longer meal folds (and a Although much less in the evolved from a single group findings confirm the deeper voice) may be easier public eye, this practice that left representatives on Emu-cassowary connection, (metabolically cheaper) than extends to the biological each continent as these but not the kiwi-moa one. growing the extra couple of realm. No doubt a blow to landmasses broke away from Whereas moas appear to inches and working out at ew Zealand pride, for the southern continent have evolved on a breakaway the gym, particularly if it example, was the discovery Gondwana. But there is far New Zealand, kiwis are makes them sound more in Australia of fossils of the less agreement about who is closest to the attractive and masculine distinctive New Zealand related to whom. Emus and Emu-cassowary branch, anyway. ground-foraging bat Nlystacina, cassowaries have always been apparently reaching the So, women, don't close implying that it evolved here considered each other's islands subseguencly, after your eyes and believe all and only later moved across closest relatives. Likewise, a separation from Gondwana. those whispered sweet the Tasman (see "Bizzare simjJarly close relationship If kiwis did not originate in nothings. Voices can be very Bats of the Burrows", Nature has been accepted for the New Zealand, they had to deceptive. Aust. Spring 1998). Now kiwis and moas, with their get there from somewhere -D.C. another, more ignomjnious nwtual ancestor assumed to else. Australia was the closest

Should kiwis, like this Brown Kiwi (Apteryx australis), call Australia home?

NAT URI::. AU':,I RALIA �UMMEH. 2001 2002 17 -

at the ew Zealand. Nonetheless, Autumn 2000). large landmass Termites on the Menu I loweve r, a having the the possibility that the new look at time and, iny telltale scratches on these old tools closest living relatives, national symbol of bone \uggests a differ T the world's earliest ent source for is an obvious candidate New Zealand is, in fact, cools were thought to have the scratches-termite mounds-and for the source. There is an Australian should raise come from digging for may provide the first much more co be learnt the stakes in the game of tubers, which some anthro­ known evidence of can be cross-Tasman bragging insectivory before this pologists believe played a in early hominids. accepted, including an rights. crucial role in human Lucinda l3ackwell explanation of how the -WALTElt E. l3OLES evolution (see "What's (University of Witwatersrand in kiwis' ancestor arrived AUSTltALIAN MUSEUM Cooking?", Nature Aust. South Africa) and rancesco ' d'Errico (C R.S, France) examined 85 bone points from the 1.8-1.0-millio n­ year-old African sites of Swartkrans and Sterkfoncein. Using computerised image analysis, they compared the markings on these tools with experimental bone tool that had been used to dig up Aborigines are knot/Jn to consun1e tennite 111ound for its 111ineral con tent.

tubers or break open termite mounds. Opening up a termite mound produced long, thin, parallel striations along the length of the cool. which the researchers explain came from the fine. e,·en­ sized sand grains (preselected by the termites) and the need for a vertical stabbing ,1etion co efficiently open the mound. l3y contr,l\t. digging for tubers resulted in ,hort. crisscross n1,1rks eh.it ,·,med in width. ,111d ,1rose frolll the mixed particle size, in the w ::,"rou nd and the nL·ni .irr.1ck the tuber fron1 ditfrrcllt angle,. All the ,1rch.1colog1c.il tool� exalllined by 13.lL'K\\Cll ,111d d' Errico ,ho\\ ed \\ c.1r patterm co11,i,tc11t "1th t1'l' 111 breaking open tcnlllll' rno1111d,. nd tht· re\\ .ml, for such hL·h.l\'iour ,nHild cen,1i11ly h.1,·c been \\1Hrl1 rill' effort: there .ire m'.trh I\\ It"l' Did termite mounds provide a source of nutrition for early hominids? .1' 111.llt\ c.1lont·, 111 !()P gr.1111'

18 '1111 ' A I U Ill \ l , I 1, \ I I \ \ l \ l \ 11 I, ' ll I of tcnnitcs as there arc in the FURTHER READING rl,icks. Nature 408: 928-929. Z11ri, I. & B111/, CM, 2000. sa111e amount of steak. A11 1irn, G. & Aize11, /\I.A., Re d11ced access to o!facfory cues As co who was using these 2000. 1\ lisrleroe seer/ dispersal I-Jerrel, A., Meyers,j.l-1., a11d l10111e-ra11ge 111ai11teua11ce in cools, the remains of two by a n1ars11pir1I. Nature --108: Aerts, P Nisl,ika111a, K. C., the sleepy lizard (Tiliqua hominid species have been 929-930. 2000. 'J 1,e 111ec/1anics ef prey rugosa). J. Zoo!., Lond. 252: found in the deposits: preheusion in c/,an,eleons. J. '/37-145. A1 1srralopirl1ews ro/J11sr11s and Bark111cll, L.R. & rl'Errico, I':, Exp. l3iol. 203: 3255-3263. 1 Ho1110 l1r1bilis. Earlier analysis 200 I. E1 irlcnre c!f ter111ite Z11ri, I, & 81111 , C.M., 2000. of rhe hominid bones had foraQin, (!, by 111arrkrans early L(Ql1ton, J. R. B., Bro11mell, "/1,e 11se of 11irnal wes for spatial revealed the presence of a l10n1i11irls. Proc. Natl Acad. PJ-1.,Joos, B. Tim1e1; RJ., orieutatio11 i11 t/1e sleepy lizard rype of carbon obtained only Sci. 98(--1): 1358-1363. 200 I. Loi/I 111etabolic rate in (Tiliqua rugosa). an. J. from the consumption of scorpio11s: i111plications for Zool. 78: 515-520. grass-eating herbivores. This Berrloy, 1\l., 1Vebste1;J.P & popnlatio11 bio111ass a11d suggested a carnivorous diet 1\lacr/011alrl, D. IV, 2000. ca1111ibalis111. J. Exp. Biol. bur was harder co explain for Fatal artrartio11 in rats i,ifecterl 204(3): 607-613. QUICK QUIZ ,111srralopirl,ems rob11st11s, 111i1!, To xoplasma gondii. 1. What are the two which had been assumed to Proc. R... oc. Lond. B 267: McBreartv, S. & Brooks, A.S., most common forms be strictly vegetarian. 159 / -1594. 2000. The revol11tio11 that ef myriapods? Backwel.l and d'Errico now warn't: a 11ew i11terpretation of 2. Do bluetongue argue chat consumption of Bl11n1stei11, D.T, Daniel,J.C., tl,e origin of n,odem l1111na11 lizards lay eggs? grass-eating termites couJd Criff,11, A.S. & Eva11s, C.S., behavior. Hum. Evol. J. 3. Wliat name is given also ha\·e been responsible for 2000. I11s11/ar tan1111ar 39(5): 453-563. to the suite ef large this carbon signature, ,vallabies (Macropus eugenii) animals that became although more detailed respo11rl to vis11al b11t 11ot JVfolle1; A.P, 2001. Herit­ extinct towards the nidies are required co aco11stic mes fro111predators. ability of arrival date i11 a determine whether only one Behav. Ecol. / J (5) 111igratory bird . Proc. R. Soc. end of the Pleistocene or both pecies were eating 528-535. Lond. B 268: 203-206. Period? cerrn1ces. 4. Where is Australia's Bue is this the end of the Birki11slrnw, C.R., 1999. Use Niewoe/111e,; WA., 2001. largest population ef story? Australian Aborigines of 111illiperles by Black Le11111rs Beliavioral i1ifere11ces from tlie pure-bred Dingoes are known co consume to a11oi11t tl,eir bodies. Folia Skl111l!Qafze/, earlv 111odem found? termite mound for its Primatol. 70(3): 170-171. lu1n1a11 liaud re111ains. Proc. 5. What do oologists mineral content. Could the Natl Acad. Sci. 98(6) study? earliest bone cools have been Colli11s, ., 2000. Me11's 2979-2984. 6. Which introduced used in a similar way (that is, voices a11rl wo111e11's cl,oices. animal was reported co harvest the dirt, rather Anim. Behav. 60: 773-780. Olsson, M., S!,ine, R. & to have invaded than the insects? Also, work Ba'k-Olsson, E., 2000. Kakadu in early currently undervvay by Co1111e1; l!VE., Boar/a, R., Lizards as a plann· '!,ired 2001? Thomas Loy (University of Scl,roerle,; F C., Conzalez, l1elp': letti11,(/ polli11ators in a11d 1. Name an example of Queensland) and col.leagues Mei111valrl,J. & Eisne,; T, seeds out. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. a pachyder111. on similar 1.8-mi.lJion-year­ 2000. Cl,e111ical rlefe11se: 7 I: 19 /-202. old bone tools from the bestowal of a 1111ptial alkaloirlal 8. What is the title ef African site ofDrimolen gam1e11t by a 111ale 11101!, 011 its ta,iford, C. B., 2000. 77,e Ti111 Fla,111ery's suggests that some of chem 111ate. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. bmtal ape 11s. 1/,e sexv ape? rece11t book on tl,e were indeed used to process 97(26): 14406-144 /I. Amer. cicntisc 88: ecological history of tubers (as indicated I /0-l !2. North A111erica? by traces of the plant tissue Coope,; A., Lal11eza-Fox, C., 9. Which sea 111am11taf left behind). In these cases, A11derson, S., Ra111ba11t, A., Vnlderm111a, X., Ro/Jinso11, most likely gave rise the fine striations may simply A11stin,J. & Ward, R., 2001. J.C., !ltttQalle, 11.B. & to the 111ermaid have arisen through shaping Co111 plete 1nitocl,011drial Eism1; 7.", 2000. Seasonal inyrh? of the cool tips with a stone ge110111e seq11e11ces of 11110 exti11ct 1 a11oi11t111e11t 11 itl, 111illipedes i11 a 10. What type of artefact. The possibility 111oas clarify ratite evolntio11. l/lild pri111ate: a c/1e111iral d�fe11se a11i111als are tl,e 011/y that similar cools may have Nature 409: 704-707. a,Qai11st i11s('({s? Chern. J. 011es to re,(/11/arly tie been used for different Ecol. 26( 12): 2781-2790. tl,e111seh1es i11to a purposes highlights the Ca11tl1ier-Clerc, M., Le /\ /a/,o, k11ot? complexity of early Y, Clerq11in, Y, Dra11lt, S. & Weeks, P, 2000. Rl'd-/Jilled (Answers on page 831 hominid behaviours. I landric/11 Y, 2000. Pe11Q11i11, oxperkers: vr1111pires or 1irkbirds? -R.. F. fatl,ers preser,1efood.for tl,eir l3chav. Ecol. / / (2): 15-1-160.

Al URI: AU','I ltALIA SUMMloR 2001 2002 19 THE BACKYARD NATURALIST Antechinuses (Antechinus agilis Agile ) mate in a hollow log.

marsupials that arc still sometimes rea­ common, althoug sonably h rarely seen. It is one of those Greek combo words from a11ti meaning like, sort of or pseu­ Sex to die tor do and echi11os a hedgehog (a myopic For a lcllt!!. til/le everybody pitied 111ale a11tec/1i1111ses. reference to antcchinus fur texture). Li11i11Q,< /011i11

N A I U ll i AU \ I R A I I \ \ l \ 1 \ 1 I R 20 Such an inquisitive nature has its down side though, and it's not unco111111011 to l, find thelll floating face down in a fish Antechinuses rank or toilet bowl. Antechinus spp. Conservationists might just shed a tear and say no more when they hear Classification the word antechinus. Ancechinuses rep­ Family Dasyuridae (carnivorous marsupials). Ten (look-alike) species in Aust. resented ju t about our last chance with small urban marsupials. Without a Identification doubt they would be happy to live with Size of small rat but with Cat-like set of teeth. Jerky behaviour. Broad hind humans in cities, and probably better at feet that stick out in Charlie Chaplin fashion. Pointy nose. Most species drab dealing with cockroaches and House brown to grey but A. flavipes with grey head, light eye-rings, ginger rump Mice than all the poisons we pump out and hind legs, black-tipped tail. Males bigger than females. Smallest in their control. Bue they are no match species A. agilis (male head-body length 9.5 cm, tail 9.0 cm, 30 g), largest A. for Cats. Once eaten out from a suburb godmani(male head-body 14.5 cm, tail 12.5 cm, 95 g). they can no longer re-enter or re-estab­ lish against that urban phalanx of Distribution pussies. Why is this, when rats and Aust. wide, from rainforest to dry woodland. Most widespread species A. flavipes godmani House Mice do it so well? (WA, SA, Vic., NSW, Qld), most restricted A. (highland rainforest of northern Qld). The reason probably lies largely in their physiological commitment to Behaviour breeding just once a year. Where one Terrestrial, arboreal, semi-nocturnal. Eat mostly insects and arachnids, but female Black Rat or House Mouse supplemented with almost anything else (nectar, worms, small mammals, nughc pump out 60 young a year (all the birds, reptiles). females of \,·hicl1 will be sexually mature at the age of three months), an Reproduction antechinus produces no more than 12 All matings locally synchronised, but usually between midwinter and early joeys (and usually only around six), spring. Males mate over two-week period then die. Gestation 28 days, none of which will breed until they are young in the 'pouch' up to 50 days, then left in nest 2-3 months. Females about 11 months old. The astonishing may breed a second year. thing about their life cycle, though, is that after they mate, the males die! Because individuals in a population all mace at the same time, there is a period Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and weeks? Where is the choice in that? of months after breeding where the bleeding stomach ulcers, and die within So, what word were you supposed to only male ancechinuses around are pip­ a week. Have you ever considered the chink of as soon as you heard the squeaks dangling from their poor moth­ priesthood?" prompt "antechinus''? The answer was, er ' teats. For a long time everybody pitied male surprise, surprise, "sex". Sex ... co die What then, given the impossible, antechinuses. Living, loving and dying, for. might a caring father antechinus say co all within a year. But I think the pity his pubescent son co introduce him to was secretly couched in envy. Remem­ FURTHER READING the wonders of a changing body and the ber the 12-hour copulatory swan song Lee, A. & Cockb11m, A., 1985. Evolu­ potential joys of intimacy? "Well, son, repeated for a fortnight? A male of any tionary ecology of marsupials. Ca111- it's June already, and you've probably species lasting 12 hours might be bridge U11i11ersiiy Press: 1\Ielbo11mc. noticed your testicles are now as big as regarded as a treasure. Finding one in your head. Perhaps this shift in the deci­ Australia might be regarded as a miracle! Straha11, R., 1995. The 111a111111als of sion-making geography of your body But it's more sensational than that. A Australia. Reed Books: Chatsll'ood. explains your diminishing interest in few rough comparative calculations (d la family picnics and cockroaches." If he one Dog-year = seven for humans) turn Vi111 Dyck, S. & Croll'the,; ,\f., 2000. were honest to the point of being that tide of pathos on its head. Given Reassess111c11t

NATURE AUSTRAi IA SUMMER 2001 2002 21 & ENDA CERE D Botanic Garden RARE performed preliminary genetic investigatio ns, which involved comparing the DNA of some of the A. remaining wild portuensis specimens (and several cultivated plants) with A. Nielsen Park She-oak /ittoralis and A. distyla. These studies W/,eu disco,iered i 11 1986 t/,ere was a total population of only ten plants, A. suggested that portuensis was indeed t,vo male a11d eig/,t fe/1/a/e. capable of hybridising with other Alloca­ suarina species. But pure A. portuensis plants were distinguishable from hybrids by the morphological features describe HE SPARSELY BR.A CHED AND ative that also grows throughout the d above. On the basis of these results, the drooping Nielsen Park She-oak area. number of pure A. portuensis in Sydney (Allocas11arina portuensis) is an However, there are several subtle Harbour National Park was revise T of eastern Sydney's d in uninspiring survivor morphological differences between the 1997 to over 50, although most of these foreshore bushland that nearly disap­ two species. Although the male flower were planted from seed collected and peared without anyone noticing. It is a heads of both species resemble a string _ grown in pots. slender shrub with dark green foliage, of miniature beads (each 'bead' The Nielsen Park She-oak is listed as arowina three to five metres in height. equalling one whorl of flowers sur­ D D endangered in New South Wa les and it Like some of the other she-oaks (La1111C ·1 Y rounding the stem), in Allocasuarina is generally believed to be in serious risk Casuarinaceae), it is dioecious; that is, it portuensis the 'beads' are widely separat­ of disappearing from the wild within has separate male and female plants. ed whereas in A. distyla there is no clear ten to 20 years. As a consequence, the When discovered by a National Parks gap between the 'beads'. There are also New South Wales ational Parks and and Wildlife Service Ranger in 1986 differences in the leaves and branch.lets. Wildlife Service has prepared a Recov­ there was a total population of only ten As in other members of the family, the ery Plan for the species. The overaU plants, two male and eight female. All leaves are highly modified. They are objective of the plan is to protect the were located within 100 metres of each fused to the needle-like green branch­ species so that a viable population is other at Nielsen Park, part of Sydney lets, with only the leaf tips obvious as maintained in the wild. Restoring the Harbour National Park. original habitat to open woodland/ The original distribution of this plant heath by the reintroduction of more fre­ was probably more widespread around quent, low-temperature fires, and by Sydney Harbour, but loss of habitat, due It is believed to be controlling weeds to a minimal level, to extensive land clearing since Euro­ will help us to achieve this goal. In rhe pean settlement, was a likely contribut­ in risk of disappearing ing factor in its decline. Another influ­ from the wild meantime, you can see the ielsen Park ence may have been an alteration in the She-oak 'in captivity' at Mt Annan vegetation community due to a changed within 20 years. Botanic Garden, where it is flourishing, fire regime. It is thought that more fre­ or as a single plant in the rare and quent fires in the past maintained a threatened garden bed at the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney. heath-dom.inated vegetation communi­ little teeth arranged in whorls around ty. Now that there are fewer fires, larger them. In the case of A. portuensis, there FURTHER READI G species like pittosporums have become are seven or eight teeth in each whorl, NS W Natio11al Parks and I Vildl{fe Ser,Jice, established, significantly reducing the but A. distyla usually has six to eight. 2000. Allorns11ari11a porr11e11sis recovery level of light available to the she-oaks. The branchlets of A. portuensis also lack plan. NS W l\ario11al Parks a11d I l"ild/!fe How could this species go undiscov­ obvious hairs seen in many other she­ Ser,;ice: H11rstville, T 11: ered for so long within sight of the most oaks, including A. distyla, and the fruit- densely populated part of Australia? ing cones are smaller. J\l!athes, M. J'\lash, I 99-1. onser­ First, no-one was really looking. As she-oaks are wind-poLlinated and & S., vation recovery Nielsen Park, which is only 20 hectares, are able to hybridise with similar research statement and plan for llorns11ari11a porr11c1,sis. All.,r- did not become part of Sydney Harbour species, seedlings grown from seed col­ A 1 w- r m 1.1n11 1.ar11re C0 11ser1Jar1011 A,l!.C 11 c-i, , E 1rl, National Park until 1978, and the picnic lected fom wild plants had to be treat­ · and swimming areas did not previously 1 1 ed with caution. It had been suspected gered pecies Prof!m1, 1: 11 1/,crr,1. attract as much botanical interest as that they could be hybrids with Allorn­ other bushland areas. Second, at a casu- suarina distyla or A. littomlis, which also R.AIG Sl-lEPI IARI) I. � al glance most would have identified this occurs in Nielsen Park. To address this I� crn. WIT! I TI IE Allocarnarina distyla-a 5 plant as close rel- important issue, staff at Mt Annan WALES NATIO t\L PARKS A I) T WILDLIFE ERVICE 'l'EClt\11\I C I 1 PES PLA TANI) A IJ\1/\L I l·L'.->lf\11\.) S 11 BY CRAIG SHEPHARD Ti IE Svn EY RFCll) . 22 NA I U RI· /\U\ I R I 1 1\ \li�l\11

ngs are now invading Perth WILD THI GS Kurrajo bushla n d 7,000 seeds, · One tree may shed many of which are spread by b.1r ds.

Australia jostle with South Austr a 11an. Sugar Gums (/-:11calypt11s cladoc alyx) and Growing native weeds Lemon-scented Tea Trees (,. upto- s er11111111 peterso11i1) from p mountains in I 171ere11er nnri11e plnnts nre gro111n, the y often '11mll/ into nenrby forests Queensland or northern New So 111eer/s. uth nnr/ bcco111e Wales. "In the vernacular this is called a 'horror show', this level of weed invasion", R.ohan told me. Morning­ ton ouncil wants him to remove all the weeds. I suggested he drop napalm. Mt Martha is an exaggerated example of a widespread and growing problem. Wherever native planes are grown, they often 'walk' into nearby forests and become weeds. Victoria, the worst affected State, has more than 200 Australian plants on her weed lists. They include more than 30 each of wattles (Acacia pecies) and eucalypts

(E11calypt11s and Cory111bia species), various tea tree and paperbarks (1\lelnle11ca species) and a smattering of rainforest plants. We tern Australia ha almost 60 errant natives, including

Scaly Tr ee Fern ( Cyn1hea coopen), Blue

Gums (E11calyp111s glob11/11s) and

Kurrajongs (Brachychiro11 pop11/11e11s). ative plant are taken very seriously as threats to reserves. In Arthur' eat State Park (near Mt Martha). 9.5.000 ha been spent attacking Bluebell

Creeper ( ollyn l,c1crophylla) from Western Australia. In the Dandenong Ranges ational Park near Melbourne. nine tree weeds arc controlled and six \\·arrles AM WANDER.ING TI-IROUGII Mt Martha Park on the Mornington of these are Australian-four 1111hes bushland with environmental Peninsula near Melbourne, and it's (acacias), Cape Wattle (Pc1raseri1 m consultant Rohan Cuming. As we Australiana gone haywire. Weeds are lopl/{l11fl/{l) and weet Pmosporu I Arou nd wend our way through copse and overrun111ng this place and the (Pi11ospor11n1 1111r/11/,1111111). thicket he keeps up a colourful banter: punchline 1s: most of them are Sydney, \\'here high\\',1ys p,m through "This Sydney Blue Gum's a bloody Australian plants. A tangle of 38 reserves, man,1gers are concerned bY good weed. And that's a real sprcady species has claimed a hillside that once three wattle th:1r ti11t the n:rges blut>­ wattle. Here we've got a melalcuca, a carried grassy she-oak woodland. All Goldcn Wreath W,mle (.·fr,,:-i,1 s,,l(�11c1) r big mongrel thing. I've seen it walking of this, in an important nature reserve. fom Western Austr,1li,1, C'oownundr,i · Hundreds of Australian plants were 1 sour I1 ern down roadsides. We've hand-pulled a Wattle (A. balicy,111,1) tro 11 1d lot of hakeas. These here arc hakca planted on Mt Martha during the cw outh Wales and Queensl.11 1950s and 1980s to create an froin seedlings. They walk too, they really ilver Wattle (A. J)(>d,,lp 1!f;,/i,1) do. And there's a Western Australian arboretum. Management lap ed and well to the north. ·t' flowering gum." more than a third of the species These \\'eed, ,on1enme, bt'h,ii 111 d. In I stumble along, wide-eyed 'walked'. The arboretum is now an worse th,111 ,111\' i1l\',1dcr tt\)tll .1bro,1 8.5-hcctarc or llll' disbelief In my darkest drca1m I n ever cco-mess. Peppermint southern m;r,1li,1, S1n't't l'1rw,p trees ( A o11is sll imagined anything like this. We arc in i _flex110s11) from Western forms thicker, in cuc.1h �'t tixnr 11n°1 dark th,1t e11c.1ly pt , t't'dh1 1g-, r,1 ,il1n sprout bdo" ,ll ld fi. H·c,t ,11rrc, BY TIM LOW m111·il e11ds. 111 dt'i.1 nk\ IkLm ,1

> 24 I NA l URI AU\ II t •\II\ \l \l\ll R �lH> ,,n ' Global warming may help the Silky Oak spread south. Native to northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, it is now naturalising in Victoria.

Park it is shading out a rare greenhood but little of it. Perth and Sydney stand problem plants, emphasising it doesn't orchid (Pterosrylis wwllata). Around a far apart as Portugal and Russia or have a policy of' Plant Australian at any Brisbane, Umbrella Tree (Schefflera witzerland and Arabia. If explorer cost'. It doesn't want to promote the acri11ophylla) from tropical Queensland is icholas Baudin had claimed Western spread of "ugly Au cralians". And it shading the understorey in the same Au cralia for France, Geraldton Wax in proposes some rule : grow indigenous way. l have counted 80 seedlings in a Sydney would now be an exotic plants (chose native to your area); square metre of eucalypt forest. Very species from Republique Wcstralia. become familiar with weed lists and few foreign weeds behave this badly. When 'native' is used as a biological avoid problem species; check ouc Growing native plants is promoted as category it shouldn't be defined by unusual plants with experts. If growing good for the environment, yet political boundaries. something new, observe it closely and remarkable problems are emerging. Australian plants that escape well if it becomes rampant, pull it out. "If Plants are popping up in the oddest outside their natural range are exotic in any doubt ... DO 'T PLA T! It's places. No-one could expect that invaders. The International Union for not worth the risk!" White Cedars (Melia azedarach) from the onservation of Nature (I U ound advice. coastal rainforests would sprout around defines an alien (or exotic) species as Alice Springs, or that Silky Oaks one that is "introduced outside its FURTHER READI G ( Crevillea rob11sta) from the Brisbane normal past or present distribution". Associatio11 c!{Societies for Cro111i11g Pla11ts. region could grow way down 111 All the plants mentioned here qualify. "L 111111e/co1J1c y,11cs1s ". http farrer.ri,·.csu. Victoria. The Association of Societies for edu.au/-ASGAP/weeds.html So what should we do about all this? Growing Australian Plants knows that a First, we should rethink what we mean problem exists. It has a web page that Can; C. IV, I 993. Exoticjlom cf Viaoria by 'native'. In my dictionary (Concise goes like this: "Don't Crow Austr;1lian a11d its i1J1p11rt 011 i11d(f.!e11011s biofl1. !11 Oxford) it means, in part, "Of one's Plants! Now that we have your Flora of Victoria. Vol. I. Introduction, birth, where one was born". Geraldton attention ... Is an organisation whose ed. by D. B. Forrn1,111 ,111d ,\'.C. 11a/ sl,. Wax ( Cha111ela11ci11111 1111ci11at11111) is native objective is to encourage the !nkata Press: .\ /el/1011mc. to sandplains north of Perth, and to say cultivation of Australian pLrnts re,1l!y "Geraldton Wax is native to Australia" suggesting that people should NOT Ti l LO\\ I'> A Nf\ I UIU \\ R.I ILR. >\ 1D fudges the facts. Australia is one of the grow chose planes? Well ... yes! Under INVIR.ONI\\LN 1/\l CO '->UL If\ 1T ll/\S[D world's largest countries, a whole certain circumstances." iNl31U'>llA I. lli\l\lO'->I IUCI. ·1 l300K continent, and Geraldton Wax occupies The Association lists some or the I� FLR,11 /FI ( '/{/ (Pi CUIN).

NATUIU AUS I RAI IA SUMMER 200I 2002 25

Two HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-FIVE YEARS LATER, I TOO WAIT IN THE DARK FOR_ SEABIRDS TO RETURN. INPU UIT the GURGE BY CHRISTOPHER SURMAN

ESIDE A ROTT! G CANVAS TENT O A WI DY IGHT I AUGUST, sailors, clustered around the feeble flame of an oil lantern, are startled as a large bat-like creature hits one of them in the back of the head. More whoosh by, wingtips shearing the tops of nearby shrubs. Eerie, n1ournful, cat-like sounds fill the air like the cries of drowning castaways. With little effort, the sailors pull the strange creatures from burrows they once thought belonged to long-departed Rabbits. "Muttonbirds!" they cry with joy*. Fattened up after many months foraging at sea, the birds provide welcome respite from the hard­ tack diet of these shipwreck survivors. Within a few weeks, the nightly massacre ends as the birds fail to return.

l *' M111to11bird' is !I gC11eral 1er111 11sed to desC 'ibc shean,,arers, /mt /Hll'timlarly the co1111111·rric1/ly lw,vcsred Shor1-1c1ilcd Slwanl',111'1' P 1 cll't' ( uffinus tcnu1ro'itn'i), which forms fa�(!e breedi11g co/011 ies oH 1/,,• islm,ds cif Bt1h Stmit and '/i1srn,1 1i<1. 'J11cy so-Hmncd because their fatty flesh is s11pposed to t1k-xras; islc111ds, cu/11•1 Ji>, .f<>od ''' for their Jar tf tar 111as 11sed i11 place of 1c1//0111 Jm111 Sfteep rnrcns,es. Still orftcrs _f<,cl the 1111111c rt:{ers t> t the wt>olly do11•11 "" rite chicks, The deriimtio11 re11wi11s m11rky.

The author (in yellow jacket, above) and volunteers wade through mangrove swamp to collect regurgitates from Lesser Noddies. Regurgitates are placed in labelled jars for analysis. (Leftl Lesser Noddies nest among the branches of the Grey Mangroves. They breed only on Pelsaert Island and two smaller islands to the north.

NAl'UIU: AUSl RAJ IA SUMMER 2001 2002 27 Two hundred and seventy-five years than two metres above the high-water later on a nearby island in the Hout­ mark. Vegetation is sparse. The only man Abrolhos, I coo wait in the dark trees are Grey Mangroves (A1Jice1111ia for seabirds to return. However, 111nri11a) and the rest of the vegetation unlike the survivors of the Zee11,yk is just scraggly, wind-blown, salt-tol­ shipwreck, I have no need co clobber erant shrubs. them for food. Rather, it is the food One of the most notable features of that they carry in neat packages in the Houtman Abrolhos is its eclectic their stomach that interests me. In mixture of tropical marine creatures pursuit of the 'gurge'. Regurgitated juxtaposed against a temperate envir­ parcels of tightly packed fish teLI us onment. It is the northernmost nor only what these seabirds eat but extension of the breeding range of the where they may be foraging, how Australian Sea-lion (Neophoca ci11erea), welJ they are doing, and how our fish­ but also the southernmost breeding eries may impact on their survival. location of the Green Turrie ( Che/011ia 111ydns). Seagrasses and cool-water HE HOUTMAN ABR.OLl-1OS is kelps literally sway with the surge of Tmade up of over 120 coral-cov­ breakers among huge expanses of ered rocky islands, 60 kilometres west brightly coloured staghorn and mush­ of Geraldton on the nud-west coast of room corals. Bread-and-butter fishes, Australia. There are three main such as Tommy Roughs (Arripis geor­ r groups, each f inged by a reef that gin1111s) and Tailors (Po111ato111011s salta­ r shelters the lagoons fom the relenrless tor) caught by southern fishermen swell of the Indian Ocean. The low­ from Perth to Sydney, school over lying islands rarely protrude more patches of reef patrolled by warm-

water coral rrouts (Plcrrropo11111s spp.) and parrotfishes (family Scaridae). Most spectacular are the three million tropical seabirds that return each spring from their Indian Ocean \\"in­ ter retreats to breed at the Houtm,111 Abrolhos. The explanation for the Houn11.111 Abrolhos's unique \\'ildlife is m1ple. Originating from the lndone-i.111 Archipelago, a body of tropic.ii \\,1ter forms into a large co,1�t.1l currt'llt ou the north-west shelf of Au,tr.1'1.1. From here, ,ls the Leeu\\'in Current. H begins its 2,500-kilornetrt' 111t\llldcr· ing journey south\\',1rch, huggmg th' edge of the co11ti11cnr.1l ,ht'I .1II tht' way to Cape Lceu\\ in, from \\ hen' it flows c,1St\\'ards into the Crc ir '\u, tralian The author filling out the log bookat the field camp on Pelsaert Island. The rock shelter was constructed Bighr. Co,1,t.11 co1111m11 !tit', ,c' by visiting fishermen to escape the strong winds characteristic of the islands. little influcnct' of the L t''tl\t \ 'ur

NI\ I UR 28 I '\ U \ I R \ I I \ 'l \I\\\ It Wedge-tailed Shearwaters foraging with a Bryde's Whale (Balaenoptera edentl. The small fishes are Slender Sprat (Spratelloides gracilis) and the throat pleats of the whale are clearly visible. rent, but offshore islands like Rottnest (A. te1111irostris) breed there each Shearwaters (P1([fi1111s nssi111ilis) and Island off Fremantle, and the Hout­ spring. Incredibly, this corre ponds to White-faced Storm-Petrels (Pelngodro- man Abrolhos, lie directly in its path. 80 per cent of Sooty Terns, 50 per 11w 11wri11n). It brings with it the larvae of corals cent of Common Noddics, 20 per Each year in spring my volunteers and fi hes from more tropical regions, cent of Wedge-tailed Shearwaters and and I must transplant ourselves from and this may explain why so many 75 per cent of Lesser Noddics nesting the mainland to the research base. tropical seabirds nest on the Houtman within Australia's territorial waters. This is an old rock-lobster fisherman's Abrolhos. Lesser Noddies are of special con­ hut, on tiny Fin Island, in the Pelsaert Pelsaert Island, the southernmost cern as their only nesting places arc Croup. The boat trip takes three island in the chain, is the regular Pelsacrt and two other small islands 20 hours from Ceraldton, and we have to brina absolutely everything with us, breeding place for 14 species of kilometres farther north, and on l3ird b ' seabird. In terms of m1mbers and Island in the Seychelles on the other from food, torch batteries and toilet diversity, it surely rates as one of the side of the Indian Ocean. Other trop­ paper to 60-litre drums of fuel for the most significant seabird sites in Aus­ ical seabirds such as llecl-tailcd Trop­ generator and fridges. tralia. Over half a million Sooty Terns icbirds (Plwetho11 mbricr111dn), l3ridled Our home on the island, although (Stema J11scata), 260,000 Common Terns (Ster11a n11aethet11s) and ltmeate comfortable enough, is made out of oddies (A 11011s s tolid11s), 150,000 erns (S. do11Rnlli1) nest side by side steel. This is not entirely practical in a Wedge-tailed Shearwaters (P,if(,1111s with the more temperate, cool-water marine environment-and rust has pacifirns) and 70,000 Lesser Noddies Pacific Culls (Lnrus pac!fh11s), Little certainly clain1ed the camp, corroding

NAIUIU AUSlltAIIA SUMMElt 2001 2002 29 BY I am, covered by dark, fishy stains and bright streaks of poo. Blessings front the birds!

some of the mam walJ stud , and on the floor, lifting up with the much of the JOln where the roof movement of the carpet. Interested to meets the gutter . Life here gets pret­ see just how windy it was, [ placed my ty exciting during big blows, which thongs on top of the shirt and shorts, can get up to 65 knots (J 19 kilomet­ and then the book I w as reading, and res per hour). Old seamen have ways finally the head torch. All this was still of judging wind speed. The first sign supported by the lifting carpet! A of whitecaps means 12 knots, while quick dash outside with an anemome­ whistling rigging signifies 25 knots. ter revealed the wind speed to be We at the camp judge it another way. 38--1-2 knots 1 The lime-green carpet lift two cen­ timetres off the floor at about 20 EABIR.DS Alli ESSENTIALLY marine knots, at 25-30 knots the windward Sorganisms, spending most of their walls start to pulse in and out, and at time at sea. To understand what over 30 knots the polysty rene ceiling makes them tick we therefore need to starts to move independently. Beyond consider how they relate to their that the camp begins to pump and marine habitat. We do this during the roar to a symphony of wind. This past breeding eason, when they are tied to season ha been particularly windy. the land, by collecting the stomach Only the other evening, as [ lay read­ contents from adult when they ing in bed, I noticed my clothes, piled return to their nest site aftera day for-

Sooty Terns are the most numerous tropical seabird nesting on the Houtman Abrolhos. Over half a million nest on Pelsaert Island alone. Here a parent regurgitates a fish for its chick.

30 NAIUR.1 >\ll\lH.-\11\ \l \1\\IR 'llll ' l\ aging at sea. As recently as the 1970s, then I sneak up and pluck it from its A fisherman's shack on Fin Island. Visitors to the Houtman Abrolhos dream of palm-covered atolls seabirds were shot or poisoned to get nest. This is possible partly because but the reality is quite different. at their gut contents. At the Houtman these birds have had little experience Abrolhos, however, I take advantage of hum.ans in the past and so remain and then place a small, numbered of the least intrusive method possi­ guite unafraid, and partly because stainless steel ring around its ankle. ble-the propensity of many seabirds they are dazzled by the torch beam. Because I only sample from unbanded to regurgitate (spew) when disturbed. Once I have a bird in the hand it birds, this ensures that no bird loses Seabirds regurgitate their most recent usually begins to regurgitate. If things more than one meal in a season. meal as a nervous response to being go well, this ends up in my free hand After six hours in pursuit of the captured, much like a skink drops its where it is then scraped off and stored gurge, we return to our temporary still-wriggling tail to distract a hungry in a plastic vial. If the bird decides to campsite on Pelsaert with the wind at predator. By visiting seabird colonies shake its head at an inappropriate our back. On our return to nearby at a time when seabirds are most like­ moment, the 'gurge' flies everywhere, Fin Island the following morning we ly to be full, we are able to collect covering my volunteers and me. The store the previous evening's 'catch' regurgitates with minimal disturbance trick is not to unconsciously lick the and begin to sort through gurge col­ to the population as a whole. On Pel­ corner of your mouth when you feel lected the previous week. Each gurge saert Island, where most of the breed­ something there! As you can imagine, is an insight into a seabird's day. The ing activity takes place, the best time by the end of the night I am covered types of marine prey found in th is after dark. by dark, fishy stains and bright streaks regurgitated contents give us a clue as To catch the terns and noddies that of poo. Blessings from the birds! to when and where that seabird had I study, I isolate a single bird on its Before release, I weigh and measure been feeding. nest with a narrow torch beam, and each bird to assess how healthy it 1s, Eighty per cent of the diets of Less-

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 2001-2002 31 Baitfish schools such as this one (Slender Sprat, er and 0111111011 Noddies are made FROM THE BIOLOGY Spratelloides gracilis) are pushed to the surface up ofjust three types of larval fishes­ by tunas and then attacked from above by terns. Beaked Salmon (Co11ory11c/111s grey,), of these fishes, face in offshore waters. Their pre­ Blackspot Goatfish (Pnr11pe11eus spi/11- dominance in the diet of the two ms) and Bellowsfish (1'lncrorm11p!tosis we can picture scolopnx). From what we understand tropical noddies poses interesting of the biology of these fishes, we can i1Jhat the two noddies questions and reinforces the bizarre juxtaposition of marine organisms at picwre what the two noddies may may have been have been up to out at sea. AU three the Houtman Abrolhos. Lesser Nod­ fishes are only available to the noddies up to out at sea. dies also eat large volumes of during daylight, when the feeding Blackspot Goa tfish, the larvae of action of predatory pelagic fishes such which are known to be of a tropical as wnas drives chem to the surface in origin and transported southwards by their desperate attempt at escape. l t is the Leeuwin Current. Goatfish are then chat the t'vvo noddies are able to (family Enoploteuthidae) and lantern less common in the diet of Common hover and dip over the school, captur­ fishes (family Myctophidae). Squids Noddies. During years when the vol­ ing fish in the top few centimetres of and lantern fishes spend the daylight ume ofBeaked Salmon in regurgitates water or grabbing them in mid-air as hours at depths of about 50 metres dropped, Lesser Noddies still con­ the fish evade their watery predators. and move to surface waters at night to sumed many goatfish but Common So we now know that Lesser and feed. Both these prey are also charac­ Noddies did not. If Common od­ Common Noddies are diurnal feed­ teristic of oceanic (off-shelO waters, dies share foraging grounds with Less­ ers. We also know from plankton cows and so the presence of these prey in er oddie , why do they tend to chat their fish prey is only found west the guts of Sooty Tern suggest that ignore schools of goatfish1 Being a of the Houtman Abrolhos. Even these birds often feed at night, and larger bird, the 0111111011 oddy may though Lesser oddies at around 100 many hundreds of kilometres fron1 not find it economical to feed on grams are half the size of Common their breeding ground. these reasonably small (less than 30 oddies, I have recorded both species The plot thickens. Beaked Salmon millimetres) fish. However the conse­ r foraging over 150 kilometres f om are a temperate, bottom-dwelling fish, quences of this discrimination can be their nearest nesting site! found as adults in coastal and estuar­ catastrophic. In contrast, the larger Sooty Terns ine regions of south-western Western During the 1996 and 1997 breeding (230 grams) eat mainly enope squids Australia, and as larvae near the sur- seasons there was an almost complete

A Common Noddy with its chick · Common N 0 ddies. s hare f eedrng· grounds with Lesser Noddies but appear to favour different fish. 32 NAIUIU· AU'>lll1\l\'\ '>UI\\ \\ll 2001 2lHl2 ' ---=--

Detailed studies of Roseate Terns foraging over a school of baitfish. Roseate Terns are threatened globally by coastal development and diminishing food resources. breeding failure of all those seabirds marine environment. More impor­ health of the marine environment and that foraged to the west of the Hout­ tantly, although knowledge of seabird fish stocks, but also helps to conserve man Abrolhos. Apart from the two behaviour cannot save u from seabirds. Sound like a ,..vin-win situa­ noddies and the Sooty Tern, this changes in ocean climate, it can help tion for all! included Roseate Terns and Wedge­ prevent us from overexploiting fish tailed Shearwaters. Interestingly, stocks to a point of no return. During FURTHER READING Cre ted Terns ( tema be,;gii), Caspian the early 1970s, millions of Peruvian Dmke-Brock111a11, H., J 995. Voyage to Terns ( . caspia) and Pied Cormorants seabirds died after a dramatic El ifio disaster: the life of Francisco Pelsaerc. (Phalacrocorax varius), all of which feed event. The overexploitation of their University of flVestern Australia Press: either over the shallow reefs within favoured, cold-water-loving Ancho­ Pert/,. the lagoons or towards the mainJand, veta prey by local fishermen had remained unaffected. Much of the already pushed the seabird population Sur111a111 CA., 1998. Seabird breeding breeding failure was attributed to a to the lim.it. With the onset of a scl,edules at the Pelsaert group of islands, low supply of Beaked Salmon, and ,,.,arm-water intrusion associated with Hout111a11 Abrol/1os, f1lester11 Australia while Lesser Noddie also suffered the El Ni110, the Anchoveta were bet1vee11 1993 and I 998. Ree. W Aust. heavy losses, their reproductive output unable to breed, resulting in the col­ Mus.19: 209-215. was buffered by their ability to find lapse of the fishery and massive seabird and consume goatfish. mortality. Nearly 25 years later, those Sur111a11, CA. & ffloolle,; R.D., 1995. seabirds and the Anchoveta fishery Tl,e breeding biology ef tl,e Lesser l\·oddy ow CA SEA131R.DS help us? The have still not recovered to their former 011 Pelsaert Island, l Vestern Ausrmlia. Hresponse of seabirds to El Ni110- levels. Had fishing quotas been set at Emu 95: 47-53. related changes in the Leeuwin Cur­ more realistic levels to account for rent (lower sea levels and cooler tem­ seabird consumption and anomalous DR. Ci-lRI TOPHER (CHRIS) UR1\\AN peratures) gives us an insight into the oceanographic events, the fishing I A Po T-l)OCTOR.AL RESEARCH effects of short-term changes in sea industry and the massive seabird pop­ FELLOW AT MURDOCH UNIVEllSITY level and sea temperature on fish ulations might still exist in their for­ WESTEll AUSTR..ALlf\. stocks. With the ever-increasing mer state. HI EXPERTISE LIES I TI IE threat from global warming, monitor­ Dramatic fishery-related declines in l'OllAGI G ECOLOGY AND ing seabird behaviour may provide a seabirds are not uncommon. Howev­ POPULATION l)YNA 1 \ICS 01' SEAl3\IU) natural indicator of changes in the er, they do provide us with a valuable HE AND I IIS PART ER LISA WISI \ lesson, and one that we should heed. TO DEl)ICATE TI IIS TOIW TO Crested Terns feed on adult pilchards and Monitoring the marine environment TI IEIR SON KA\f\ DYLA anchovies (such as this onel close to the through seabirds provides not only a Houtman Abrolhos, returning with a single item NICI IOU,ON-SUll \A after each journey. good and real-time indicator of the WI 10 l))ED I FF131lUARY 1999.

NA"J URE AUSTRAi IA SUMMcR. 2001 2002 35

USTR.ALIA IS OTOlllOUS worm-like, burrowing 'blind snakes', for its venomous snakes, which are also still with us. However, being home today to most of the snakes in Australia at that scores of species includ­ time were completely different and are ing nine of the 'top ten' now totally extinct, being known only r Adeadliest in the world. But 20 million fom tantalising fossil remains. years ago, in the early Miocene Epoch, The first clues to the existence of things were very different. Venomous these archaic snakes came from the fos­ snake had only just arrived here after sil beds at Naracoorte aves 111 ouch island-hopping from Asia, and only a Australia. From about 500 , 000 to fe\\' rare. mall species had evolved from 200,000 years ago, during the Pleis­ the first colonisers. There were also tocene, the ceilings of these under­ non-venomous. constricting pythons, ground caves were intermittently open similar to our living carpet snakes, and to the world above. These sinkholes

�I

formed diabolical pitfall traps into which unsuspecting animals \\'ould plummet. Large mammals such a mar­ supial liom \\'Ould be unlikely to sun·in: the drop. bur snakes. liz,uds and ,·,uiou, small mammals may have spent their last days at the bottom of the shaft. feeding 011 each other or ,c,1\'enging the flesh of other victims. While cx,1111 ining fragrnenr,uy bony remains fi-0111 one of the ar.1coortt' ca\'e, (V ictori,1 Fm,il ,l\'e). kred1rh mith ,H the 1m·er-,in of deLmk identified ,0111c 1,0L1ted ,·errebr.1t' ti-0111 a \'cry L1rge ,n.1ke. po"1bh .1round tiH' metre, long. In 197(1 ,he chn,rcned 1r Pleistocene mega-predators in conflict: skeletal reconstruction of Wonambi and Thylacoleo· based 0 11 11 i111//111/1i 11,11i1n>,>//c11.,is. bo1-rO\\ 111g rh' skeletons from the Naracoorte cave s. > gcnu, 11.1111c fi-0111 the 1 1r_J,111t_].lt_J,1r.1 pt'l)

38 A I l R I \ l ' I I� \ II \ 'l \I \ II R 'll lll 'l1 I' ple of central Australia, who used the serve skeletal remains of a huge diversi­ Southern Australia, about 100,000 years ago. A (Sarcophilus laniarius) name for giant serpents believed to ty of late-Oligocene to mid-Miocene Giant Tasmanian Devil has returned from a night on the prowl only to find inhabit sacred local water holes and animals (roughly 25 to JS million years Wonambi blocking the entrance to its lair. rock hollows (see box). This was the old). They inhabited a complex land­ first species of extinct snake from Aus­ scape of lakes and pools shaded by rain­ tralia to be described. Srn.ith noticed forest, out of which emerged cave-rid­ that the vertebrae were very similar to dled, rocky hills. Rather than thick, those of much older, and even larger, continuous layers of fossil-rich sedi­ extinct snakes called madtsoiids, which ment, the treasures of R.iversleigh are had been described from equally frag­ usually concentrated in patches only a mentary remains in South America and few metres across, resulting from local Africa. transient accumulations of bones in Since then, additional (but still frag­ small pools, fissures and caves. earch­ mentary) remains of madtsoiid snakes ing for new sites, and quarrying them have been found elsewhere around for vertebrate fossils, is a strenuous but Australia, most notably at Riversleigh frequently thrilling experience. It's in north-western Queensland. The quite rare to see snake fossils in the freshwater limestone deposits there pre- field, especially s mall ones, which arc

NATU Ri: AUS'J I\.Al IA SUMMER 2001 2002 39 usually only later revealed in the lab by Madtsoiids are more abundant and sieving ediment or dissolving the rocks diverse in the Miocene of R.iversleigh in acetic acid. However. in some places than at any other place or time in the at Riversleigh. where the limestone world. In most of the other sites, the rock has eroded under slightly acidic madtsoiids are a very minor component rain, snake vertebrae several centimetres of the fauna, represented by only a few across project from the weathered sur­ bones. fac of boulders. Most impressive are Both Naracoorte and R.iversleigh the occasional, partly articulated skele­ provide exceptional windows into pre­ tons, in one case a historic Australia, large python en- and have been grant­ twined with a medi­ ed Wo rld Heritage um-sized crocodile. THE SNAKES WERE status. While most of Many madtsoiids the palaeontological inhabited the River­ huge) as long as attention at these sleigh landscape. a station wagon sites has centred on Among these were the mammals, which a smaller version of and as thick as are stupendously the South Australian diverse, the reptile I Vo11a111bi ( IV barriei, a telegraph pole- discoveries are also only about three important. However, metres long and pos­ 1nore 1nassive than until recently, the ibly arboreal) and material consisted two terrestrial 'dwa1f' any python in almost entirely of species ( \"ano111a11a) Australia today. isolated vertebrae less than a metre and rib . Conse- long, whose jaws and guencly, the true teecl1 uggest they nature of madtsoiids, speciali ed in feeding on hard-scaled and their relationships to other snakes, lizards such as slcinks. Also present was remained almost totally obscure. Then, the giant Y11r/1111gg11r (a species similar to John Barrie and his family from Ade­ Y ca111fielde11sis from Bullock Creek in laide found and excavated a pair of par­ the orchern Territory), which may tial skeletons of Wo11a111bi from Hen­ have been sem_i-aguacic uke the ouch schke's Quarry Cave at Naracoorte. American Anaconda (E1111ectes 11111ri1111s). When all the parts were painstakingly

40 NA I U ll 1 1\ U \ Ill 1\ II 1\ , U t-.It-. II ll 'll !l I ltl ' sorted out and assembled, the recon­ so the geographic range extension into A nine-metre-long subadult mosasaur (Moanasaurus mangahouangae) in full underwater struction revealed that the snakes were Australasia showed them to have occu­ flight. huge, as long as a station wagon and as pied nearly all of the southern lands for­ thick as a telegraph pole-more massive merly joined as the supercontinent (although possibly not longer) than any Gondwana (they have also now been python in Australia today. Wo11a111bi had found in south-western Europe). But a wide, flat skull and huge distensible while madtsoiids went extinct on all the jaws with long recurved teeth, allowing other continents around 55 million it to engulf wallaby-size marsupials and years ago, only ten million years after other animals that shared its habitat. the dinosaurs, rn Australia they remained successful and diverse for at HE IUCENT DISCOVER.JES of mad­ least another 40 million years. They Ttsoiid snakes in Australia have began to decline only during the 111id­ proved intriguing on two counts. Previ­ Miocene, 15 million years ago, and by ously madtsoiids had only been found in the early Pliocene, about five million South America, Africa and Madagascar, years ago, most of them were gone, their ecological places taken up by an This split limestone block, photographed in the increasing diversity of pythons and ven­ field at Riversleigh, exposes a rare series of omous snakes, both invaders from the articulated vertebrae of the large Miocene north. Only two giant species were left: madtsoiid Yurlunggur. Dissolving the rock with acetic acid will reveal more of the skeleton, vf/011a111bi in the south, and Y11r/1111,f-!(!III' in possibly even the skull. the north-cast of the continent. l3oth

NAl URE AUSl RALIA SUMMER 2001-2002 41 like to say-is to suggest that Rainbow Serpents they arose only once very long In Aboriginal traditions ago in human history and have throughout northern Australia been handed down with slight and in much of the southern modifications across various inland, giant rainbow-coloured cultures. Thus the 'wings' and serpents with long hair or 'beards' of these mythica plumes, beards and sometimes l serpents, as well as their lethal legs (up to six of them!) guard power, might reflect features of sacred pools, control storms a real animal with an ancient and floods, and teach and association with humans. Hom enforce the sacred law, o sapiens and its ancestor punishing transgressors by s evolved in Africa and South-Ea swallowing them and st Asia in the presence of cobr sometimes their whole tribes. as and large constricting snakes Rainbow Serpents were among for millions of years, so these the most important creator snakes presumably always had spirits during the Dreamtime, when all the people, animals a place in human culture and and features of the landscape mythology. While both types of came into being. Some clans snakes have been implicated in (especially in Arnhem Land) the serpent myths discussed claim these mythical serpents above, cobras are the more as ancestors, supreme creators likely source. Throughout their or the mother of the whole distribution cobras are feared world, while others accept them for their highly potent venom A Chinese Spitting cobra (Naja atra) in threatening posture. and large size (up to nearly six as being just part of the The expanded hood of cobras could be the source of the landscape, one of the more winged serpent legends. metres in the King Cobra, powerful and exotic species of Ophiophagus hannah), but often wildlife with which they share their Serpent myths with recently extinct, also venerated, playing a central country. and perhaps rather odd-looking, giant role in Hindu and some African snakes in Australia, and has led to the creation myths. Their unusual and Rainbow Serpents are common in rock idea that the Wonambi (giant mythic disconcerting habit of 'standing' art, occasionally depicted in great serpent) of the Pitjantjatjara people upright and looking a person in the eye detail but more often as stylised, might also be the Wonambi of (and in some species, spitting venom almost abstract images. Recent Australian palaeontologists. into the face as well) certainly adds to studies by Paul Ta�on (Australian their 'magical' aura. The 'hood' that Museum) and colleagues have However, similar giant, bearded or they spread in this threat display supported the idea that some of them plumed serpents occur in mythological (produced when long mobile ribs are based on a small marine fish traditions all over the world, from the stretch the skin of the neck into a disc) related to seahorses (the Ribboned dragons of China and Europe, to might reasonably be described as Pipefish, Haliichthys taeniophorus), Quetzalcouatl in Mexico. They 'wings' or 'a beard', and is often made while rock-art enthusiast Percy presumably can't all be based on more conspicuous by a banded or eye­ Tr ezise suggests that Rainbow Pleistocene madtsoiids, because like pattern. Thus, the serpent myths of Serpents are representations of these existed only in Australia. Either humans might have originated very comets. Whatever the complicated there were many separate origins of early in the history of our species, history of the pictorial traditions, it is similar myths in different parts of the inspired by the cobras our ancestors clear that Aboriginal art and legend world, or they can be traced back to a coexisted with. When people spread distinguish between Rainbow smaller number of origins early in out into Europe, northern Asia, the Serpents and other kinds of snakes human history. Americas and Australasia-areas that living today that are associated with lack cobras-the memory of these water, such as pythons and file Perhaps the simplest way to account winged, bearded, lethal snakes maY snakes. This suggests a possible for these similar stories-the most have lingered on as the RainboW historical association of Rainbow parsimonious hypothesis, as scientists Serpent and similar myths.

2002 42 NATUR.E AUSTRALIA SUMMER. 200i- ILLIMlTHE..S 7 I 2 3 4 6 8 9 r 11 I 11 I, 11 I I I I I I I I I 11

L. C

li\·ed \Yithin the lase half-nullion years, The brain case of Wonambi naracoortensis reveals details of the cranial nerves, blood vessels and ear canals, which have been compared with those of other snakes, modern lizards and mosasaurs. with [Vo11al/lbi urvi\·ing co within the lase I 00,000. Although the dates of their final extinctions are not yet known, it is possible that one or both of these mas­ sive serpents was still living when the first humans arrived in Australia, per­ haps 60,000 years ago.

The discovery of r Vo11a111bi, Y11r/1111gg11r and the other madcsoiids has not only demonstrated chat these giant snakes inhabited Australia and persi red here for much longer than elsewhere, but it has revealed for the first time what madcsoiids were actually like. Although abundant madcsoiid remains had already been found in other continents, nearly all this material consisted of vertebrae and ribs. The sum total of skull remains consisted of a few pitiful jaw fragments. Vertebrae and ribs are rather simple bone , and thus can only provide limit­ ed information on a snake's biology and evolutionary relationships. Skulls, and in particular brain cases, are much more complex. The brain case forms an intri­ cate mould of an animal's cerebral lobes and associated nerves, veins and arteries. The complex and detailed anatomy thus revealed by brain cases makes chem one of the most useful body parts for unrav­ elJing an organism's biology and evolu­ tionary relationships. Bue, of course, brain cases arc rarely found, since each r Rainbow Serpent painting, Mt Borradaile area, Northern Territory. Serpent myths in Australia and oth�r snake has only a single f agile skull but continents may derive from human interaction with cobras, but other animals, including living or fossil hundreds of durable vertebrae and ribs. madtsoiids, could also have contributed to their development in Australia.

NA ru,u- AUS I RAI IA SUMMER. 2001 2002 43 Dreamtime (see box). AdditionaUy, the primitive skull of Wo11a111bi (and by impli­ aU madcsoiids) indicat cation e they a, re r one holdovers fom of the first chapters in snake history. As such, Wonambi has the potential to teach us much about the origin of snakes-the 'dreamtime' of snake evolution.

LMOST EVERYONE AGREES that Asnakes are derived from some group of lizards that lost their limbs and elon­ gated their bodies. Indeed in their gener­ al anatomy snakes are little more than another lineage of long-bodied, limb­ reduced lizards. However, there is little consensus on anything else about snake origins. The lineage of lizards that gave rise to snakes is disputed (see "Burying Burrowing Origin for Snakes", ature Aust. Summer 2000-2001 ), with the major candidates being tiny burrowing lizards, or extinct marine goannas called mosasaurs-vorac1ous predators that grew to over ten metres long. Another related debate concerns whether snakes lost their legs and evolved their long bodies in a subterranean or marine envi­ ronment. The current majority view holds chat small, burrowing lizards gave rise co nakes, which implies chat snake lose their legs and elongated their bodie co help chem slide through burrows and crevice much more ea ily. An alternative scenario, once popular but currently out of favour, is that the gigantic mosasaurs were the closest cousins of snakes, imply­ ing that snakes lose their limbs and elon­ gated their body for eel-like swimrrung. Pachyrhachis, a Cretaceous marine snake with tiny hind legs. It was found on the West Bank near Some recent finds of primitive snakes Jerusalem, which was then part of a massive reef system. help resolve the argument. One is Pachyrhachis proble111atic11s. This was a Based on ribs and vertebrae, the best being most similar to the skulls of mid­ marine snake that inhabited a huge guess of most scientists was chat mad­ dle to lace Cretaceous snakes that lived ancient reef in a shallow sea situated over l tsoiids were relatives of pythons and alongside the dinosaurs (97-74 million the present-day M iddlc Ease. Pachyrhac iis boa (they were classified as a subfami­ years ago). This meant that madcsoiids had a tiny head and narrow neck, pre­ s ly of Boidae). Since pythons inhabit were not relatives of modern pythons, sumably for poking into narrow crevice ­ Australia today, this would not be coo but were relicts of the earliest phase in in search of hiding fish. Its cwo-metre r e surprising. The Naracoorte skeleton of snake evolution. Their survival into the lono- body was flattened f om side to sid b ·1 Wona111bi, however, contains fine skull Australian Pleistocene represents the and probably ended in a paddle-like rai, ce- material, including an almost perfect serpent equivalent of dinosaurs linger­ allowino- the animal to swim with gra b u- brain case. And this skull, first partly ing on to overlap with cave men. ful sinusoidal undulations. Most incrig om­ described by John Barrie, proved some­ The appropriateness of the name ingly, it retained tiny bur largely c ard thing of a revelation when studied by IIV01w111bi might therefore be twofold. plete hind limbs, holdovers from its liz forms. us. Contrary co predictions, it was not There is a (slim) chance that this rnad­ an cescry. ..,.,, wo s1. rnI· 1 a r bu r s111,1 Iler · - l remotely python-like, or indeed similar csoiid survivor (or even its fresh subfos­ l-laas10p/11s 1erms,111r111s an d Porlop us dis- to the skull of any living snake. Rather, sil bones) contributed to the R.ainbow rlesco11ensi, have very recently been ] · reef the skull was exceedingly primitive, Serpent legends of the Aboriginal covered in the same ,ire.1, so r 11s

1-. SU� I 1\ 11 It 44 NA I UR AUS I RA I I A with leggy 'sea exhibits none of the features of those of Scanlon, Lee, /\11.S. Tl,e �- must have been teaming ).D. & Y'., 2000. snakes'. Anatomically, these snakes burrowing lizards, which arc short, Pleistocene serpent Wonambi a11d t/1e early 403: appear exactly intermediate between reinforced and highly rigid, thus refut­ e110!1ftio11 of snakes. Nature !p, 416-420. the marine mosasaurs and snakes, thus ing the idea that snakes have affinities two groups. However, the with such lizards. In contrast, ltVona111bi 1• linking the skulls of these fossils are all badly flat­ has long, highly flexible jaws like Scanlon, ).D., Lee, M . . Y, Caldwell, 1999. tened, resulting in heated arguments mosasaurs, and so provides additional M. W & S/1ine1 R., Tl,e palaeoecol­ about their true structure and meaning. evidence in favour of the once-hetero­ ogy of the priniiti11e snake Pachyrhachis. 13: 127-152. This makes the uncrushed, fully three- dox idea that snakes are cousins of these Hist. Biol. tt dimensional skull remains of I Vona111bi giant sea-going goannas. Even if Won­ particularly important. a111bi is not the Rainbow Serpent of the Ta1on, PS. C., Wilson, /\II. & C/1ippi11dale, If madtsoiids are very primitive Aboriginal Dreamtime, it certainly C., I 996. Birt/, of the Rai11bow Serpent in r snakes. as their brain cases demonstrate, sheds light on the dreamtime of snakes. A mhe111 Land rock art and oral history. 3 I (3): I 03-124. l; they coo should tell us something about Arch. in Oceania origins. I Vo11a111bi is clearly too FURTHER READING 'I: snake large to have been a burrower, but was Coates, M. & Ruta, M., 2000. Nice DrtJOHN SCANLON 1s A ARC also not marine, its remains being found snake, sha111e about the legs. Trends Ecol. R._ESEAl"l..CH ASSOCIATE AT THE SOUTH in deposits formed by terrestrial caves Evol. 15(12): 503-507. AUSTrtALIAN MUSEUM, AND ALSO and freshwater pools. As it neither bur­ A RESEAl"l..CH ASSOCIATE OF THE rowed nor swam in the sea, it does not Lee, M. . Y & Caldwell, M W, I 998. AUSTl<.ALIAN MUSEUM. I-IE WOR.KS help arbitrate over the ecology of snake Anato111y and relationships of Pachyrachis MAI LY ON AUSTl<.ALIAN S AKES, origins-whether they evolved under problematicus, a pri111itive snake 111itl, INCLUDI G THE MORPHOLOGY, ground or under water. However, in l,i11dlin1bs. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. SYSTEMATICS A D BEHAVIOUR OF terms of the debate over which lizards Ser. B 353: 1521-1552. LIVI G A D FO IL PECIES. Dl"l.. MIKE were ancestral to snakes, Wona,nbi is LEE IS A RESEARCH SCIENTIST I THE particularly instructive. Wonarnbi's skull Scanlon, ]D., 1997. Nanowana gen. PALAEONTOLOGY SECTIO OF THE 11011., small rnadtsoiid snakes fro111 the SOUTH AUSTl<.ALIA MUSEUM, Miocene of Riversleigh: sympatric species WHERE HE IS CURIU TLY The meticulously prepared, but unfortunately badly crushed, skull and neck of the first specimen of wit/, divergently specialised dentition. Mem. INVESTIGATING THE EVOLUTION Pachyrhachis. Qld Mus. 41: 393-4'/2. OF REPTILES.

NATURJ:. Aus·, RAI IA SUMMl:.R 2001 2002 45 A Killer Whale surfing in the wake of the author's research boat, inside Auckland Harbour, New Zealand.

WHY DOES HAVE ONE OF THE H STRANDING RATES IN THE Kl KILLE BY INGRID N. VISSER

46

-,

sight- as compared with 35 kilo1 ITI I A FEAllSOME ' 1 mw shots' of Killer Whales I've 11cc res fo1 coastline. Alaskan Killer Whales, and 60 reputation as top ed around the New Zealand k"II Oillet use to discin­ res for those from Argentina) M predators, Killer Among the features chat I · Ost f0 their piamentation pat- this travel occurs up and down th Whales (Orci1111s o-uish::, chem are ::, � e ew of the Zealand coast, although Killer orca) have long terns. For example, the shape Whal es eye have also been reported struck fear into the hearts of humans. white patch found just behind the well offsh ore. animals, however, But for me, Killer Whales only produce (the eye patch) is as individual as a (These have not been photographically identifie excitement. I have always been fascinat­ human fingerprint. In addition, during d ' and 11lay to another popul ed by these animals and dreamed of the course of the animals' lives, they belong ation.) The r Killer Whales found aroun working with chem. right fom when I acquire marks such as cuts, scratches . d the Ne\\ coastlme was a child. Even after studying them and injuries, all of which help with Zealand have only ever b een graphed here, suggesting for eight years, I still get a thrill every identification. photo chat thev 111 time I see one. On my way to an live permanently the area. Howeve; encoumer. I wonder if I will meet up EING A13LE TO IUCOGNISE individ­ just because they haven't been pho'. ,,·ith animal that I know, or that I Buals is the key to my study. For tographed elsewhere doesn't 111ean thev haven ·c come across before. instance, I can work out how far a don't ever travel outside ew Zealand Ho"· could I even begin co tell these l(iller Whale has travelled if I have pho­ waters. Therefore, photographs frorn animals apart, you might ask 1 The con­ tographs of the same animal in different the public* and other whale researchers r cept is quite simple-just like us. every places, over a known time f ame. I have around the South Pacific are checked to l{jlJer Whale looks different. and can be found that New Zealand Killer Whales f * i yo11 ever co111e c1cross Killer l 111c1/es 111 1he ll'ild, plellS( recognised by distinct features. By tak­ travel farther than other populations of take pho1ographs, alo11g 111itl, locat1011 details and date, and ing photographs of each animal I come l(iller Whal s around the world smd the111 to 111e so that I ca11 111c/11de them III my data­ aero s. l now have a colJection of J 17 (approximately 170 kilometres per day, base. ·n1a11kyo11. (Author details at end.)

-l(Hll 'II 48 NA I l/ It I \ L \ I It \ I I \ \ L \I \I I R search for a match. Photographs over time can also tell me the 1nini111um ages of individuals. ne female that contin- 1 ues to turn up around ew Zealand was first photographed, as an adult, in Auckland Harbour on the orth Island in 1977. Given that females take about J 5 years to reach physical maturity, this makes her at least 38 years old! However, for me. the most exciting thing I gain from recognising the ani­ mals is how each one has a personality. This isn ·t as far-fetched as it might seem-ask any Dog or Cat owner and they will tell you how their pet has its own likes and dislikes, its own 'person­ ality'. l have christened many of the Killer Whales I see regularly on the basis of their personalities. For example, one of my favourites is Digit, named after a wild Gorilla that would reach out and couch the researcher, Dian Fos­ sey (of '·Gorillas in the Mist" fame).

Digit the Killer Whale is very trusting (Leh) Spike (catalogue number NZ7). breaches and will swim up to my boat and touch inside Auckland Harbour after crossing a shallow sand bar. Spike, an adult male, got his name from my outstretched hand. I don't feed her; his large 'spike-like' dorsal fin (not visible). Note she docs this without any rewards. I am the large pectoral (side) fins typical of adult male not really s ure why Digit should display Killer Whales. this type of behaviour, but another (Above) The author with Digit (NZ50). a wild, Killer Whale has begun to show an friendly female that often swims right up to the research boat. interest in humans, and a little more is known about her history. ailed Miracle, she got her name in a roundabout way. In 1993 she stranded on a beach in northern New Zealand. I couldn't attend the stranding and only

NATURL AUSTRAi IA SUMMER 2001 2002 49 rwo photographs were taken. Howcve r, in one, a black dot (a sort of a beauty on her eye Killer Whale spot!) can be seen patch. She and put Orcinus area was rescued back into the water. Three years later l photographed Classification a Killer Whale with a black dot in the Order Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises), suborder Odontocet, eye patch and matched this photograph (toothed whales), family Delphinidae (dolphins). Also known as Fat Chopper, to the one from the stranding. It was a Demon Dolphin and (preferred by New Zealanders) Orea. n1iracle that the photographs from her stranding showed the mark, it was a Identification miracle that she had been rescued, and Largest of the dolphin family. Distinctive black and white colouration. Grey it was a miracle that l had pho­ area behind the dorsal fin (saddle patch), white area behind eye (eye patch) tographed her and matched these pho­ and on underside of body and tail. Adults sexually dimorphic. Males larger (up tographs, hence her name. Miracle is a to 9.8 m), females 8.5 m. Dorsal fin of males tall (up to 1.8 m) and triangular; friendly Killer Whale that seems co take female dorsal find shorter (up to 0.9 m) and slightly curved. delight in coming over to boats and checking people out. Although she is Distribution yet to actually touch me, she is getting All oceans of the world, from polar to tropical regions, although each popula­ bolder in her encounters with humans. tion so far investigated is genetically and behaviourally distinct and may She has seen Digit interact with me, so reside in 'home' areas. Although sighted around Aust. coastline, to date no perhaps she has learnt from her; or per­ population estimates available. haps, after her stranding, she has no fear of humans, just an intere t. Habitat One Killer Whale l ha,·e seen many Coastal and offshore waters. Coastal animals typically found in 'open-water' times is called Rocky. He isn·t named areas or near areas high in prey, such as seal haulouts. Occasionally report­ after a ylve ter tallone movie; rather ed in fresh water. In NZ waters, Killer Whales often found in shallow inner­ his name comes from the way he hunts harbour areas. in amongst the rocks. At times he hums between rocks, in water so shallow char Reproduction I am unable to follow in my boar. Males mature at about 20 years old, max. life span 60 years old. Females Rocky is one of the Killer Whales in mature at about 15 years old, max. life span 90 years old. Birth interval 2-14 ew Zealand that have developed a years (average 5 years). Gestation 468-539 days. Killer Whales and pilot whales are the only non-human animals identified as having post-reproduc­ special way of feeding. I call it 'benchic tive females survive and still remain in the social group. foraging'-feeding on the botcom of the sea-and it has not been reported in Status any other Killer Whale population. Listed by IUCN as 'Lower Risk, Conservation Dependent', with 2 Canadian ew Zealand Killer Whales dig inro populations now reclassified as 'Threatened' and 'Vulnerable'. the sandy and muddy bottom with their rostrum (a whale snout or beak). in search of rays. Although digging in rhe bottom has been reported for orher species of cetaceans, such as Bowhead Whales (Balae11a 111ysrirerns). Gr,1y Whales (Esc/1riclui11s rob11sr11s) and Bor­ tlenose Dolphins (Tt1rsiops rn111c,1111s: see "A the Tide Turns". Xomrc .--.l11sr. Autumn 1993), it has not been reporr­ ed for Killer Whales, which rypic,1lly hunt in open water or in the \\'ater col­ umn. l have seen them take four differ­ enc pecie ,1nd includino-t-, both stino-� r,l\'S, electric rays. nd not only do the\· di� for them, but they ch,1se t,he111 up onrt' ,ur beaches and flip them through the like frisbecs (sec ··1 iwi l ill-rs Pl.,, Rocky (NZ6), an adult male, in shallow water. ocky � earned his name from his habit of fornging 111 · . shallow w a 1er , typically 111 amongst rocks.

50 '111 NA I UR.I J\U\ 11\.'\II\ \l \\\II R 2lllll , Ben (NZ101) in rescue pontoons, during his return to the sea after his overnight sojourn on the beach. The pontoon system is in ankle-deep water, but this is sufficient to allow him to float. Upon entering the water, Ben attempted to move himself by thrashing his tail.

Fri bee", ·at11re Aust. Spring 1999). I the strandings. All live strandings have for the notification of marine mammal have a theory about this 'flipping', as I so far occurred on shallow sandy beach­ strandings? Are there simply more have also seen them flip rays under es, or on and bars into harbours, sug­ opportunities for the ew Zealand water. It is possible chat flipping the rays gesting that the Killer Whales are in public to report strandings when they allows the Killer Whales to immobilise these areas for a reason ... perhaps it is happen? Possibly, but I think it is more chem, deactivating their defence systems rays. I have seen Killer Whales get stuck than this. I investigated the aspect of (stings or shocks). Research has shown on sand bars while chasing rays and, dead versus live strandings of ew that, if you quickly flip a shark or ray although they managed to free them­ Zealand Killer Whales and found that onto its back, it will remain motionless. selves, they are possibly not always suc­ dead animals washed up on all coast When the ray or shark drifts back cessful and n1ay end up being stranded. types (sandy beaches and rocky coasts) upright, it can swim offor defend itself, Although it has been suggested that but live trandings only occurred on but while it remains upside down it is number of strandings may be linked to sandy beaches. This lends support to defenceless. One New Zealand Killer population density, whale and dolphin the idea of live Killer Whale strandings Whale, found dead, had stingray barbs researchers have so far not found any in New Zealand being an occupational embedded in its spine and in the mus­ support for this. I wondered whether hazard in pur uit of their unusual bot­ cles of its neck, showing that rays can the high incidence of strandings might tom-dwelling prey. indeed be a dangerous source of food. by linked to the relatively long length of New Zealand has a high success rate the New Zealand coastline, but again of refloating and rescuing stranded TI 'GS MAY OT BE the only danger could find no correlation. For example Killer Whales. One example was a Sassociated with hunting rays. New Norway, which also has an extensive young male, called Ben. He spent an Zealand has one of the highest Killer coastline and yet double the Killer entire night on the beach, and the next Whale stranding rates in the world. Whale population of New Zealand, has day was put back in the water by a ded­ Over 70 Killer Whales have stranded only had one stranding (of 14 animals) icated team of volunteers. He reunited since 1860, and in recent years there has reported. ould New Zealand's high with his group (which had been in a been an average of one stranding every number of strandings be an artefact of nearby harbour all night, feeding on two ye ars. Australia, by contrast, has the relatively well-populated coastline rays). ince stranding, Ben has been the only had 12 Killer Whales strand since of New Zealand (compared with, say, victim of another threat ro "h., es md records began in 1924. Although Killer Australia's vast unoccupied coastal areas) dolphins around the world bo.1r s ike Whales are sighted around the entire and the fact that New Zealand has one ixteen months after his dr.llll.Hll rcs New Zealand coast, there is a pattern to of the most comprehensive networks cue, Ben was hit by a bo,lt ,md struck ,lt

ATURE AUSTRAi IA SUMMER 2001 2002 51 Rocky (NZ6) with a stingray. The ray is positioned upside down in what may be induced 'tonic immobility' to reduce the risk of being stung,

least three times on his back by the pinning propeller. He was cut so badly chat I didn't expect him to live. Fortu­ nately he did sur vive, but his dorsal fin is permanently split and the posterior portion has collapsed. Another threat to a top marine preda­ tor such as the Killer Whale is pollu­ tion. This comes in many forms and includes fishing line. which can cue off the tops of fins (one ew Zealand Killer Whale has the whole cop of her dorsal fin missing), and plastic bags (dead dolphins have been found with plastic bags in their airways. or in their stomachs, which they may have con­ sumed chjnking they were jellyfish. or just out of curiosity: the same could apply to Killer Whales. which are known to ear jellyfish). Howe\'er. there are also the more hidden. but no less threatening. pollutants from chemicals and heavy metal char are a direct re ulr of our indu tr ialised world. These emer the water via the air. run-offfrom cities and farms. and direct pumping into the

Ben (NZ101), a subadult male, after being hit _ by a presumed boat strike. onl y . . . and was rescued. He survived aday or so after the hit. This boat strike and in fact has been repeated! Y seen occurred about a year after he str nded has over a number of year s since· subsequently collapsed. t he b oat strike- and the stranding. The rear portion of ,is fin

52 r and oceans fom factories effluent 11s rlelpl,is). These prey types arc also top Ross, P, Ellis, C.M., lko110111011, M.C., lanes. Once there, the contaminants marine predators, so it doe. n't take Barl'<'ft-Le1111ard, L.C. & Addiso11, R.F, ccu111ulace·-chat is, build up in an much imagination to realise that conta­ 2000. 1 Jig/, PCB co11C<'ntrations in free­ l � �bioa animal, n1ostly through their food. In a minant accumulation will increase the ranging Pacific killer 111l1ales, Orcinus orca: Canadian study, researchers found that higher up the food chain you go. �[feels of age, sex a11d dietary preference. 40: 504-515. Killer \Vhalcs have the highest levels of All these issues show how continued Mar. Poll. 13ull. contaminants ever recorded. One scicn­ research may not only benefit the Killer loi, r rise even proposed that when these ani- Whales fom New Zealand, and else­ Visse1; l.N., I 999. Brnthic foraging 011 mals die their carcasses should be dis- where, but may also provide vital infor­ stingrays by killer 11;/,a/es (Orcinus orca) i11 1P· posed of as if they were nuclear waste! mation on the ocean habitats of New e111 Zealand 111afers. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15: 220-227. i Pr At this stage. we just aren't sure how Zealand and the rest of the world. ill Ill: heavily loaded the cw Zealand K er There is still a lot to be learnt about t,: Whales are, and looking at this will be these animals and the ways in which we Visser, 1. N., I 999. Propeller scars and '.t part of my ongoing research. need to protect them and their environ­ kno11111 n1iimtio11 of /1110 area (Orcinus area) o; Bioaccumulation occurs primarily ment. [n the meantime, small lifestyle in Ne111 Zeala11d 111aters. N.Z. J. Mar. because rhe Killer Whales are at the top changes for humans (such as using Frcshw. R.c . 33: 635-642. of their food web. They eat animals that biodegradable products and picking up lt eat other animals that eat other animals. plastic bags at the beach) may result in a Visse1; l.N. & Fertl, D.C. 1 2000. Strand­ , For instance, the ew Zealand Killer huge global benefit for the environ­ ing, resigl,ting a11d boat strike of a killer 11;_ Whale eat rays, \ hich in turn eat mol- ment, ensuring that our future genera­ 11;/,ale (Orcinus orca) off New Zealand. luscs-animals known to filter-feed and tions have the opportunity to experi­ Aquatic Mammals 26(3): 232-240. collect all manner of detritus and small ence the wonder and joy that [ have had animal such as zooplankton. But ew in the presence of wild Killer Whales. l R [ GR.ID . VISSER COMPLETED Zealand Killer Whales don't only eat HER PH.D. AFTER. WOR.KI G WITH rays. I have also seen them take sharks, FURTHER READING NEW ZEALAND KILLER WHALES -eo even dining out on the formidable Olesi11k, PF, Bigg, M.A. & Ellis, G.M., FOR EIGHT YEARS. HER RESEARCH horcfin Mako (Is11rus oxyri11c/111s), and 1990. Life l,istory a11rl pop11/ntio11 rly11a111ics PROJECT IS 0 GOING. SHE IS A ,. other cetaceans such as Bottlenose Dol­ of resident killer 111/,ales (Orcinus orca) i11 TRUSTEE FOR ADOPT A OR.CA, phins and Common Dolphins (Delpl,in- tl,e coastal waters of British Col,1111bia a11rl PO Box 1233, WHANGAREI, I Vasl,i11gto11 State. Report of the lnterna­ EW ZEALA D, WHICH SUPPORTS A juvenile Killer Whale delicately takes a School tional Whaling Commission pecial KILLER WI IALE RESEARCH THROUGH Shark off a longline, Northland, New Zealand. Issue No. I 2: 209-243. ADOPTIO A D DONATIO S.

NAJ URF AUS'! RAJ IA SUMMl,ll 2002 2001 53

('lovers o( calcium'), while calcifug E 'TIO TI IE WOJU) vast array o( sculpturing and fluting in es arc plants that never grow on limesto limestone <111d images surface-rock formations. In eastern ne. On the small, isolated areas of kar come to mind o( Aw.tralia, limestone karst occurs as st in eastern Australia, the differences sculptured, under­ small, isolated outcrops, mostly along between the vegetation o( limestones ground e,iverns with the Great Dividing R.angc. Many o( and o( non-limestones are narrow. twisting p,1ssages and trickling these cave systems, such as l3uchan in not as obvious. However, there are screams. The slightly acidic water Victoria, Mole Creek and Hastings in some distinguishing features. Most notably, slowly dissolves the calciu111 carbonate Tasmania, and Jenolan, Wellington, do not grow as that is the major part o( li111cstonc, and Wo111beyan, Yarrangobilly and eucalypts readily on redeposits it in the form o( those awe­ Coolc111on in ew South Wales, have limestone substrates, and in geological inspiring speleothems (stalagmites, attracted tourists since the 1800s. surveys, limestone can often be stalactites ere.) by which we recognise a l3ut karst landscapes arc special not identified by the presence o( open li111estone cave. just because o( their interesting grasslands. t=or this reason, limestones The characteristic land-surface (ea­ geological (eatures. In the northern were often some of the earliest areas to tures and underground drainage o( hemisphere, the vegetation on lime­ be settled by Europeans, because the li111estones is described as a karst stone substrates is unique, and very open pa tures provided fodder for landscape. named after the Karst region different from that o( other rock types Sheep and Cattle without the need for of north-western Yugoslavia. Karst such as sandstones, shales and granites. extensive tree clearing. Some unusual typically includes caves, dry river beds, Plants that grow exclusively on Australian trees and shrubs are often underground strea11 1s, sink holes and a limestone are known as calciphiles associated with limesrones. The list includes the Kurrajong (Brachycl,ito11 pop11/11eus), cypress pines (Callitris pp.) and the Port Jackson Fig (Fiws rub(�i11osa). The terrestrial fern Asple11i11111 tric'1011ia11es is one of those species that usually only grows on limestone. 13ut in higher rainfall area . there are minimal differences between vegetation on limestones and vegeta­ tion on other nearby rock substrates. because high rainfall and humidity appear to reduce the roxic effect of calcium carbonate on calcifuges. Mo ses and liverworts are extra­ ordinarily diverse on limestone sub­ strates. To put this into some sort of perspective, many botani ts speak disparagingly of E11rnlypr11s forests and woodlands of eastern Australia, refer­ ring to them as 'deserts for mo,,es·. Sheltered gullies and basalt outcrops 111 rainforest provide much richer moss floras, but �till these are nothing compared with the di\'ersiry. abun­ dance and unmual combination of mosses that occur on e,1stern Austr.1li,1n limestones.

OSSES, I IVL·R\\{)Jl..JS ,111d horn­ M \\'0rt, ,1re prob,1bly the le.1,t \\Cll kno\\ n of all plant groups. Toµcrhcr they ,11-c kno\\ n a, bryophyte, .md tor111

Almost invisible in dry conditions (top right), the liverwort Riccia limbata has curled up into a tube to expose the dark, glossy scales of the leaf unclersurface. The scales then form a protective cover to the more sensitive, green photosynthetic tissue, which shows only when moisture is available (bonom right).

56 N;\lllltl \l\lll\11\\l\\�llll '01 •(ill' ),

It,

A hand-lens view looking into capsules of Orthotrichum cupulatum, a moss that grows exclusively on limestone rock. Tiny golden spores, awaiting dispersal, _ cling to the teeth of the opened capsule.

their own division of the Plant Liverwort capsules are dark brown or and hornworts is uniquely different Kingdom. Mosses typically have stems, black, globular, and grow from fragile, from that found on other adjacent rock well-developed leaves each with a succulent stems. Spore dispersal 111 substrates. ot only are there more midrib, and reproduce by the livenvorts is very different from that species present on the limestone, but production of spores from capsules at seen 111 mosses. Specialised, tightly they are also 111 much greater the tip of wiry stalks. Moss capsules coiled cells in the capsules uncurl to abundance. have a beauty of their own. They are explosively eject all the spores away. Unlike the bryophyte flora of the edged with a row of complex, highly The word 'liverwort' is an unfortunate northern hemisphere, only a fe\Y ornamented teeth (called the label, especially s111ce the group species of Australian mosses and peristome) that regulates the ourward contains some exquisitely beautiful liverworts occur exclusively on lime­ flow of the spores to coincide with plants. The much-admired 'mossy' log, stones and arc genuine calciphiles. The 1 favourable germination conditions. A for example, is often actually clothed exquisite E11rnlypr11 1 11({!11ris has a simple hand lens is all you need to with leafy liverworts. distinctive calyptr,1 or cap on top of its observe many of these smalJ structures. l·fornworts are rather like thallose capsule that resembles an old-fashioned Liverworts come in two forms. Leafy liverworts, and have a flattened, dark, candle snuffer. Known as the · andle liverworts have well-developed stems, blackish-green thallus. However, the Snuffer Moss', it is one of the few often creeping along the supporting capsules arc quite different from those mosses with a common name. Other soil, rock or bark. Their leaves have no of mosses and liverworts, and look like calciphiles include Psc11dolcskcopsis midrib and usually grow in three short grasses. They split and twist from il llbriu11<1, a moss that clings rightly co 1 flattened rows (one row of leaves on the tip to release their spores. smooth lin1estone w,111,: Gi 11111osro11111111 each side of the stern, and one on the Our studies have taken us to many rnlrnrc11111, the 'l3,H ltNi, which is undcrsurfacc of the stem). Thallose famous limestone outcrops in eastern usually ,w,ociated with b,1t gu,1110; liverworts have a flattish pad (or thallus) Australia. At each location, the Orffl()rric/111111 mp11/11r11111, ,1norher moss of relatively undifferentiated tissue. bryophytc flora of 111osses, liverworts that grows i11 tight clw.rers in snull

NA! URI AUS I ltAI IA SUMMElt 2001 2002 57 -- depressions in roughened limestone A sharp variation in vegetation defines the border WHY SPECIES between limestone and shale near the mouth of the rock: and Ta1gio11ia lorbeeria11a, a thallose Devil's Coachhouse, Jenolan Caves. The limestone liverwort that only thrives on damp, characteristic of site of the Caves is more open, with few trees, but limey soils. the higher slopes on shale are covered with a A second group can best be termed rainforest should be dense eucalypt woodland. opportunists, growing successfully on present in such hostile harsh environments. These include limestone as well as other rock types. mosses such a Papillaria and Cri111111ia p11/vi11ata is a small, rounded conditions is unknown Crato11europsis spp., Leprodo11 s111ithii and moss, and its long, hair-like leaf tips I-iypoptery,ei11111 rot11/ar11111, and liverworrs give the plants the appearance of tiny, and is the subject such as Fwlla11ia spp. and Pore/I,, soft, grey animals. Barbu/a crinita is a cm11fordii. Why species characteristic of handsome, golden-leafed moss. Another of our current research. rainforest should be present in such Tor111/a papillosa, golden moss is which hostile condition is presently unknO\\"Il gains its colour from clusters of golden and 1s the subject of our current spheres that it produces on the upper research. surfaces of its leaves. Each sphere of Absent, of course, arc the calcifugc large Also surprising was the cells, when dislodged, has the potential mosses and liverworts that arc never proportion of limestone bryophytes char to develop into another individual found on limestones, such as are more usually associated with the plant. (The ability to regrow from tiny Ca111pylop11s i11trojlex11s, the . moss that Australian arid ,rnd semi-arid zones fragments of leaves and stems, a s well as forms khaki green carpets on es sandstone For example, many limestone moss by spores, is a feature of all bryophytcs.) outcrops throughout south- s eastern tend to be either small, \\'iry plane Thallose liverworts are more common Australia. s with tough, lc,1thery. pigmented le,we on lime tones than leafy liverworts. ts (such JS Didy111od1>11 /()lijllcllllS) or plan Asterella dn1111111011dii N 11 grows on damp soil 11: LAST l 'EW YEAil.. �, we have ai\'IIH� I w1t1· ] J co ourles, upper J t'J\tS.,, "" .. in rock crevices, producing its spores in found certain bryophytes that were t1em I ,1 \V1lt1S t'CCl\'l' ,u. rt· ,ll ·e (such once thought I . . I 1 rdl capsules suspended from 'umbrellas' to be confined to the ipr,i­ r as C((!11s11cm111111 n·iwns) both ,1d, growing upwards fom the main body damp and shade of rainfor ests, cions dition,. flouri to cope with hoe, dn con of the thallus. shing on limestone areas with dry, . Liverworts, such ,1\ Riffi,1 /i111/>,1l,1 ,111d /?. 58 1ll1" Al UR I AU\ I R 1\ I I \ , L \I\\ I <. 2tilll 2 /a,11e//osr1, are thallose, with glossy scales species of mosses that he sent to a on the undersurface. In hot, dry colleague in Germany. Together, in weather. they curl up i11to a tube so 1912, they published 'J'/1c 111osses cf that the scales finish up on the upper Ynrm11.{!oliilly Ca11es. Fortunately, their r surface, protecting the plant fom high original collection is now housed in temperatures, desiccation and damage the National Herbarium of New outh to photosynthetic tissue. Wales in the l<...oyal 13otanic Gardens We found a similar assemblage of Sydney. mosses and liverworts at each limestone We were astonished to find that we site we studied 111 south-eastern had collected many more mosses (131) The exquisite moss Encalypta vulgaris has a Australia. But when we worked at distinctive calyptra or cap on top of its capsule in 1993 than the very dedicated Watts that resembles an old-fashioned candle snuffer. Yarrangobilly Caves 111 Kosciusko had collected in 1906. Trying to piece Here it is shown growing on a limestone outcrop. National Park 111 the southern together the manner in which these tablelands of ew South Wales and unreported mosses might have arrived compared our collections with a at Yarrangobilly proved a little more collection of mosses made in 1906, we difficult. To understand the way in realised that since European settlement which these 'new' species had arrived, there had been considerable change in it 1s necessary to accept that the the bryoflora at Yarrangobilly and colonisation process has three separate probably also at all other eastern requirements: a source of plant material Australian limestone sites. (spores. plant fragments, or whole The Reverend W. Walter Wans was plants), a suitable means of transport, an extraordinarily industrious and and a suitable substrate for gifted botanist. Wans had a particular establishment. interest in mosses and liverworts, and The development of Yarrangobilly as there are now many species that bear a tourist destination began in 1879, but his name. In 1906 Watts visited it was not until early in the 20th Yarrangobilly Caves and, over the Targionia lorbeeriana is a liverwort that only period of a week, collected many (95) thrives on damp, limey soils.

59 NAfUIU AU','J llAI IA ',UMMrll 2001 2002 r ­ The Yarrangobilly m1dy appe a of the 'a id ars t l what about m ny . . o century th,1t 111ost of the roads, paths, 3ut 111d1cate that there has Yarrangobilly bee n a o e' mosses present at buildings, farms and gardens were z n ant change in the al111ost a signific mosses o ed by Watts and constructed. Clea ring rem oved the in 1993 not rec rd robable liverworts of most of the e ow seems p astern natural \'egetation of trees, shrubs, cenwry ago? It n to Australian limestone outcrops r introduced since ra e a b chat they we e n,1ti\'e g ss s and herbs, le ving are European settlement. To limi scor111s. Although t Furth er ground and rock, ideal substrates for Yarrangobilly by dust . .111tro d uct1ons o f non-native a known to have m colonisation by mosses and liverworts dust stor111s rc . % . species, we recommend man a a for thousands of agemen pores probably arrived with building occurred in Austr li . . t practices tiatI are s11111. 1 ar to bo e spores and those us materials. on the wheels of vehicles and years, the wind- rn ed mosses were co manage non-native flowering I on che hooves of anima ls. ome fragments of arid-zone . Pam Most ground already species. of our rccommendat·i epiphytic mosses (chose growing on unlikely co c olonise . ons cl1rectecl cowards a ation. l3ut are minim··1s1 trees) not recorded by Wa tts probably covered with natur l veget . ng cleared for disturbance to the natural veget a r b o once the land had been ation r ived on the ark of ex tic trees, · many suitable Specific suggestions include· kee brought co Yarrangobilly and pl anted tourist develop111ent, . . · ping· a lable. It all buildings outside karst there co give ic a more European substrates suddenly became vai a reas ha h use of keeping the construction of pat a ppearance. From the 18-Ws until 1969, also seems probable c t t e hs and r in roads to a 111ini111u111, buildi hecp and Ca ccle were herded f om the tractors co plough vast tracts of land ng raised walkways where possible, western plains of ew South Wales, up semi-arid and arid areas of western excluding h Sheep and Cattle, through the Yarrangobilly valley, to Victoria, New outh Wales and Sout retaining natural graze on alpine pastures through the Australia broke up the extensive carpets The tin� moss G!gaspermum repens is widely hat form on summer, returning to the lowlands of mosses and liverworts c spread in the and and semi-arid zones of before the onset of winter. ome non­ pristine inland soils. In the process, Australia. The minute, reflective leaves are adap e to withst nd hot, dry conditions. indigenous mosses, and some with a spores and plant fragments would have � � � Why r then 1s 11 present in moist limestone gullies? worldwide distribution, are believed co been released f o111 the soil and readily Relatively large spores can just be distinguished have been introduced this way. picked up a nd carried by the wind. inside the capsules.

N \ I l IU \ l ' I ll \ 11 \ 'l \\\II I� ' (11 , I (Above) The opportunistic liverwort Asterella drummondii has its globular spore capsules suspended from umbrella-like structures that grow upwards from the thallus.

(Right) The 'Bat moss' (Gymnostomum calcareum) is a limestone exclusive often associated with bat guano. Although very small, the moss stems and leaves build up a corky supportive mat of old and compacted leaves.

vegetation, and avoiding any changes to natural wetland features, such as streams, swamps, pools and bogs. Limestone landscapes are extra­ ordinary not only for their geology, but for their vegetation as well. Mosses, liverworts and hornworts are an important component of that vegeta­ tion. There is a multitude of different species, diverse and beautiful, and at their best after rain or early-morning mist. They impart to the landscape a quilt-like cover of green, yellow and brown softness, a stark contrast to the Mosses and liverworts of rainforest in UNIVEll.SITY, YDNEY. At ISO IS rugged majesty of massive grey-white Tasmania and south-eastern Tasmania. CUil.ATOil. OF TI II:. MACQUAll.lE limestone cliffs and bluffs. C I RO: 1\lelbo11me. LJ IVEll.SI rv Hl:.Rl3ARIU I, A I) 1 IAS ll.ESEARC'I I INTl:.ll.l:.STS I URYOLOG Y FURTHER READING Malco/111, B. & J\/alco/111, N., 2000. AND A I UR.AL I IISTORY. R.o IS A Downing, AJ. & Oldfield, RJ., 2000. Mosses and other bryophytcs. 1\/icro­ ENIOR R.ESEARCI I FELLOW Wll 11 Rainforest bryophytes i11 karst la11r!{om1s o.f Optics Press: Nelso11, Ne111 �ea/and. INTEll.ESrs I MICll.OSCOPY, SCIENTIFIC south-eastern S0111/, A11stralia. Hikobia PI IOTOCll.Al'HY AND 13RYOLOG Y. Hr 13: 225-233. Al ISON DOWNING ANI) RON 01 Dl--11:.1I) DEL IGI 11 S IN I I IF Cl IAI I l:NGI: PO�l,1) HY > AIU: rll.OM l'I II, l)Jol'All.TMENT OF 1111: l)JH·ICULrY 01 l'I 10 IOGltAJI II G Jarman, SJ. & Fuhrer, B.A., 1995. l3101oc1cA1 Sc11:NC1:SAI MACQUAIUI: Vl·ll.Y SMAI I PI.A I�-

N ATUJU AUSTRAi JA SUMMER 2001 2002 61 - ,,. �--:) .�...: :;: ..._... ��: �. ;_ ·:.·. , ,.. -�� ...... ' ·-...... : ..__,,. J/t; �I 1

,·, HOW DO Tf{ESE Pf;ANT-MUNCHER t , •. 1 t€")t,; /-: ; : _: ',··:·· / , '-\ - ,. , r:��-;_ ; �- .::... _ AfFORJ? TO BUILO·:THE MASSIVE :�f/.-.--;·-.-�-. i·wARREN COMPLEXEs_.FOR WHICH. . ·,:.::·:· -:�:�, ::f.<:rHEY ARE RE OWNED? . , ..'::_ ••.._. �f .••• ,� J.

62 NA I lfl�l

OMBATS ARE AMONG This photo illustrates the Southern Hairy-nosed EXCAVATING Wombat's long ears and prominent nasal hairs. the world's largest bur­ rowing animals, . and a ten-111etre-long the ground surface. Into this contrap­ hold the title of biggest tion we placed one wombat at a time herbivoresW co adopt a subterranean tunnel would and let them dig to their hearts' con­ lifestyle. Many animals live under tent. We measured the volume and ground, for burrows provide a relatively require a greater weight of dirt moved relative to time stable environment, often close to food energy investrnent and oxygen consumed. The maximum and safe from predators. However, most amount of dirt excavated was an incred­ burrowers are quite small and live in than u;alking ible 42 kilograms in only 50 minutes! large communities (think of ants and On average, however, 20-30 kilograms Rabbits). The coses of burrow con­ 120 kilowietres ! of dirt were moved in the same period, struction increase with the ize of the which is equivalent to 15-20 litres of animal, and only a fe\\" species over ten dirt, or 10-15 centimetres of an average kilograms build burrows. Mose of these tunnel. Amazingly, the oxygen con­ large burrowers, such as the Aardvark sumed while excavating this 10-15 cen­ (50-70 kilograms) and Giant Pangolin Ceduna on the west coast. But first we timetres of tunnel was about 12,000 (30-35 kilograms), live on high-quality had to work out the metabolic costs of times greater than that used by a wom­ insect diets, rich in proteins and carbo­ digging a burrow. bat walking the same distance. At this hydrates. Wombats, however, forage rate, a ten-metre-long tunnel would only on relatively low-quality grasses ETER.MINI C HOW MU 'f-1 energy a cake about 80 hours of vigorous digging and other herbage. How do these plant­ D wombat uses to dig a burrow and require a greater energy investment munchers, on presumably low energy required a bit of digging ourselves. Back than walking 120 kilometres! budgets, afford to build the massive in the University of Adelaide's outdoor Do the costs of building a burrow warren complexes for which they are animal enclosure, we dug a trench outvveigh the energetic savings fromliv­ renowned;, about a metre long into which we low­ ing in one? To answer this question we To investigate, we studied the warrens ered a rectangular-shaped timber box, needed to measure the conditions inside of two Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat open to the dirt at one end and with a the burrow. How much do they vary, (Lasiorhi1111s latifro11s) populations in lid and perspex viewing window at the for example, with seasonal changes in South Australia-one at Swan Reach in top. The trench was just deep enough temperature, humidity and food avail­ the Murraylands, and the other near so that the top of the box was level with ability on the surface;, By establishing

Wombat burrow interiors were viewed using a porthole camera lowered down PVC casings into the tunnel, with footage viewed and recorded on the surfai e.

NA I URI U'> I It Al IA ,U I II It 'lhl 64 --

Shelves of limestone, similar to those pictured, often form either the roof or floor of wombat warrens in the Swan Reach area. Southern Hairv-nosed sampling points along wombat tunnels Wombat in our two field sites, at known dis­ Lasiorhinus latifrons tances from entry/exit points, \Ye were able to monitor the burrow environ­ Classification Family Vombatidae. One of 3 ment for such factors as temperature. wombat species (the others airflow, humidity, and oxygen and car­ being the Common Wombat, bon dioxide levels, at different rimes Vombatus ursinus, from Vic., throughout the year. But to establish NSW and Tas., and the the sampling points we had to firstmap endangered Northern Hairy­ a series of about 30 warrens of varying nosed Wombat, L. krefftii, from complexity without de troying any of Old). the above- or below-ground architec­ ture. For this we developed a 'porthole' Identification camera, which we lowered \·errically Typical wombat build (stocky, short limbs, stout face, flat rump) with long from the urface into the tunnel nasal hairs. Fur varies from light brown through to silvery grey, and is soft and through five-centimetre-wide. PVC­ silky to touch. Height 35-45 cm, body length 90-100 cm, weight 25-35 lined pipes. Clear images that told us kilograms. about the tunnel size, depth and direc­ tion were then relayed to a teleYision Habitat and Distribution screen on the surface. Common, patchily distributed over southern, semi-arid regions of SA and into This method of establishing s,1111pling WA. points may sound straightforward Behaviour enough, but it was not without it, phys­ Predominantly nocturnal, although occasionally basks in mid-afternoon sun. ical and mental challenges. The reason Grazes on native/pastoral grasses and other herbage. Humid burrows with wombats live underaround::, is to .l\·oid relatively stable temperatures, entrances number from 1 to>100. the harsh environrnenr on the ,urface. which, after many weeks on the en� of Reproduction a hand auger. \\'e ,111 fully umkrsrood. Mating between Oct. and Dec., single young born 20-22 days later weighing To position the first porthole. one lucky 0.5 g. Young permanently in pouch for first 300 days, weaned at 400 days at member of the tc,1111 h,1d to cr.l\\ I do\\'ll 2-3 kg weight, sexually mature at 3 years. Very difficult to breed in captivity. the tunnel entr,rncc to dercr1111m· rhc tunnel direction. On p.irticul.irly hor

66 NAIUIU AU\IIU\11•\ ,U\l1\\\ll 21llll 21l02 days this job was 'almo t' ought after! THE REASON been seen in Southern Hairy-nosed Each subsequent porthole location was Wombat burrows. Our porthole camera the n determined by the camera orien­ ivonibats live revealed that the wombats share their tation, and the porthole casings then burrows with other species as well. capped and left in place for future mon­ underground is Insects, spiders, lizards, frogs, R abbits,.. itoring. Foxes, goannas and snakes all gain the There is an enormous range in the to avoid the harsh environmental advantages of a burrow­ r complexity of warrens, fom single­ environrn.ent dwelling lifestyle without the energetic entrance burrows to extensive warrens costs of construction. with up to I 00 entrances and intercon­ on the suiface. necting tunnels. The largest we mea­ o WHAT EXACTLY Alli the advan­ sured contained about 30 entrances and Stages of a burrow-dwelling lifestyle? I 00 metres of tunnelling. In the sandy observed, although some clearing prob­ In the Swan Reach area, the tempera­ soil areas of the west coast of South ably occurs all year round. ture above ground ranged from as high ° Australia, the tunnels descended Small chambers were often found as 45-50 in the middle of summer to ° sharply, giving them greater structural along the tunnel length, however they -5 C on a cold winter's night. This stability at the entrance. They then lev­ were rarely greater than twice the nor­ corresponded to a seasonal change in r ° elled out at 1.5-2.5 metres in depth, mal width of a tunnel and their role is deep-burrow temperature f om 27 C ° and proceeded in relatively straight lines as yet unknown. They may be resting in summer to 12 C in winter. But co their end point. However, warrens points closer to the entrance, or areas these changes occurred very slowly, dug in clay soils, from both field sites, where a female can leave her young needed only to be shallow to support a unattended. Warrens of the Common The characteristic broad head and shoulders of tunnel roof, but more often descended Wombat ( Vo111bat11s 11rsi11us), on the the Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat are illustrated co sinular depths as sandy-soil warrens. other hand, usualJy have only a single well in this photograph. Also clear is the asymmetrical nose pattern, which is thought to be The major difference in tunnel archi­ entrance and often contain large nesting specific to the individual (much like a human tecture between these C\vo soil types chambers, the size of which has rarely fingerprint). was the convoluted nature of warrens dug in clay soil. These tunnels bent sharply. ascended and descended, and often joined up with other tunnels. Warrens dug in clay/ calcrete areas also generally incorporated shelves of cal­ crete. which are impenetrable even to wombats. These slabs of stone, often up to half a metre thick, generally formed either the roof or £Joor of the tunnels and occasionalJy both. The pre ence of large rocks at bends, divisions and the ends of tunnels indicated that wombats tend to dig in the earth offering least resistance and perhaps give up when no seams of soft clay can be found. Barring the odd protruding rock or internally collapsed wall, the tunnels we studied were surprisingly uniform in shape and size. They were generally quite small and elliptically shaped in cross section, often only 25-30 cen­ timetres high and 40-50 centimetres wide-just big enough for one wombat to scramble through. The £Joor were covered in loose dirt and littered with fecal pellets, and often we uncovered bones of wombats that had died in the depths of the tunnels but were yet to be raked to the entrance by the current occupants. Evidence of tunnel-clearing following rain was also frequently

NA J UR[ AUS I RA! IA SUMMEI, 2001 2002 67 This wombat is seen raking the loose earth from around its burrow entrance, a common behaviour, particularly following rain. The strength of the forelimbs, which are responsible for most of the digging work, is clearly evident.

with daily fluctuations rarely exceedmg a single degree at the deepest points of the tunnels. In the laboratory we have found this range in burrow temperature to be within the thermo-neurral or comfort zone for wombats. with only slightly elevated levels of energy required at the lower temperatures co maintain body warmth. Not surpris­ ingly, tunnels chat were le s than a metre deep, or were relati,·ely short. or had an entrance at each end. were more susceptible to temperature fluctuation. although still considerably less rhan that_ recorded above ground. Avoidance ot temperarure extre1nes, however. cannor fully account for the cornple:-: •111d extensive burrow architecture. as daily te111per,1ture stabilitv was reached ll'ith- I in the first few me�res of blind rnnne! chat descended quickly. ·11 Our next avenue of 1rn·estig,1tion 11· 1 that of water conservanon. which is _' 1'1- key clcn1cnt to survival m an ,1n" d e'! 1 ibk ronmcnc. Free water 1s. r,11-e)I . ", ,·i ' il. 1 . 11·1r er co womb.its, with m mt o t. r 1 e11· ' ,11net1 111ca. k- e connno-. trom. t I 1,lt l·0 11t ' 11t1 · 1 . )LI )S L«. ,re n ,1 w1c 1111 Lhc <>r,1sses" anuJ l IL l,111t, from the dew th,lt I.ills 011 neI , P " . ne ovc . 11. 1 11n rnio"'· hr. l3' odv' w.ucr 1s I osr . 111!!) · and throu,�h ,u1011 (l )lt-, ,l rh The digging resp1r ·wombat chamber' gave wombats free digging access to an earth . . "' . . n1ent- . wall a n d a IIowe d the wh1ch 1s .1 cn1. 110u researchers to calculate the volume of dirt excavated relative to the grc,ncst, 111 dr) energy consumed. or on h U Y !c- eding ,H night, wo1111.l 1ts 1i 68 NA I Ulll Heading for home. This Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat ambles slowly through the thickets of saltbush obscuring its burrow entrance.

maximum benefits "aet the of increased humidity but also take in greater amounts of water through their food. Burrow hum.idity also affords wombats significant water savings. We found that, in contrast to temperature stability, bur­ row humidity continually increased along the tunnel. This may in part explain the extraordinary length of tun­ nels, as the highest levels of humidity were reached at the farthest points from the entrance. Short, shallow or open tunnels, however, did not have increased humidity because of the increased flow of dry air. Airflow through tunnels, while hav­ ing an undesirable drying effect on the a.ir, ensures carbon dioxide levels do not rapidly rise to intolerable levels. We found unoccupied tunnels, regardless of length, depth or entrance number, typ­ ically had o.:-..-ygen and carbon dioxide levels equivalent to those found above bats, which presents further questions Biochem. Physiol. 77A(1):1-7. ground (20.9 per cent oxygen and 0.04 on family structure, dispersal of young per cent carbon dioxide) and this was and/ or inheritance within a warren Johnson, C.N & Crossman, D.C., 1991. despite airflow falling to levels of one complex. Dispersal and social orga11izntio11 of the per cent of that recorded on the surface. Although individuals may not neces­ northern hairy-nosed wombat Lasiorhinus By contrast, carbon dioxide accumula­ sarily invest large portions of their krefftii.J. Zoo!., Lond. 225: 605-613. tion in occupied burrows was as high as annual energy budget on excavation 2.6 per cent and oxygen levels as low as work, the net value of the warren in Wells, R. T & Pridmore, PA. (eds), 1998. 16.3 per cent. When one wombat was terms of the energy spent on its con­ Wombats. Surrey Beatty and S011s: burrowing at the end of a blind tunnel, struction over the years remains high . Chipping Norton, Ne111 5011th Wales. gas levels changed so rapidly that with­ The energetically favourable humid in four or five hours it had to abandon conditions that we have found in the Wells, R. T, 1978. Them1oreg11latio11 n11d 1 its excavation work in search of oxygen­ longest, deepest tunnels further suggest ncti11ity rhyth//ls i11 the hairy-nosed 11 0111bnt1 rich air. But it didn't have to exit the that occupying the largest warrens is of Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owe11), (Vo//lbari­ burrow system. By simply moving most benefit to wombats, particularly dne). Aust. J. Zoo!. 26: 639-651. around in the tunnels, the wombat during the hottest, driest weather when could refresh its air to tolerable levels. food is scarce. While we can use ener­ ALL AUTHOR. WORK I THE Once an animal leaves an area of the getics to explain the costs and benefits DEPARTMENT OF ENVIR.ONME TAL tunnel, oxygen and carbon dioxide lev­ of the length of a tunnel, we cannot BIOLOGY, UNIVER. ITV OF ADELAIDE, els return to normal within five or six fully explain the complexity of old war­ WHERE DR GLEN SHIMMI IS A hours, depending on tunnel complexi­ rens, with their varying lengths and RESEARCH FELLOW, JAY E KINNER. ty. depths of tunnels, and multiple branch­ A TECHNICAL OFFI ER. SPECIALISING In the first 12 months of our study, es and entrances. However, we have IN ANIMAL HUSBANDIW ANI PR.OF. we found that the rate of tunnel expan­ now started behavioural studies on the RUSSELL BAUD! ETTE HEAD OF THE sion was highly variable in the 30 war­ use of tunnels and the social structure of DEPARTMENT. TOGETHER. THEY HAVE rens we monitored. Most of the warrens the animals sharing a warren, and hope­ WORKED ON THE WOMBAT BURJl..OW changed very little during the year, even fully we will soon be able to answer ECOLOGY PROJECT I CE I 999. FOR. though they were actively used, while some of these more complex qu estions. GLENN, THIS FOLLOWED FIVE YEAl<.S some underwent significant and rapid OF WOMBAT ECOLOGY A D expansion (the greatest was a ten-metre FURTHER READING l<.EPR.ODUCTION WOl<.K, WHILE expansion in just four weeks). We sug­ Boggs, D. F, Kilgore, D. L. & Birchard, 11.USSELL .. HA IJEEN R.ESEAIU"HI C gest that large warrens are most likely C.F, 1984. Respiratory physiology of b11r­ MAI<. Ul'IAL ENER.CETI S A I) the work of many generations of wom- ro111i11g mn111111als n11d birds. Comp. LOCOMOTION FOR. TI IE PAST 30 YEAR.

NATU RE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 2001-2002 69 ....= CIC =.... =:z:: a..

Seasquirt(Botrylloides sp.).

catching the harbour BY AKOS LUMNITZER

70 NAfURJ, U\lllAII ,u 11\ILR 2lllli-2!lll2 Weedy Seadragon (Phyllopteryx taeniolatus).

NAi u,u Ai.,SJJlAIIA SUMMF!l 2001 2002 71 ... a: aS ...= :s:= a,.

(Top) Grey Nurse Shark ( Carcharias taurus). (Above) Eastern Frogfish (Batrachomoeus dubius).

72 NAIUtU, 1\U\IIU\III\ \U\l�IIR 'lltll �llll2 Spiny Gurnard (Lepidotrigla papilio).

NATUR!: AUS1 RALIA SUMME!t 2001 2002 73 a:...... =,a: :a:= a.

Striped Anglerfish (Antennarius striatus).

74 NA I Ull..1' AUS I ll..i\l IA \UI\\ 11 ll.. 2!l!l '()()2 (Above) Giant Cuttlefish (Sepia apama). (Left) Hermit crab (Pagurus sp.).

NAIUIU AU\lllAIIA SUMMlsR 2001 2002 75 -- reviews

- d A tarctic Birds. Vol. 5. Tvrant-llvcatchers to Chats HandbookofAustral1an, NeWZeala Vic., 2001, 1,269 . ���. e elenOxford University Press, pp. $385rrp. Ed. by PJ. H1gg111s,J .M. Peter, & W . ·

that started in 1990. Previous volumes have be HIS IS THE LATEST VOLUME OF A SERIES . . en . i e i 111 tllre Australia·, each rece v d h ghly favourable comments revi. ewed ear 11er. issues. of na"' . . at . up to them. This massive w T n e 1 u1 11e easily measures ork will those times, a d t1e1 curr. . nt vo . . . i 1 n e Marking the start of the songb rds, t co tams sev be one of t he most consu1 te d f ho t e S ries · ' · . . . . er al Australian families: the lyrebirds, fairy-wrens a of I t 1e best- k 'nown. and tm os w1·dely studied . . nd wrens, ptttas, scrub-bJrds and treecreep I 1oneyeaters. O t I 1er groups. · 1 me ude tlie New Zealand' ers- · · tremendous value as a reference, and there is 118 species 111 a11 . . As I sue 1, tl 11·s book will be of . no . · he rmat of the species accounts m s dOU b I t t iat It WI. 11 rema111 so LO[c . matly years to come · T fo re ain h i· 1·uce n om previous volumes being some changes in tI 1e same. as b et0re,c w1'th t e b ga0e st d « re ce fr . . . . the the high artists. The current contributors have not let the side down, mamtammg standard of h ent e e illustration in the 42 colour plates. Once again, t e price will prev many p opl from o one acquiring personal copies; however, because of this book's exceptional and l ng-term value, any intereSted in these groups of birds will need co ensure that they have access to it. -WALTER E. BOLES AUSTRALIA MUSEUM

Where to Find Birds in North-East Queensland By J. Wieneke. 3rd ed. P11blished by the author ([email protected]), 2000, 132pp. $20rrp.

HIS THIRD EDITION IS A MAJOR REVISIO of a guide that first appeared in 1992, which T speaks well for its popularity and usefulness. It covers important birdwatching localities in the coastal region and ranges bounded by Bowen in the south, north to the Daincree area and west to, and including, the Atherton Tableland. The locality accounts range from sites suitable for a quick stop to ones that warrant a more extended visit, augmented by a s eries of maps that will greatly facilitate getting to a c hosen spot. Also included are contacts for more information, local guides, suggested accommodation and other nearby attractions. The second part of the guide presents brief summaries of the many exciting species that might be found. The entry for each specie is brief but gives the best habitats and seasons, and, often, pecific sites at which they might be most likely encountered. Small and concise, y et highly informative, this guide will considerably enhance any visitor's birdwatching trip to this region . -WALTER E. BOLES Au TRALIA MUSEU�l

living Reefs of the lndo-Pacilic: A Photographic Guide By Rob van der Loos. Reed-New Holland, SW, 2001, 176pp. $32.95rrp.

F YOU HAVE AN INTER.EST IN THE TROPICAL MARINE LIFE of the lndian and Pacific oceans and appreciate strikingly colourful photograph h s, t is book should be your cup of tea. Rob van . der Loos has divulged some of the knowledge gained through his 25 years of experience as a diver, based at Milne Bay in southern Papua I New Guinea. Over 350 colour photographs of manne organisms adorn the page · · s within · M any 0 f It 1e species, cowri·e s o . rangrng from corals and t sea slugs and scorpion h -fishes' are igh] crypti· n 111· . · Y c an d bi e d with their surroundmgs to th e extent that they are rarely seen by the average · · · . . SCUBA d1. ve1.. B y tie1 1 s10n, rhis wor n . aut1or.'s own ad m 1s ·k 1s ot . a sc1ent1fic masterpiece ' but it 1ac 11 · · . k s r · tttI e 1· terms of presentation b1ect n1atcei. Accompany111g 1 and su · each 111age are notes on th · · · · · . . . e scientt·fi tc and/ 1 0 · . ir� d.1str 1 o n or co TIJ11on names of the or an1s111 but1 n and depth. ra ge, its life history and the autho ::, . . . r's choice of I ens L0c .r p 1 1tc.1 I n . h ioto. a0raph · · y Th· is b 00 k wou Id be a' use and 111spm g add1t1011 to t e library of amateur a nd . prof·ess iona' l marine naturalists rer photography. or those inte1·.ested in undenva

I -Joi I t>oco osK Au 'TR.AL I\ i\USEUi\l 76 1)()] NA run.E AUS l'rlALIA '>U1\l \I It 2001 2 Australian Rainforests By Densey Clyne. Reed Ne111 T-Iolla11d, N IN,' 200'/, 96pp. 29.95rrp.

t'STRAUA,\.' RAINFORESTS IS a photographic exploration highlighting the variety of colours and forms found in an Australian rainforest. Many images are ver y delicate, with close-ups A of the minutiae of the forest floor such as lichens, mosses and tiny invertebrates. Others explore the shapes and changing nuances of light and shade in the rainforest canopy. The chapters are arranged in an informal fashion, with titles such as "The Forest l�loor" and " pecial Forms and Habits". The publication docs have some problems with layout, having oddly placed captions that can make it hard to match the information to the image. The captions themselves, however, are informative and lively. ome minor spelling errors can be found, but overall the information is good, placing each image in context. The book achieves its aim of taking you "on a journey" into the wide range of rainforest habitats in Australia. and leaves you wanting to see more. -0 l)INE EVA s AUSTR.ALIAN MUSEUM

Australian Medicinal Plants By Eric Lassak & Tara NlcCartl,y Neu; Holla11d, NS VV, 200 I, 240pp. $34. 9 5rrp.

HIS IS A MUST FOR A YO E with a serious interest in medicinal plants. When it first appeared in 1983 it provided rea onably thorough coverage of the topic, with an emphasis on plant Tchemi try. Knowledge has advanced since then, thanks to surveys conducted among Northern Te rritory Aborigines and testing of many bu h remedies. Although this reprint was not updated to reflect this work, in the absence of any modern overview it remains a key reference. everal hundred plants are covered, although a few of the scientific names are now out of date. For each plant there is a description of appearance, habitat and distribution, uses, and active constituents. The book covers Aboriginal herbs, colonial remedies, and Asian medicinal plants that also occur in Australia. It is thoroughly referenced and includes more than 80 colour photo -T1M Low

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NA 11 ru,u AUSIRAIIA SUMMf·R 20()1 2°02 A t li 1 Feather and Brush: Three Centuries of �� �� ��::;� V,c., ' 95,,,,p. By Pe1111y Olse11. CSIRO Pubh5f1111,fl., !!.

re ation to his paintings of b -J O N GOULD in l irds but fa r ANY AUST R.AL !ANS KNOW 01- H r a .is . h un r her us a a bi d rt ts. T is co t y l ewer e 0 t A tr li n has a o wouId be abl' to name o a es e ng fc. . s a h h rs r M ar e ns wit t e fi t v y g of xplo atio . a t rting n. . avi' ' n t by E-urop a , '. (The I11s t o1 y of r s a re a oo I i a . . o I,a ppea d in b k b y w·11· am D r u I' u f Austia . 1· 11 bi d . . mpier in ea ]',est p biis I,e d l] sr-at10nst s s so a a . I l r s r , e rly p 111t111gs r an ears d'ffiicu t to p e e ve pecimen by convict 1703)· ' Fo m y y ' lt was s a a s , . ortan e 1·1 n r a t r r e a t docum ntation o fu A tr b'1r d s. Su b sequ office s nd set le s se v d s imp . . ent 01 es e e e l ra e t e a s e i to b d scnb d and i lust t d . G· ouId was expeditions' yi lded more n d m .e p c· . he best t e n erso a i r . o the ar i. he w erta·in ly not h o ly p. n m k'111g mpo tant contnbutio known f t sts, but as c . . . ns SI a er . e i e e t a t . e he ear t e ld gu des-w r produced o t hat tim . In t .I y -?O 1 1 c ntu1. Y ,, ll books-fi be used . r sh n 111 a a 1 a r a . n n re . . a s r i i g Austr li 1 1 m ny fo ms. A size ble pa outside che co fi es of a ad111g rnom. Now day b n·d a t si flou · n of o ra hies. a resent e a t e1r ru er a st n r d p mg x mples of h · Fearher a11d b sh is dedicated to ov 30 modern rti s, givi g b ief bi g p n . work · a t a e£.: . · o r a 111 Austra. l 1 1! t w1'll I1op ll fy Penny Olsen has produced a well-researched overview of th e I11s · to 1·y f· bi d ' rt w y recn the a . · a t e r e a a re re . l . . er i ht n rt ar s s e · c iv ly p oduc d nd fe tu s mo th n 250 colour I lustratio public ov s g of ma y wo 11y ti t . 1TI b oo k · is att t . . . . ns · · · · , · · e t 1 1. begmnmg with Damp1er s pa1 dte an c ontinumg to t1osI f contemporaryo bird artis s. It 1s an 1mpress1ve pubt· cat on from both cholarly and aesthetic standpoints. -WALTER. E. BOLES AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

The Secret Life of Wombats By Ja111es Wooriford. Text P11blishing, Vic., 200 I, 226pp. $27. 50np.

he secret life of 1110111bats is A CAPTIVATI G LOOK into the t ruly secretive, and largely unknown, world of wombats. Woodford travelled over A 1stralia researching cl is book, � � T track111g down an array of remarkable people working with wombats both extant and e t e est e h xtinc . Th lif yl , abitats, b ehaviour, history of human interactions, evolution and biology of t e e s e s a h s impre sively rump d mar upi ls are explored with a very readable and entertaining result. a st esse e e [ w s di r d to discov r that on of the three living species of wombat, the orthern Hairy­ e a s n e nos d Womb t, i now k own only to xist in one s mall pocket of National P ark in Queensland. he e re at s n e e rea T nti popul ion of thi o c fairly wid sp d animal is e timated co be around 100 ua s s r a s n individ l . A Woodfo d st te , "the extinctio will occur in our lifetimes or our children·s:· e e h e e r the r s o le D spit t e b st ffo ts of team " e p nsib for them", there is s tilJ an unbelievable lack of r protection fo this critica!Jy endangered species. r he Students s e e l l lo t r should find the comp e n iv index us fu . Some love y co ur pho og aphs a a s an t nd line dr wing round our he h a es r a r r al oget r fascinating volume, w ich e s e e a e e e t w t m k g e t eading fo anyon who' v r h d ven a passing int r s in omba s. - ATHERINE LA IOND AUSTR.ALIA MUSEUi\l Architects of Eternitv: The New Science of Fossils By Richard Co,field. Distributed by Hodder Headline, Sydney, 200 /, 338µp. 3 .J. 9 5rrµ.

n lliALLY LIKE THIS a e ne r a BOOK. It' i form tive, 11i ntly e a e a e a an i e ala � d bl and will pp al to_ nyone wirh r s e n a : r nter st 111 p eontology o e ki e n rs a i_ o h i a g 11101 e ound d u de t nd nO' sC h ens. I h et h s u u on f ow ence pp thoug. t I'd g e a e o a t i o t p fr t, b c us I d n't a h O a O'h r s e w nt nyt inO'::, n�::,' tive I rni::, t ,av to dere proI p ctive readers. , or l s o r e C_ fie d' bo k t acks l o l nt th _deve opment f pa a l e n la n o . eo o ogy sinc its inceptio flagging and exp h or o e o , 1111 g m st of t e maJ disc ver h i e ll . i s , b th p ys·cal, aiid tl1 et a a bt1red r e e s e . h or 1c· I , t 1I t I 1ave conc·· o th mod rn ci nce of studying · r a' - . t e prese ved p rts , UI ha a e 110 1 , \· o a of cr·eat .es t t 1I ve b een c:l ,1ci c 1 \'er ' long time. He d es finejob of t s o ere hi . Topics c v d constitute o n r e a ar n a ie s methi g of ,1 g ,ib-bag, front rh imp ct of D wi to nc nt t n DNA but hen it COLiid e n a r 1 r a ers a ons. er ' 't I1av b een do e ny or 11e wa�.. Sou r· e d m y c id the odd cha er l t e he . . . pt a i tl avy' O'Q a r . development h s . l a a ::, 111g ( sue 11 s t 1 1at conce nt'li "1-rh rhr· of datmg tec nique ) but most wil ppe l to all. a ea l What m kes this book r s r e e l y stand out i Co fi ld's ent r nt o a ae . . rtaining t eat' rne e . r .Ill h � p l ontolo r a e e n f 1 t 1 111a111 playe r e g,unr g1sts. Contra y to im g s convey d by rece on e s ' t vocati a' l-guidan n o n ea e . e eo s i. t c I ia d uts e r ,llii-' black-l th r-Jack t ster type l e a d th evamped \Ull''l.isses- d shed ou by Hol ywood, we sci r a ;:, ntists eal! Y ,.e a b o r . 1 unc 1 1 f a n,1! etc11t1vcs ,, 1th ,1pp,1 !I'll''"' 18 dress sense. Due, that doesn't mean that ou r lives arc bo ring. orficld's descriptions of the politics, accompan1ed the prog ress of palaeo intrigue and ego that have ntology make for very entertaining reading. Nine out often. -STEVE WROE SYDNEY UNIVEltSITY The Encvclopedia of Amphibians Ed. by Roberi 1-lc!fricl,;er. Disrrib11ted by UNSW Press, NSvl{ 2000, 264pp. S59.00rrp.

TEP.EST IN AMPHIBIANS HAS SKY11..OCKET EI) IN R.ECENT TIMES and this group of enjoys popularity animals now in line with the more 'charis matic' vertebrates. This is due in to the attentio a large part n drawn by the global decline of amphibian I species and the message th is sends about the health of our planet. Ironically this decl h ine as generated considerable research the biology of amphibians. into As a consequence we not o nly know a lot more about the biology amphibian species of familiar to us but have also o disc vered many other extremes of behaviour morphology and that can only be described as fantastic. The book c ontains five major 'themes', each of which consists of s s contained a erie of short self­ essays from two t o six pages in length. The opening section on "Evolution, ystemacics, and Biogeography" gives a well-written and presented introduction to the various amphibian farrulies, and provides a contextual platform for the following sections. There are large sections o n "Biology and Physiology" .. Ecology and Ethology" (18 topics) and (13 topics), and smaller sections on "The Meaning of Amphibians for Mankind" and .. Endangerment and Species Protection", plus an Appendix, which includes a list ofall s w recent pecies of amphibian. To copies are particularly worth reading. The one on amphibians as caring parents outlines the different and bizarre srracegies various groups of frogs have forcaring for their offspring during metamorphosis. The other on conservation gives a global per peccive on the problems faced in amphibian conservation, and the politics behind decisions made ac an international level. The first of these two essays portrays the hidden and little appreciated diversity and uniqueness found among amphibians, much of which will be lose with the progressive decline and eventual extinction of many species, while che second essay shows our apparent inability and unwillingness co deal with this situation. -Ross SADLIER AUSTFtALIA MUSEUM

From the bookshop: Feather and brush - three centru­ ries of Australian bird art Penny Olsen 2001. A beautiful selection of art covering Australian J� birds, from the very first paintings BOOKSo of Australian birds, to the modern f) ifb artists. Full colour, hard cover 227p., A$69.95

Native New Zealand Flowering �',.\i, :i@,'�; " We take you into :��_ _ wilderness areas plants .�.\;.,,•. · where tourists on day John Salmon 1999. A comprehen­ �, ;·' trips never venture. NATURE sive guide to New Zealand's richly · " You carry your pack diverse and exceptionally beautiful and we show you the array of flowing plants. Over 600 diversity of the species are included. Soft cover, rugged hinterland of full colour,254p., A$55.00 the Mid-north Coast. " We provide 4WD Dragonflies of the world transport, meals and Jill Silsby 2001. Covering more camping equipment. than 300 species in colour, this " We want to share our is an essential reference for every­ knowledge about the HINTER natural and cultural one interested in the Odonata. Full LAND history of the region colour, hard cover ,216p., A$59.9S TOURS we walk in, thus On-line bookshop adding a new dimen- booksofnature.com Soft corals and Sea fans sion to your wilder­ K. Fabricius and P. Alderslade " ness experience. 2001. Each of the 90 genera of Mailorder soft corals ans sea fans described We, offe,v 2-8 d(½I tvip¥ CU'l,C/,t;Clke, on½' and figured in detail. This book .\4'IW,,U,WOU/J ¥ ofWUMu. 8 peep Le, P.O. Box 345 will allow reliable ident1f1catIon of For more Lindfield NSW 2070 soft corals and sea fans both in details, contact PO Box 171 phone 61 2 6655 2957 the field, from underwater photo­ us and ask for Bellingen NSW 2454 fax 61 2 6655 9024 Australia graphs, and in the laboratory. Soft our bro chure or email [email protected] cover, full colour 272p., A$70.00 visit our website website www.hinterlandtour.com.au [email protected]

NAJ URr AU� I RAI IA �UMMhlt 2001 2002 79 . . exist to further the cause 01 the subject that you ho small, loca 1 and t·onal, that ld Get involved' Across Australia there is a network o1,1niw ,oc1cttes, large and or

ANIMAL WELFARE Birding NSW CONSERVATION ••• Australian Bush Heritage Membership: $27.00 Fauna Rescue of SA PO Box Q277 GPO Box 101 PO Box 241 QV B Post Shop NSW 1230 Hobart, TAS. 700 I ENVIRONMENTAL Modbury orth, A 5092 Contact: Margot Latham Ph: 03 6223 2670 Conservation Volunteers Ph: 08 8289 0896 Web: www.bushheritage . Australia Web: www.faunarescue.org.au •• • Membership: $30 asn.au PO Box 423 Contact: Mrs heila Burbidge Contact: R..oewen Wishart Ballarat, VIC. 3353 • Bird Observers Club • Ph: 03 5333 1483 Membership: 20 ingle. of Australia $30 Fa,nily, . 20 Family 183 Springvale Road Australian Network Web: www.conservation Concession, $10 Nunawading, VIC. 3131 for Plant Conservation volunteers.corn.au Pensioner/Student Ph: 03 9877 5342 GPO Box 1777 Contact: Karen Dimmock Web: www.birdobservers. Canberra, ACT 2601 • •• Great Lakes Wildlife org.au Web:www.anbg.gov.au/ Membership: 30 Rescue (NSW) Inc. Contact: Trish Teesdale anpc/join.html "Huntley" ••••••• Contact: Jeanette Mill Friends of Lane Cove Membership: $60.50 Lakes Way •• ••• National Park Inc. Membership: please refer to BungwahJ, NSW 2423 C/- Lane ove ational Birds Queensland website Ph: 02 4997 6157 PO Box 6097 Park, Lady Game Drive Contact: Margaret Seal ST LUCIA, QLD 4067 Australian Plants Society Chatswood, NSW 2067 • Ph: 07 3229 3554 Tasn1ania Inc. Web: www.acon.corn.au/ Membership: $16.50 Single, Web: ww,.v.birdsgueensland. R.MB 8987 lcnpfriends ·22 Family org.au New Norfolk, TAS. 7140 Contact: Jacqui Hickson • •• • Ph: 03 6261 3976 • • Tweed Valley Wildlife Membership: $38.50 City, Web: www.trump.net.au/ Membership: $10 Carers $33.00 Country -joroco/sgaptas-i ndex. html PO Box 898 Contact: Joy Coghlan Tasmanian Murillumbah, NSW 2484 BOTANY ••• Australian Plants Society Conservation Trust Ph: 02 6672 4789 Membership: $40.00 NSW Ltd 102 Bathurst Street Contact: Ilona Roberts PO Box 744 The We tlands Centre Hobart, TAS. 7000 Blacktown, NSW 2148 Australia Ph: 03 623.+ 3552 Ph: 02 9621 3437 PO Box 292 Web: www.tct.org Wildcare Inc. Web: www.austplants­ Wallsend, NSW 2287 Contact: Michael Lynch PO Box 464 nsw.org.au Ph: 02 4951 6466 Palmerston, NT 0831 Contact: Judith Brimage Web: http:users.hunterlink. • Membership: 27.50 Ph: 08 8988 6121 •• ••• net.au/-wetlands Contact: Mignon McHendrie Membership: $40 Single, $32 Contact: B. Burgess ••• Single Concession, $46 Joint, • • MUSEUMS Membership: .· 20.00 . 38 Joint Concession, $A50 Membership: $33.00 Single, TAMS-The Australian Overseas $55.00 Family, $16.50 Museum Society BIROS oncession, $82.50 6 College treet Society for Growing Birds Australia orporate ydney, W 2010 Australian Plants 415 R..iversdale l<...oad Ph: 02 9320 6225 PO Box 586 Hawthorne Ease, VIC. 3123 EDUCATION Web: www.amonline.net..HI Fortitude Valley, QLD 4006 CSIRO's Double Helix Ph: 03 9882 2622 tarns/ Web: www.sgapqld.org.au Science Club Web: www.birdsaustralia. ontact: Ian Waldron PO Box 225 Contact: Alison Byrne corn.au • •• ••• Dickson, ACT 2602 • •• ••• • •• • Membership: $39 New Ph: 02 6276 6643 Membership: 80.50 F.1111ily, Membership: please refer co Member, $34 n.. enewing Web: www.csciro.au/helix '64.00 Single. "48.50 website Member Contact: Kasia Kucharska ,oncession

80 NATURF AUS I RAJ IA ,Ul\11\11 R ' I 2tlll2 The Waterhouse Club Field Naturalists 9 13irch Place Newsletter/Journal; • Monthly Muscu111 Association of Canberra A Stoneville, WA 6081 meeting; • Bi-monthly meeting; GPO Box 249 orchTerrace I h: 08 9295 3007 Annual meeting/Conference; Canberra, A T 260 l Adelaide. SA 5000 Wcb:www.iinet.net.au/ • Weekly meeting;• Quarterly Contact: R.osemary Blemings Ph: 08 8203 9802 -bush/support.html meeting; • Field outings/Tours; Web:www.waterhouseclub. • • ontact: Brian Bush • Conservation/Working programs; Membership: $20.00 org.au/whc •• •• • Discounted Goods; • Magazine; Concacc: Mary Lou 1mpson Membership: $25 Social/Education activities; Western Australian • Nature Australia magazine; • •• Naturalists Club Monthly Meetings WILDLIFE CONSERVATION • Seminars PO Box 8257 Membership: $90.00 Fam.ily. WIRES Perch BC, WA 6849 NSW Wildlife Information $70.00 ingle Ph: 08 9228 2495 & Rescue Service Web:www.wanats.iinet. PO Box 260 ARE YOU A ClUB SECRETARY? NATURAL HISTORY nee.au ForescviJle, NSW 2087 Nature Australia's Associate Dinosaur Club Contact: George Elliott Ph: 02 8977 3333 Australian Museum Society Scheme is designed to • • •• Web: www.wires.au.com 6 College Street Membership: , 47 ingle, Contact: Carol MacDougall help your club or society with ydney. SW 20 l 0 cudenc di count offered Newsletter/Journal free publicity, funds and member Ph: 02 9320 6223 Conservation/Working Concacc: Valerie Bower REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS Social/Educational Monthly benefits. Call on (02) 9320 6119 • WA Society of Amateur Meetings for more details. Membership: $15.00 Herpetologists Inc. Membership: $33.00

Li ra ATURE N Au TRALIA'S attractive library box holds 12 issues of the Box magazine. Finished in durable darkgreen PVC with gold lettering on the spine, it will ensure your copies of Nat11re A11stra/,a remain in mint condition.

Library boxes are available at $14.24 each, including postage and handlmg.· ·Use th e c10 1· 111 1n· the backofth1s issue to order your library boxes.

N 81 ATUIU: AUSl RAI IA SUMMElt 2001 2002

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Robin in Drag I Vl,i/e 111alki11g in the 5110111y Q • . 111011111ains, I enco11111ererl 11 i/1at I 1/,i11k 111as a Je111ale Fla111e Robin carryi11g Joor/ 10 her nest. Sl,e 111a5 joiner/ by a11other J fe111ale robin, both ef w/1ic/1 Jeri the 11estli11gs. The large mosquito, Toxorhynchites speciosus. These mosquitoes feed on plant juices and kVere 1/,ese birds in so111e ki11rl ef hon1osex11- nectar. al relmio11sl,ip? 1 rlirl not see a11y sig11 ef a likely to be competent breeders. They 111ale birrl. than moult into their br ight adult achieve greater -JULIE Fili CH plumage, some juvenile males, from a rnight therefore lifetime ORTH ROCKS, NSW diverse range of bird families, take on a reproductive success by focusing their female-like plumage. However, they youth on survival, rather than repro­ . Female Herring Gulls (Lams can still be successful in attracting a duction, thus assuming a cryptic A• arge11tat11s) have been known to mate and producing offspring. Several plumage, rather than driving the equiv­ form female-female pairs when two Australian robin and whistler species alent of a red sports car. This is known parents are essential for egg survival and adopt this pattern of development. as the Cryptic Hypothesis. male are in short supply. Each member It is interesting to consider why this An alternative explanation, the of the female pair solicits copulations strategy should have evolved, given that Female Mirnicry Hypothesis, assumes from a paired male, and each lays eggs brighter males should be more attrac­ that males take on a female-like in a shared nest. However, your obser­ tive to females or be more successful in plumage so that they are mistaken for vations on Flame Robins (Petroica territorial battles with other males. females by territorial males and thereby phoe11icea) are more likely to be a result Because young males are inexperienced avoid much of the aggression that of the curious male business known as in the ways of the world, they are more sometimes result from attracting atten­ Delayed Plumage Maturation. Rather likely to be taken by predators, and less tion in a public place. These disguised young male can then take up residence in the same patch as bright males (albeit in the poorer sections) and may be suc­ cessful in defending a territory that is attractive to a female (often also inexpe­ rienced). The critical test between the two hypothese is the difference between juvenile, female and immature male plumage. Juvenile plumages are the most cryptic with mottling common in many species. [f, as predicted by the Cryptic Hypothesis, young males moult into a dull plumage to avoid preda rors. the t{ the juvenile plumage should be ! plu that they j .,. mage of choice. The fact moult into 'female' plumage award5 points to the Female Mimicry Hypoth- From left to right: juvenile female, juvenile male, adult female sub- esis. · adult male and ad u It ma 1 e Flame R o b ms. . N ote the sub-adult plu age lacks mottling _ ".1 on the head and more closely resembles the MAJOR female plumage than the Juvenile plumage. adult -R.ICHARD AUSTRALIA MUSEUJ\I

82 -}llll} NATUll..F t\U�TRAI IA !->UMillER 2001 Huge Mosquito The larval stages arc prcdacious on I li11e i11 11orrl,em 1\·e111 S0111/, other mosquito larvae. This species : 11 airs and rl,r orl,er 11(e/,r I sa111 a docs not bite, and thus the re is no l,ugeQ 111osquiro /n1::::::::i11,(!around il,r c111·rai11s. relation to disease. If you want to find I 111a11a,ecd ro wrc/1 ir all(/ I l,m1e se11r ir ro out more about mosquitoes go to you u1ir!, rl,is il'fte1'. fr is 111uc/1 lm;eer rl,a11 w w w. a r b ov i r u s. h e a I t h . n s w. auy orl,er 111osquito ['11e see11 b�fore aud its gov.au. body /,as a 111etallic sl,ee11 and a 11ery lm;er, -STEPI tEN L. DoccETT be11r proboscis. I Vlrnr kind �f 111osq11ito is tl,is DEPT OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY and w11 ir rarry 111alaria or any oil,er dis­ WESTMEAI) HOSPITAL eases? -JE NY CltA BALLINA, W Answers to Quiz in Nature Strips (page 19) The mosquito chat you sent in is .• t Centipedes and 111illipedes A 7hxorl,y11cl,ires specios11s. The female is very large (about 12 miUime­ 2. Eros tres long) with a dark 'shiny-metallic' 3. 'Tl,e 111egafau11a appearance. le has a large, dark, scaled proboscis chat is distinccly curved down 4. Fmser Island and backwards and its wings have dark 5. Birds' eggs ·metallic' scales. They are found along 6. Cane Toad the coast and hinterland north fr om Sydney to Queensland and the orch­ 1. A11 elepl,a11/1 rl,i11oceros ern Territory. Adults are seldom col­ or l,ippopota11111s lected. as they are not blood-feeders 8. The eternal fr ontier and are not attracted to humans. They feed on plant juices and nectar, and are 9. D11gong omecimes seen in gardens and occa­ 10. Hagfisl,es sionally enter houses during warmer month.

Pie Teaser Do you recognise this? If you think you know what it is, then send your answer to Pie Teaser, Nature Australia Magazine. Please don't forget to include your name and address The first correct entry will win a copy of The visual ency­ clopedia of science. Spring's Pie Teaser depicted the hanging threads of glow­ worms, which are predatory fly larvae (Arachnocampa sp.).

NA! URI AUS I RA! IA SUMML/l 2001 2002 83 wildlife Australian is a mosaic f · 0 di. s, creet genetic pools that could TH E L A� T \X O IU) · be Per, manently trashed simply by the escape and release of native pets. Any d.1s ease they may carry would be doub . ly d'1s as- trous. One likely reason that wil . . d G ouJ, Native pets: d1an F111ches are endangere d is d.1 sease aster introduced by escaped captives. dis On the flip side, there are unnatural many d'IS, an be the end it will . 1 . lots ef people fior a u111I ·1 e bu t 111· eases that people can catch f Wildlife as pets 11 1/1 a11111se rom capt1v· e 1 the 11 i/d/ife that s,!ffers. wildlife-salmonella from reptiles , p Slt-. parrots, tacosis from tuberculosis ttornc. possums, and trichinella from Devils guolls. A few and years ago sorne thought that flying-foxes would make wonderful pets but now we know they can carry a lethal rabies-like disease. You can bet there are more rude sur­ HE CONCEPT OF KEEPING hide, only exhibiting their well-known prises around the corner. wildlife as pees is certainly theatrics if directly threatened. They do I agree that people need contact with attractive on the surface, but it not show Dog-like defensive loyalties T and would be terrible 'guard Dogs'. native wildlife to appreciate it, but the has serious flaws. answer may not lie in more pets but Advocates present four main posi­ Devils are the very essence of wildness as stimulating, educational displays, better tives: Australians would get much plea­ and deserve better than leash or cage, local tourism and wildlife rehabilitation, ure from having more native animals as rotting as a curiosity in a backyard. pets (there are already many chat can be Thousands of years of intimacy have and integration without ownership. For kept); native wildlife could replace not prevented us routinely mistreating example, wild animals could be brought Dogs and Cats, which are so harmful co traditional pets, and to glibly suggest into our lives via wildlife-friendly archi­ the environment; Australians would that wildlife agencies or the RSPCA tecture and planning. We could have better conserve native animals if they could supervise husbandry of pet wildlife-friendly residential areas with had wildlife as pets; and captive stocks wildlife is, at best, na'ive. no Dogs or ats and where issues of would provide genetic insurance for Some say that Thylacines would still roadkiLI, electrocutions and window wild populations. Lee's scratch the sur­ be with us if they had been pets. Well, collisions are dealt with. face. some were kept but they were poor sub­ To be sure, wildlife as pets will amuse Australian marsupials have few of the stitutes for Dogs without a snudgen of lots of people for a while, eYen make a attributes of domestic animals. Most their cooperation and loyalty. Tellingly, few rich, but in the end it will be rhe live less than half the age of compara­ Tasmanian Aborigines did not keep wildlife chat suffers, and suffer it will. tively sized Dogs and Cats. Even Thylacines as pets but quickly adopted Let's remember, though, chat in con­ research targeting quolls, the most Dog . servation terms, this issue is a sideshow hoped-for candidates, could not clearly The assumption that exposure to compared to broadacre clearing. It's a show their suitability as pets. Few mar­ wildlife as pets will lead to conservation pity the high-profile advocates of supials are social and, once past the inti­ of wild populations is easily debunked. wildlife as pets don't throw their weighr macies of juvenile dependence, most How many people with Budgies have a behind the hard sloo of habitat conser- are careless cowards people; boisterous o y , clue about wild populations? Similarly, vacion, instead of flirting with ·sex welcome-homes and animal-to-human the claim that pees offer genetic insur­ distractions. It doesn't help at all. play rarely occur even with juveniles. ance is wobbly. What genetic insurance Adult marsupials can be cantankerous for wolves is there in a Dog show? How N, K Moo EY HA WORKED AS and I wonder how long it would be long would it be before spotless quolls before they would be declawed and or crawling hopping-mice were all the defanged, conveniences to be followed rage? Proponents of more wildlife as CONSEIWATION BR.A CH FOR OVER by fashions such as tail-docking and pets argue that only legicimacely cap­ TWO DE ADES. HE I !AS 13[E ear-clipping. The recent suggestion that tive-bred, desexed animals would be DEVELOP! G INNOVATIVE WILDLIFE Tasmanian Devils could replace guard used. Really? The very nature of fash­ REI IAl31LITATIO A I) IS ACTIVE I Dogs could only come from too much ions means demand outstrips supply. A UR.IS l, PROMOTI. G WILDLlrE I TO Walt Disney. Devils are sensitive and black market in wild-caught and illicit­ BOT! I AS WILi) 1\ I lALS A L) I essentially timid animals that prefer co ly bred animals would be inevitable. PROFESSIO Al COi l l' TIO S.

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