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Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 136, p. 1–17, 2003 ISSN 0035-9173/03/02001–17 $4.00/1

Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales on 9th April, 2003.

Publish and Perish

david a. craddock

Abstract: Two major celebrations will occur during this year, 2003. The first is the bicentenary of the publication of the first Australian newspaper, the ‘ Gazette and NSW Advertiser.’ The other major event will be celebrated at the end of 2003, with the centenary of powered, controlled and sustained human flight. Although the Wright Brothers’ flight was an American success, their achievement was initially based on the work of other pioneers. The work of those earlier pioneers became available to the Wrights through the medium of print. This paper explores some of the Australian linkages between the written word and those early aerial endeavours.

Keywords: Australian aviation, Lawrence Hargrave, Wright Brothers, human flight

INTRODUCTION ney Gazette and New South Wales Adver- tiser’, which first appeared on 5th March, As well as celebrating the bicentenary of the 1803 and had disappeared by 1842. An- first publication of Australia’s first news- other paper, ‘The Australian’, lasted from paper, and the centenary of powered, con- 1824 until 1848. The ‘Sydney Herald’ be- trolled, sustained human flight, another an- gan in 1831 and continues to this day niversary has been acknowledged in Syd- as the ‘Sydney Morning Herald’. Those ney. The 170th anniversary of the forma- and several other newspapers provided the tion of the Sydney Mechanics’ School of medium for the circulation of ideas through Arts was celebrated on March 22nd. Three the Colony. Some articles on aeronautics dates commemorating three forms of human fired the imagination of local people, while communication: newspapers and the writ- other correspondence was apparently ig- ten word, schools of arts and the spoken nored. Practical understanding and skills word and the final form of efficient, personal as well as ideas, were soon needed in the communication, by aerial navigation. Colony and a means to help ideas along the Academics are urged to publish their next step was provided through adult edu- ideas, otherwise they may perish. Early cation. Australian pioneers in aeronautics often Schools of Arts were a key element in published their ideas in the press and later the movement to educate the adult popula- through the journals of learned societies. tion, which began in Britain during the lat- Although some ideas may have lasted, most ter part of the 18th century. The first such of those pioneers have been long forgotten, schools or Mechanics’ Institutes in Britain, as they published and perished. were formed in 1821 in Edinburgh and Glas- The first local newspaper was the ‘Syd- gow and by 1823. The Sydney Me-

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chanics’ School of Arts was the second in til the 1850s that such societies were insti- Australia, formed in 1833. The first in Aus- tuted in several of the Australian colonies, tralia was the Van Dieman’s Land Mechan- and continued to this day as Royal Societies ics’ Institute, which was founded in 1827, of each State. but unfortunately no longer exists. The In- Teaching aids were useful to many of stitutes provided adult education by way of the technical lectures and staff at the Syd- lectures and the maintenance of a library. ney Mechanics’ School of Arts had antici- Many of the lectures were described in some pated the arrival of scientific and philosoph- detail in the local newspapers, thus increas- ical instruments and apparatus from Scot- ing the spread of information to the wider land. The list of items en route, was pub- community. lished in the press and provides an under- Mechanics’ Institutes were created to standing of the state of knowledge and abil- provide the means for intellectual stimula- ity within the colonial community. The list tion for the community through a multitude included: steam cylinder, for showing force of subjects, from astronomy to chemistry, of steam; combination of levers; an inclined phrenology and beauty to language. Mr plane with carriage; Archimedes screw and Arthur A’Beckett’s fourth lecture in a series wheel; Torricellian apparatus; Medgeburgh on chemistry in July, 1840 provided the first hemispheres, pulleys, clocks, balances and example of ‘aerial navigation’ in the Colony. magnets. Unfortunately the equipment was One of his demonstrations included the fill- shipped aboard the brig Australia, which ing of a small balloon with hydrogen. It was lost at sea about one thousand kilo- ‘ascended to the roof of the building, and metres off the Cape of Good Hope. The floated about for a considerable time’, but equipment had been purchased from a lec- apparently failed to ignite any local inter- turer at the Edinburgh School of Arts and est in lighter-than-air flight (Sydney Herald included many items of interest to ‘the intel- 1840). ligent mechanic in the pursuit of scientific Another of the lecturers at the School of endeavours.’ (Sydney Herald 1841b) The Arts was Mr A. James Slatterie. He wrote nineteenth century term ‘mechanic’ would a letter to the press (Slatterie) in January, now equate to a tradesman. 1841 and proposed the establishment of a philosophical and scientific society in the OVERSEAS NEWS colony. He claimed ‘the teeming resources of this and the neighbouring Colonies are News from England in 1841 carried details yet scarcely known, and even the informa- of an aerial voyage proposed by Charles tion that has been gained, for want of such Green, who was one of Europe’s foremost an institution, is confined within a lim- aeronauts. This was to be a balloon flight ited circle.’ His proposed institution was from England to America. Apparently to be along the lines of the Royal Society, Green displayed a model of the balloon, to collect and communicate scientific infor- which was to incorporate several ingenious mation. The Philosophical Society of Aus- adaptations, for directing and propelling tralasia had been formed in July, 1821, but power. This would have been the first time fell silent soon thereafter. It was not un- that a rudder and large paddles were fit-

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ted for a balloon flight. The rudder was to in the midst of the Industrial Revolution provide direction, while the paddles would and spawned new ideas about conquering propel the balloon. An earlier invention the air. William Samuel Henson made his of Green’s was the guide rope, which was application for a patent on 29th September, essential to determine true altitude. It 1842, (Henson 1866) which pre-empted the was understood that a barometer, or more publication in 1843 of the first full set of specifically, an altimeter, would not be ca- plans for his aeroplane, the Ariel. Henson’s pable of identifying rising ground such as aeroplane was to be steam powered, because a mountain. Green’s proposed voyage re- steam was virtually alone as the meaningful quired a large sum of money (£3,000) to provider of mechanical power. Newspapers get off the ground. The balloon would be in Sydney first reported on Henson’s aerial 27 metres high and 15 metres in diame- steam carriage on 9th May, 1843 under the ter. The flight time was estimated at six heading ’carriage through the air’ (Sydney days, from St Pauls, London to the Cupola, Morning Herald 1843a). The brief article, Washington (Sydney Herald 1841a). This repeated some information from the ‘Lon- flight never eventuated. There was no cor- don Gazette’, noted that Henson’s inven- respondence in the local press about this tion was for ’certain improvements for loco- proposed voyage and it failed to create any motive apparatus and machinery in convey- interest, even though the flight would have ing letters, goods and passengers through been a remarkable feat. the air.’ Some aspects of his invention were A rare item of aeronautical interest ap- also applicable to locomotion on land and peared from America. One Mr Davidson sea, or so it was claimed. of Virginia, who was a member of the Bar, proposed a lecture where his ideas could be LOCAL INTEREST presented to the public. All that was men- tioned in the news article was that David- The first brief mention of Henson’s carriage son proposed the use of legs and feet to apparently caused no influx of correspon- provide the necessary power for propulsion. dence from the newspapers’ readership. No He claimed that it would be no more tir- letters or other articles on aerial naviga- ing than walking. His claimed objective tion were published until just after the ap- was to fly at 160 kilometres per hour (Syd- pearance of a second article about Henson, ney Herald 1841c). Nothing more appeared which was published locally on 26th May, about Davidson, and this article also failed 1843. This second article was gleaned from to engender any response from Sydney resi- several English newspapers. The compos- dents. Accounts of Charles Green’s balloon ite article was introduced by a letter, which flights from Vauxhall Gardens in England added some feeling of authenticity, as its were published locally, but those also failed writer described his initial scepticism of the to raise any public interest in aeronautics machine (Miles). in the Colony (Sydney Herald 1841d and One feature of newspaper correspon- 1842). dence was the use of pseudonyms. It was The seeds of change for transport it- more likely for correspondence to be en- self had taken root in Britain, which was dorsed with initials, or a name appropriate

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to the subject matter, rather than that of steam engine (Girling p. 218). The ‘Avery’ the author. ‘Aeronaut’ was one such corre- engine was described as one of those similar spondent, who claimed that ‘twenty years to Hero’s steam engine. William Avery, of ago’ he ‘invented and made known to a few Syracuse, New York, invented a small reac- scientific friends a new species of balloon.’ tion steam wheel in the 1830s. For several It has not been discovered whether Aero- years it was believed to have been the sim- naut was in Britain, or New South Wales, plest and cheapest steam engine available. twenty years earlier, but the former was his It was used to drive circular saws and cot- most likely location. The plan was to ‘re- ton gins (Parsons). Two arms were fed by vert to the old principle of rarefied air and steam, which could exit the outer ends of to accomplish the rarefaction by means of each arm, but in opposing directions. This portable gas and Argand burners’ (Aero- resulted in the apparatus spinning quickly naut 1843a). In other words, a hot air bal- about its axis. Aeronaut described the air loon, inflated by gas fires, much like modern as the fulcrum for his flying machine. His balloons. machine would ascend due to the lift pro- Aeronaut continued ’a mere balloon vided by an airscrew arrangement, acting would not accomplish the great end of pe- much like a modern helicopter rotor. For- riodical or exact transit’ and ’we might as- ward motion was to be provided by another, cend by mechanical contrivance by which horizontally acting airscrew. Of particular means instead of being at the mercy of at- interest in Aeronaut’s letters, was his de- mospheric currents, we might make them scription of rudders for directional control, subservient to our wishes.’ He was con- and his identification of flight into various cerned that balloons would always be sub- wind conditions ‘. . . it is quite possible that servient to the air currents. Aeronaut com- a head-wind may prove to be the safest cur- mented that Sydney would one day be as rent to ride upon.’ near to England as Edinburgh was to Lon- Aeronaut (1843b) also considered air as don, one hundred years earlier, once the an alternative to steam for operating the navigation of the air was mastered. He sug- Avery engine. If expanding air could be gested that daily mails would be possible used to replace heated water, the weight between Sydney, Port Phillip (Melbourne, saving would be worthwhile. Aeronaut de- Victoria), Adelaide (South Australia), the scribed his proposed engine, simply as a Swan (now Perth, Western Australia) and tube 3.64 m long by 0.91 m in diameter. A Port Essington (a failed settlement about wheel with fans would be positioned inside 150 kilometres north east of Darwin, in the the tube, in a similar manner to the com- Northern Territory). pressor and turbine discs in a modern jet Several correspondents described the engine. The Avery engine would then be possibility of using steam power by way of used to provide power to rotate the fans some modification to Hero’s (or Heron’s) and thus produce forward thrust from those ancient Aeolipile. Hero of Alexandria was fans. The idea proposed something close a Greek mathematician and scientist, who to the same principle that operates in a jet lived in the first century AD. He invented engine. It is unclear from this simple corre- numerous ingenious devices, including the spondence whether Aeronaut had any prac-

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tical ideas for the detailed construction of an inclined cylinder, which snugly contained such an engine. a large diameter ‘screw’. The maritime in- Another correspondent was Francis dustry found that some modification to the Forbes, the elder son of Sir Francis Forbes, Archimedes’ screw resulted in the marine the first Chief Justice of New South Wales. propeller. Steamships were originally pro- He wrote to the newspaper in early June, pelled by means of paddlewheels. Several 1843, describing his idea, which incorpo- people invented screw propellers during the rated a kite and ‘Archimedean screw fan’. early years of the 19th century, but two ex- Forbes compiled some notes of interest in celled as the real developers of this inven- his correspondence to the press, a few days tion. Francis Pettit Smith in England and later. ’. . . the screw-fans or vanes must turn John Ericsson in the United States brought on an axis lying in the plane of the kite the screw propeller into practical use. The and they must be placed behind the kite, British Admiralty staged a demonstration or at the side, and propel it forward; and during March, 1845 to show the effective- when the machine is going through the air, ness of the screw propeller. The steam both the plane of the kite and the axes sloop Rattler, fitted with a propeller de- of the screw-fans must be nearly horizon- signed by Smith, was set to pull against tal. A very slight inclination of the plane of another steam sloop, Alecto, driven by pad- the kite upwards being sufficient to support dle wheels. Except for their paddles and the greatest weight it is capable of sustain- screw, the ships were identical, powered by ing, the screw-fans must be used entirely as 149 kilowatt steam engines. The Rattler a propelling force, and the kite, its plane won the tug-of-war, convincingly towing the slanted slightly upwards, as the only sup- Alecto backwards at almost 5 kilometres porting power. The axes of the Archimedes per hour (Kemp). The Rattler was built of screw-fans must be all parallel, if they were Oak and launched from the Royal Dockyard inclined at any angle there would be a loss Sheerness in 1843 (SMH 1843e). It should of power. Your correspondent ‘Aeronaut’ be understood that the various terms for has placed the axis of his principal screw Archimedes’ screw fan, or propeller would propeller exactly at right angles to what it translate into something resembling a mod- ought to be, having made the axis perpen- ern marine propeller. dicular instead of horizontal. Also, by mak- Local interest in aerial navigation was ing two separate forces, one a propelling still not, it appears, easy to gain. Forbes and one a supporting force, acting at an mentioned a Mr Petrie of angle to each other, he would experience a (now Brisbane, Queensland) as the only loss of power . . . In my model, I have made person he had met who approved of his de- two rotatory screw-fans to revolve in oppo- sign. Forbes had tried to interest a Mr Co- site directions that the machine might bal- hen in Sydney with the construction of a ance better, their axes being in the same working model of his aerial machine, with- plane and propelling in the same direction’ out success. He then spent some months at- (Forbes 1843a). tempting the construction himself, with the The Archimedes’ screw was a device in- aid of a workman ‘who has been perpetually vented for the raising of water, by means of ill’ (Forbes 1843b). Forbes claimed to have

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more than half completed the model when was a doubtful provider of sufficient power the news from England about Henson was (Forbes 1843c). published locally. He felt that some of the ‘RMCE’ responded to criticism of ideas in Henson’s machine were similar to Forbes, with support, claiming aerial navi- his. From Forbes’ description and the pub- gation was possible with and without steam lished drawings of Henson’s machine, there power. This correspondent was Robert were obvious similarities. Mudie, a Civil Engineer. He had his own Forbes claimed to have made mention of design for an aerial machine, which he be- his ideas to several people in England and lieved would probably require several mil- Australia, and only met with ridicule for his lion dollars in current values (£5,000) for trouble. He felt that the idea had been pi- its development. That was not an amount rated, and sought assistance from a friend, to be afforded by an individual, so Mudie William Bland. Forbes claimed to have pro- considered the only possibilities for gaining vided Bland with a list of those people with such support would be through the creation whom he had discussed the aerial concept of a company to transfer passengers from (Forbes 1843a). Unfortunately no record of Sydney to and beyond, by air. Bland’s investigation into this matter has Mudie mentioned bird flight in his cor- been uncovered. respondence, but the main thrust was his Forbes built upon some of the pub- conviction that mechanical flight was pos- lished comments and from Aeronaut’s let- sible. ’So may an aerial carriage be con- ter, he distilled several changes and sug- structed with mechanical power, to move gested improvements to the proposal of through the air to any place wished; as a Aeronaut. He proposed contra-rotating steam-boat in a calm makes her destined propellers, ‘. . . two vanes at least, of great port without the aid of wind, so may aerial diameter, turning on perpendicular axes in carriages; and contrary winds only retard opposite directions’. He suggested the best their flight’ (Mudie 1843a). He later wrote solution would be for the two propellers to more specifically about his ideas for aerial be on the same shaft, one above the other. navigation, which clearly described the ba- With this arrangement there would be no sis for the rigid airship of the future (Mudie need for ‘a plane of canvas’ at each end of 1843b). the craft. He proposed that the rotors, as The editorial of June 28, 1843 succinctly we would now describe them, could be tilted identified some of the changes society had forward to provide forward motion. With undergone during the previous four decades rotors replacing the fixed wing, Forbes had (SMH 1843b). Mountains and oceans had proposed a design configuration we now call ceased to be barriers, as steam power sur- the helicopter. He was also of the opinion passed sailing ships. Gas had now been that human power may be a real alternative used to light up the cities. The very latest to steam power. The heavy weight and low discoveries were ‘conveyances upborne upon power available from steam engines caused the winds’ and ‘the electric fluids’. The ed- Forbes’ hopes to be dented, until the inven- itor’s words are indeed worthy of repetition tion of Avery’s engine. This was hoped to ‘. . . the improvement of Aeronaut’s engine fulfil Forbes’ power requirements, but it too, recommended by Mr Forbes, will show how

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one mind can act upon another, and how motest wilds – when the birth of a Prince in rapidly the agitation of a particular theory England will be telegraphed to Sydney be- may carry on its application to perfection.’ fore the dawn of another day’ (SMH 1843b). The Wright Brothers learned this very well Correspondents continued to support or and did exactly what the Sydney Morning criticise earlier writers. One wrote un- Herald editor proposed. They built upon der the initials XYZ, criticising the nega- the knowledge of all before them, and at- tive comments of an earlier correspondent, tained powered, controlled and sustained AB. The latter, XYZ made an interesting, mechanical flight sixty years and six months and perhaps forgotten suggestion that kites later. should be flown ‘one above the other.’ This As two proposals for flying machines was most likely stated, just as an off-hand had been published through the newspaper part of his criticism of AB, but it was this in Sydney, it was argued that so much more very same layout that was so successfully could be proposed from those more popu- employed by Lawrence Hargrave in a later lous regions, such as Europe, Britain and decade. XYZ also confirmed his strong be- the East. The Government Astronomer, lief that success would surely come, once James Dunlop, was urged to submit his cal- a source of power was discovered that was culations on aerial navigation. He had ap- lighter than steam (XYZ). parently been a strong supporter of this John Curr of Castlereagh Street, Syd- new field of endeavour, although no men- ney was not convinced of the likelihood that tion of this interest appears as record in bio- mechanical flight was possible. Curr sup- graphical notes on Dunlop (Pike 1968). The ported his argument against the likelihood newspaper’s editor was incredulous that of successful navigation of the air with some Henson’s machine had been proposed with basic calculations. He described the power steam as its motive power. The steam en- necessary for flight as a function of ’ the gine was a lumbering, cumbersome crea- complex ratio of the wings, their resistance, ture, which required fuel as well as water for and velocity’ and used a table generated by its operation. It had so far baffled ‘. . . all Sir Joseph Banks to work out the drag to schemes to render it buoyant. Neverless be overcome. He then calculated the nec- as there are pelicans as well as swallows essary wing area and requisite horsepower among birds, we may yet behold a stately for a steam powered aerial machine. The Leviathan rising in the air’ (SMH 1843b). results were either an extra-ordinarily large Even greater promise for the future lay flight surface of some 338 929 square metres with the electro-magnetic discoveries, ex- and correspondingly low power, or 637 kilo- panded air and gases. Electricity had been watts of power and a more reasonable wing used to turn machinery since 1833 and dur- area. Both were impractical, and he con- ing November, 1842 an experiment had cluded ‘the aerial carriage will turn out a demonstrated the use of electricity for pro- most notorious failure’ (Curr). pelling a locomotive engine. The editor con- One John Holtzapffell wrote a letter cluded with his thoughts on the future ‘an from London to a friend in Ceylon, identi- era when with lightning speed, news will fied only as G.S., dated 1st November, 1842. travel round the world, and radiate to its re- G.S. then sent the letter on to be published

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on 28th March, 1843 in the ‘Straits Messen- did reprints of the supplement to satisfy ger’. Re-published in the Australian in late demand. A note about the need for ex- June, 1843, it provided more details of Hen- tra copies of their supplement ’deemed this son’s machine. Holtzapffell described the such an extraordinary occasion as may jus- Ariel’s construction from sheets of copper, tify us in stepping out of our usual course’ formed over flattened steel wire. The ’wire’ (Australian 1843c). was claimed to be 9.5 millimetres thick. The following day the ‘Sydney Morn- The blades of the propellers were formed ing Herald’ published another large article of ’light iron ribs covered with a strong silk on Henson’s Carriage. This second article web, which has been rendered more tough was based on another London newspaper and elastic by a solution of caoutchouc.’ He and included dimensions of the craft. The mentioned that the silk had a feature not article had some difficulty describing the available in calico. Should a spark from craft’s wings, calling them a floor or plat- the furnace rest on the propeller surface, it form, apparently ‘merely because of their would burn just a spot in the treated silk, large area.’ The wingspan was to be 45.72 and not cause the entire covering to burst metres, chord of 9.154 metres and tail span into flames (Holtzapffell). of 15.24 metres (SMH 1843d). Until this time all correspondence Safety issues associated with aerial nav- about aerial navigation had been generated igation soon found their way into the cor- through the publication of a few relatively respondents’ discussion. What if something short articles, without any real details or broke? What if the engine stopped ‘and the diagrams. The first articles of substance, machine at a stand-still in the air, loaded describing the ‘Aerial Steam Carriage’ were with 48 pascals (a pound to the square published in the ‘Sydney Morning Herald’ foot).’ According to the London correspon- and ‘The Australian’ on 14th August, 1843. dent this last event would have resulted in Several drawings of the craft appeared in a rate of descent of 6.7 m per second, which the ‘Sydney Morning Herald’ and a differ- was then equated to jumping off a wall 2.29 ent view in ‘The Australian’. In modern m high (Atlas). On the same page of the terms it would be described as a mono- ‘Sydney Morning Herald’ was another arti- plane, with twin pusher airscrews. The cle, dismissive of the whole business. Un- undercarriage was a tricycle arrangement, der the heading ‘The project of aerial lo- which only became commonplace after the comotion refuted’, and ‘pigs may fly, but Second World War. Henson’s intention they are very unlikely birds’, the article was to start the machine on a downward proceeded to dismiss the likelihood of suc- slope, and once airborne, continue its mo- cess for Henson. Again, the requisite power tion through the action of its steam engine from overly heavy steam engines provided powered propellers (SMH 1843c). The full- the stumbling block. That case was sup- page account in ‘The Australian’ was ac- ported with technical details of well-known companied by a drawing of the Ariel (Aus- facts of air pressure on flat plates and the tralian 1843b). The effect of publication of lifting power of kites (Illustrated News). details and drawings of Henson’s machine Correspondence from AB regarding the was such that ‘The Australian’ newspaper ‘Aerial Steam Carriage’ and Francis Forbes’

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concept was strongly critical of both Forbes spring in the barrow.’ The barrow would and XYZ. In his criticism of those two, AB contain the engineer, fuel and men. For supported his claims with an English ex- the sceptical readers, it was suggested that ample of about twenty years earlier. Ap- they run against a high wind holding an um- parently an attempt was made to use a brella, then suddenly unfurl it. That would large kite to pull a specially constructed, surely convince them of the buoyant power lightweight carriage along London’s Baker of the air! Street. That did not work, and AB asserted ‘Arden’s Sydney Magazine’ confirmed that Forbes’ proposed machine would not the wheel barrow and umbrella stories in work either. AB was also sceptical of Hen- reference to the editor of the ‘Sydney Morn- son’s machine and considered it no more ing Herald’ (Arden). It was deemed an than a means of raising money. He claimed incautious suggestion, as both items were ’no names of acknowledged repute in me- readily available and may have led to the chanical science, nor of known respectabil- clever and courageous youths ’taking a run ity as regards moral character, have tran- off the Rocks some fine morning, searching, spired as being in connexion (sic) with this on a small scale, for the secret of the a¨erial company’ (AB). The kite venture to which passage.’ Thoughts of the many hang glid- AB may have referred was actually con- ing sites along the coast now spring to mind. ducted in 1827 by George Pocock. He Robert Mudie described his proposed hooked up a lightweight carriage to two aerial carriage, intended as ‘amusement to Malay kites, one attached to the other. the curious, tend to dispel the doubts of the That trial showed that such kites could as- sceptic in aeronautics, and be the means of sist ground transport. Pocock’s carriage forming a company to have it submitted to travelled at 32 kilometres per hour over a the test of experiment’ (Mudie 1843b). His distance of 64 km from Bristol to Marlbor- letter to the newspaper clearly described ough. He called the arrangement ‘Char- the features of the rigid airship, that would volant’, after a combination of chariot and much later become identified with those of the French term for a kite. Pocock identi- Count Zeppelin. Mudie’s airship was de- fied his kites as ‘buoyant sails’ (Moolman scribed as 45.7 m long, 12.2 m diameter in p. 42). the centre and tapering to points at front The ‘Melbourne Times’ eventually pub- and rear. Around the middle of this struc- lished something about Henson’s Ariel, ture was to be a strong belt, to which would which included their own quaint descrip- be fastened two propellers and the carriage. tion, intended to make the readers under- A cruciform tail would be attached to the stand how the Ariel would appear. ’A light rear of the airship, and each of those four wheelbarrow with an additional wheel at surfaces was to be connected to the carriage each leg – then let a long very long sash by way of a cord. These tail members were frame be tied across the barrow, and then each 6.1 metres wide and 6.1 m span. The let the handles be very long and stretched overall length of this airship was 52.7 m. over the canvass’ (Melbourne Times). The To aid the airship’s directional control, a article continued with a description of the fin was to be attached to the upper surface, propulsion as a ’small windmill turned by a some 18.3 m long, 3 m high in the middle

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and tapered to each end. The structural hindering force, increases dramatically with materials were not specified, but the cover- any increase in speed, or velocity. In fact, ing was to be silk or fine linen and netting. as F.R.P-H pointed out, a doubling of the The entire covered surface would then be speed of the craft would require eight times coated with caoutchouc for air and water- the power. ‘In short, this Aerial Steam Car- proofing. riage is a monstrous absurdity, and entitles The carriage was to house a 15 kilowatt Mr Henson to a place in Bedlam Asylum’ engine, a receiver for holding gas and a force (F.R.P-H). pump to inflate and deflate the gasbag. It A model of Henson’s machine was even- was also to incorporate a retort for mak- tually displayed in London, at the Royal ing gas. The engine was to burn gas for its Adelaide Gallery. This model measured fuel. The passengers were to be housed in 3.81 m by 0.91 m and weighed 7.71 kg a small cabin within the main body of the empty. The full-sized craft was to be 43.89 machine. They would be able to move from m long. The reality of aerial navigation was the cabin to the carriage by way of a rope still some way distant, as even the model ladder. The estimated empty weight was had not flown (SMH 1843f). 1361 kilograms, with a capability of lifting In the London of 1843, balloon flight 817 kg of passengers or other load. Mudie was still the only practical means of nav- claimed that the obvious problem with Hen- igating the air, where another of the lead- son’s Ariel was the need to take off on a ing aeronauts, Monck Mason showed his lat- down hill slope, which would cause consid- est idea. He demonstrated a small balloon, erable difficulty in places without suitable which could travel at 6 km per hour inside grounds. a large room. The demonstration was de- Another Muswellbrook correspondent scribed in the press in Australia, rekindling to the Herald, identified as F.R.P-H. sought local interest in aeronautics in 1844 (The to save people their money by not invest- Australian 1844a). ing in the various projects identified in the The Reverend John Saunders had ar- pages of the newspaper. He was correct rived in Sydney on 1 December, 1834 when he wrote ‘That man will one day be aboard the George Hebbert. Saunders was enabled to imitate the feathery tribes of the Chaplain on that ship, which served as a air, in the power of aerial locomotion, is not female emigrant and convict vessel. (Pike at all unlikely – so soon as a source of power 1967) Saunders arranged to conduct a se- shall have been discovered capable of be- ries of lectures on aeronautics at the City ing indefinitely increased, like steam, with- Theatre, soon after the publication of the out nevertheless increasing the weight of the news about Monck Mason’s demonstration. apparatus necessary for the generation of Saunders was a correspondent to the Syd- such power.’ He continued with a dissec- ney Morning Herald and had made his opin- tion of Henson’s machine, identifying gravi- ion on various social issues known to the tation and the ‘hindering force’ (or drag) as readers. Causes appropriate to his calling, obstacles not yet overcome. Henson’s steam such as aboriginal deaths and abstinence engine was unable to lift itself. The power comprised most of his writing. needed to overcome drag or the resisting, A small notice appeared in the ‘Aus-

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tralian Daily Journal’, inviting the pub- The gas-fed burners were for emergency use lic along to hear Saunders present his lec- only, and the gas cylinders also provided ture on Wednesday 12th June. It was men- a solid structure for passengers and equip- tioned that there would be some models of ment. Saunders went on to propose the balloons and the Aerial Machine of Hen- use of such fire balloons for exploration of son (The Australian 1844b). Despite bad Australia. His idea was to employ two bal- weather, a crowd of 400 turned out to hear loons for this inland exploration, with one Saunders. There were models of kites, bal- acting as a tender for the other. At some loons and the Aerial Machine, upon which pre-determined location (or perhaps, dura- Saunders promised another lecture (Saun- tion into the flight) the surplus stores of the ders 1844a). The ‘Sydney Morning Her- tender balloon would be re-assigned to the ald’ editorial apologised for being unable to other balloon for its onward journey. This publish a thorough report on all of the lec- was novel, ’the idea of planting a balloon ture’s content, but mentioned some of the in the bush is something new, and we give most novel points (SMH 1844). These main it as a bright thought to and points were the adaptation of kites, or as dwellers in the ”far west” ’ (SMH 1844). Saunders also named them, buoyant sails, Dunlop’s plan was described ’Taking for inland discovery or maritime navigation, the primitive method, which advanced mar- a new arrangement of the fire balloon, Dun- itime navigation, of joining canoe to canoe, lop’s plan for guiding the air balloon, and I propose to join balloon to balloon in hor- a dissection of the flying machine. A fire izontal parallel rows, each to be covered in balloon was another term for an expanded the usual way, by netting, for the individ- gas, or hot air balloon. ual security of each balloon, and to be fas- Saunders suggested the use of kites as tened to one another by cords on the top possible improvement for the operation of of the nets, to obtain a compact well ar- sailing vessels. He suggested that kites ranged body. There may be three rows, would be used to increase ships’ abilities consisting of five each on the outside and to sail ’within 5 points of the wind’. That six in the inside, giving in the whole six- is, to be able to sail more efficiently. This teen balloons. From the lower extremities suggestion was very much along the lines of of the nettings I would suspend a stage or Pocock’s light carriage demonstration. platform, on which the management of the The ’fire balloon’ resuscitation was machine would be conducted. This stage is through the use of Argand burners, fuelled to be furnished below with a keel extend- by oil and an inner series of burners fuelled ing along the whole length; at each end of by portable gas. Perhaps Saunders had re- the keelson a rudder is to be fixed, turning membered the letter of Aeronaut, one year on a pivot in the usual way, through the earlier, when he made this suggestion. Such top of which an axle is to pass, furnished a burner was invented by Aim´e Argand with vanes set at greater angles than those in about 1782 and featured a cylindrical of an ordinary windmill. The vanes are to wick. Air was able to pass both inner and act against the air, and to be turned by ap- outer surfaces, providing improved combus- propriate machinery. By these I propose tion and brighter light (Simpson p. 622). to gain headway or sternway, and in con-

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junction with the keel and rudders steer- pared with that of Monck Mason, in Saun- age way: I think that by sternway, steerage ders’ view, although both still had the usual way may be more effectually obtained. The problems with aerial navigation. Sum- stage need not be above three-fifths of the marised as ’the great problem of perfect whole breadth, and may be surrounded by guidance’, they are always at the mercy of netting to prevent accidents.’ the atmosphere. In that respect, Saunders ’My theory stands thus, sixteen balloons considered Monck Mason’s employment of of the usual pear-shape form, of 6.1 m diam- Archimedean screws superior to Dunlop’s eter will (if I recollect right) possess a lev- vanes. Those vanes could be more accu- ity of 2 722 kg. This power will be sufficient rately described as flat, windmill-like pro- to sustain the apparatus, voyagers and bal- pellers. Saunders did note that aeronauts last, and leave a surplus for ascension. By had some advantage over their seagoing having this sized balloon, the needful pres- brothers, in that they may find air currents sure will be more nearly equalised with the flowing in slightly different directions and strength of materials; by their number an speeds at different altitudes. So, by adjust- accident happening to one, will not endan- ing the balloon’s height above ground, the ger the safety of the whole machine, and by aerial navigator ’can generally choose one of their arrangement a better sailing surface is two or three currents, and having the power presented. The resistance, when sailing on to rise or fall, he may enter into one which a current, is as the whole resistance mul- may suit him best.’ Saunders did regret tiplied by the cosine of the angle from the that Dunlop had kept his idea under wraps vertical or line of keel’ (Dunlop). for some time, and promised to forward the Saunders’ second and concluding lecture plan to London. He did not state to whom was presented on Friday 14th June. The the plan would be sent. He was keen to let Australian newspaper published an article London know of the work and that ’Aus- the following day, describing Mason’s bal- tralians must look sharp to vindicate the loon and also allowed Saunders to sight priority of the colonial inventor, and secure their copy of a drawing of the same ma- some of the honour to themselves’ (Saun- chine in their office. The lecture was again ders 1844b). well attended, or crowded as reported in Henson’s steam carriage was not well re- the press. Saunders exhibited the model of ceived by Saunders. He apparently iden- Henson’s machine as well as a diagram of tified deficiencies with the area (presum- Dunlop’s proposed balloon (The Australian ably the wing area), arrangement (or lay- 1844c). Saunders’ dissection of the flying out of the craft) and the means of con- machines was incomplete, as he had no pic- trol and propulsion. Another of Saunders’ ture of Mason’s machine at the time. How- comments is noteworthy regarding the de- ever he perceived great similarity in the de- sign of propellers : ’. . . experiments lately signs of both Dunlop and Monck Mason. made, the velocity obtained by descending He thought that Dunlop’s design contained an inclined plain (sic) was diminished rather elements of ’safety and success’ that were than sustained by the propellers. As this not possessed by earlier balloons. Dun- maintenance of velocity is a main feature lop’s work appeared slightly advanced com- to the plan, and it has failed, the whole

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may be considered an abortion.’ It appears dangerous than railways and steam-boats, that those propellers were providing drag, and we shall have a few words to say on rather than thrust. Sufficient power must the use of which they may prove to science, be applied to turn a propeller before it can in relation to an examination of the differ- produce thrust. Otherwise, it merely ’wind- ent strata of the atmosphere.’ To arrive at mills’ and produces drag, as evidenced by such a situation, serious scientific input to Saunders. It is also unclear at this distance, aerial navigation would be required. The to whom Saunders was referring, when not- most appropriate means for the dissemina- ing the recent experiments. Saunders ended tion of such knowledge were those various positively, even though he had dismissed learned societies, which eventually began in Henson’s craft, the publication of Henson’s the colonies. work had re-kindled the idea of aerial nav- igation and ’he has given exercise to many LEARNED SOCIETIES ingenious minds, and led to an examination and discussion of principles which may ter- Several people made presentations to minate in a good result.’ (Saunders 1844b) learned Societies, on their thoughts for The main thrust was for success, not for an aerial navigation, some of which will be individual, but rather for humanity. mentioned briefly. Dr William Bland ad- Saunders concluded his lecture ’until dressed the Royal Society of New South some power was invented, which would give Wales on 8th June, 1859 with a lecture ‘On greater speed to the rotary fans, than any Atmotic Navigation’, although it appears plan at present devised, he did not think we that no transcript has survived (Bland). should be able to travel the regions of the This appears to have been the first lec- air.’ An aside by the reporting journalist ture on aerial navigation, presented to such suggested the use of springs and ’the end- a Society in Australia. Bland’s Atmotic less screw (Archimedean) such as that ap- Ship was at first designed with a spheri- plied in the large musical boxes’ (Saunders cal balloon, but after his initial application 1844b). for patent, the craft was depicted with the Many people appeared to believe that more familiar, cigar shaped envelope. mechanical, heavier-than-air flight was Michael Costello addressed the Royal achievable. By the same token, steam Society of Victoria on 29th September, 1862 power was generally considered as an un- with his proposal for a steering apparatus suitable source of power for aerial naviga- for balloons. He apparently displayed a tion. The publication of details about Hen- model of the apparatus at the meeting, but son’s Ariel certainly formed the basis for no more details appear to have survived serious thought on aerial navigation. Here (Costello). at last was something that promised more Alexander Adams invented an or- than just a simple balloon flight. nithopter, the details of which were sent to A statement appeared earlier on the Lawrence Hargrave by George H. Knibbs of subject of the proposed scientific use of bal- the Royal Society of NSW on 24th Septem- loons. (Australian 1843a) ’Once let it be ber, 1896 (Adams). His ornithopter was to demonstrated that balloons are not more be powered by a hydraulic motor, but it

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failed to impress Hargrave. Adams sought followed up in 1892 with an article on ‘Wind a partner in this venture and asked if Har- Pressure’ (Kernot 1892), which described grave was interested, but received a polite some of the difficulties encountered by engi- refusal. George Hardacre of Coffs Harbour neers in those days. Notice was being taken also patented a similar machine in 1897. His for civil engineering structures, such as rail- craft featured flapping wings, which incor- way vehicles, bridges and buildings exposed porated hinged valves to reduce drag on the to the forces of winds. Also, it was quite ap- upstroke and increased drag on the down parent that the science of designing struc- going stroke (Hargrave). He built and flew tures to accommodate such forces required a man-powered version, while tethered be- much investigation. Quoting from Kernot’s tween two trees. 1892 paper, ‘Not many years ago a bridge Lawrence Hargrave provided 23 lectures over the Yarra, in Melbourne, occupying a to the Royal Society of New South Wales very sheltered position, was condemned as from 1884 to 1909, 19 of which were on his liable to be overturned by the wind, and al- experimental work in aeronautics (Shaw). tered at great cost, although it would have The philosophical Institute of Victoria taken 4.3 kilopascals to move it according reported some of the earliest serious investi- to the correct calculation, and 2.7 kPa ac- gations into the Australian atmosphere. A. cording to the engineer that reported upon C. Gregory read his report on barometri- it, while chimneys and railway vehicles that cal observations on 30th March, 1859 (Gre- would overturn with not more than 1.4 kPa gory). were continually to be found in positions Across the Tasman Sea, several re- infinitely more exposed.’ Kernot continued searchers were publishing their thoughts with descriptions of the various methods of and one of those was Captain Frederick calculating aerodynamic forces and the ex- Wollaston Hutton, ‘Sailing Flight of the Al- periments he conducted. batross’ (Hutton). His work was purely or- Kernot constructed what was probably nithological, and not intended to further the the first wind tunnel in an Australian uni- idea of human flight. Hutton was a Fel- versity, possibly the first anywhere in Aus- low of the Royal Society, Fellow of the Ge- tralia. A description of the tunnel was pro- ographic Society and an Honorary Member vided in his article on wind pressure (Ker- of the Royal Society of New South Wales, not 1892). It incorporated a wooden, four from which he was awarded the Clarke bladed, screw propeller, of 0.7 m diameter Memorial Medal in 1891 (RSNSW 1890). and contoured with a pitch of 1 m. The tun- Professor William Charles Kernot, who nel itself was a tube 0.76 m diameter by 0.91 was Dean of Engineering, Melbourne Uni- m long. The wind tunnel initially did not versity, undertook investigations of the at- provide a ‘uniform blast’ of air, but rather mospheric effects on engineering structures. produced ‘a cylindrical shell about 0.15 m One of his papers to the Australasian As- thick of helically moving air surrounding a sociation for the Advancement of Science, central core of dead or motionless air’. He in 1889 was titled ‘Notes on the Baromet- added some form of straightening vanes and ric Measurement of Heights’ (Kernot 1889). funnel, which provided a jet ‘of air of fairly Maybe not quite aerial navigation, but he uniform direction and velocity’ about 0.3 m

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by 0.25 m cross section. A small flag was lier researchers. They corresponded with a used to verify air direction and Revy’s cur- number of those researchers, but kept se- rent meter measured the velocity. cret, their understanding of aerodynamic control under the protection of a patent. NOTICE OF SUCCESS CONCLUSION In the United States, the Wright Broth- ers also employed a true scientific attitude In summary, several of the early Australian to the study of aerial navigation. Suc- pioneers provided word pictures of aerial cess came finally to Wilbur and Orville machines. Some others provided draw- Wright on December 17, 1903 at Kill Devil ings and models of their ideas. They all Hills. How did Australians learn of this failed, but their ideas lived on through the triumph? That knowledge was provided works of others – possibly because they did through the medium of the newspaper, of not hide their ideas away. Lawrence Har- course. The great French-born American, grave published his ideas widely, through Octave Chanute sent news of the success to the Journals of the Royal Society of New Lawrence Hargrave, together with Ameri- South Wales and the Aeronautical Society can news reports, and the necessary cor- of Great Britain. He was a prolific let- rections. Hargrave then wrote to the Daily ter writer, who urged others to experiment Telegraph and provided an interview to the with his ideas and wished them every suc- journalist so assigned. An article was soon cess. As he stated in correspondence with published, which described the American Octave Chanute, ‘excellence of design and success as well as Hargrave’s latest aircraft workmanship will always defy competition’ work. It appeared exactly two months after (Chanute p. 218). Some of his ideas took the Wrights’ success, printed on page nine root, such as the box kite, which appeared of the Sydney newspaper (Daily Telegraph in the lineage of Chanute’s hang glider. 1904)! Aviation was still not page one ma- That hang glider subsequently became the terial. structural model for the Wright kite of 1899. Newspapers provided the means for That kite proved the success of wing warp- communicating ideas for aerial machines ing, which was the key to Orville’s powered, from England, initially, and subsequently sustained and controlled flight at Kill Devil from local inventors. Many good ideas were th Hills on 17 December, 1903. thus published, but none came to fruition. Mechanics’ Institutes provided technical ed- ucation for many in the community, who REFERENCES were then better equipped to put their ideas forward. Learned societies provided AB, 1843, letter to Colonial Observer, Syd- the next level of communication, publish- ney. 23 August, p. 1256. ing ideas and experimental reports across Adams, A., 1897. Correspondence with the globe. Lawrence Hargrave, contained in Note- Wilbur and Orville Wright built their book on Flying Machines, Powerhouse experiments on the published works of ear- Museum Sydney, p. 57, 106, 107.

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Aeronaut, 1843a, letter to Sydney Morning Hargrave, L., 1897. Notes on George Herald. Sydney, 1 June, p. 3. Hardacre’s flying machine, contained in Aeronaut, 1843b, letter to Sydney Morning Notebook on Flying Machines, Power- Herald. Sydney, 9 June, p. 3. house Museum Sydney, p. 81. Arden’s Sydney Magazine, 1843, Sydney. Henson, W.S. 1866. Patent Number 9478 vol 1, number 1, September, p. 19. Locomotive Apparatus for Air, Land and Atlas, 1843, London, as reported in Sydney Water, in Journal of the Aeronautical So- Morning Herald. Sydney, 25 August, p. 2. ciety of Great Britain, volume 1, p. 72. Bland, Hon W., 1859, On Atmotic Navi- Holtzapffell, J., 1843, letter to The Aus- gation, Journal of the Philosophical Soci- tralian. Sydney. 28 June, p. 3. ety of New South Wales. 1862–1865, in- Hutton, Captain F.W., 1871, On the Sail- sert containing rules, and lists of presen- ing Flight of the Albatross; a Reply to tations to Society Members 1856–1860, J.S. Webb, Transactions and Proceedings p. 8. of the New Zealand Institute. Vol IV, Chanute, O., 1976. Progress in Flying Wellington, pp. 347–350. Machines. Facsimile of the whole of The Illustrated News, 1843, London, as reported First 1894 Edition, Lorence and Herweg, in Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, 25 Long Beach, Ca. August, p. 3. Costello, M., 1862, Steering Apparatus for Kemp, P., 2000, The History of Ships, Balloons, Proceedings of Philosophical In- Little, Brown and Company, London. stitute of Victoria. Vol 6, p XXV. Kernot, W.C., 1889, Notes on Barometric Curr, J., 1843, letter to Sydney Morning Measurement of Heights, Journal of the Herald. Sydney, 11 July, p. 3. Royal Society of Victoria. Vol II, Article Daily Telegraph, 1904. Sydney, 17 Febru- IX, June 1890, pp. 78–81. ary, p. 9. Kernot, W.C., 1892, Wind Pressure, Jour- Dunlop, J., 1844. As reported in Sydney nal of the Australian Association for the Morning Herald. Sydney, 19 June, p. 2. Advancement of Science. Vol 5, Section Forbes, F., 1843a, letter to Sydney Morning H, pp. 573–581. Herald. Sydney, 8 June, p. 3. Melbourne Times, 1843. Melbourne, vol 2, Forbes, F., 1843b, letter to Sydney Morning number 79, 25 August, p. 2. Herald. Sydney, 9 June, p. 3. Miles, J.S., 1843, as reported in Sydney Forbes, F., 1843c, letter to Sydney Morning Morning Herald. Sydney, 26 May, p. 4. Herald. Sydney, 23 June, p. 3. Moolman, V., 1980, The Road to Kitty F.R.P-H., 1843, letter to Sydney Morning Hawk, Time-Life Books inc, Morristown, Herald. Sydney, 16 September, p. 4. New Jersey, pp. 176. Gregory, A.C., 1859, Barometrical Obser- Mudie, R., 1843a, letter to Sydney Morning vations, Journal of the Philosophical In- Herald. Sydney, 23 June, p. 3. stitute of Victoria. Vol 4, p. 14. Mudie, R., 1843b, letter to Sydney Morning Girling, D.A., Ed., 1978. Everyman’s En- Herald. Sydney, 1 September, p. 3. cyclopaedia, vol 6, Guadagnini - Jan- Parsons, Sir C.A., 1911. The Steam Tur- nequin, Clement, London, J.M. Dent & bine, The Rede Lecture, Part 1, Cam- Sons, pp. 764. bridge University Press, as published at

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http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam Sydney Morning Herald, 1843a. Sydney, 9 /parsons/part1.html May, p. 2. Pike, D., Gen Ed., 1968. Australian Dic- Sydney Morning Herald, 1843b. Sydney, 28 tionary of Biography, 1788–1850, June, p. 2. vol 1, A-H, Melbourne University Press, Sydney Morning Herald, 1843c. Sydney, 14 pp. 578. August, p. 2. Pike, D., Gen Ed., 1967. Australian Dic- Sydney Morning Herald, 1843d. Sydney, 15 tionary of Biography, 1788–1850, August, p. 4. vol 2, I-Z, Melbourne University Press, Sydney Morning Herald, 1843e. Sydney, 20 pp. 634. September, p. 4. Royal Society of New South Wales, 1890, Sydney Morning Herald, 1843f. Sydney, 4 Council Meeting 26 November, Journal October, p. 4. of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Sydney Morning Herald, 1844. Sydney, 19 Vol XXV, p. 10. June, p. 2. Saunders, J., 1844a, as reported in The The Australian, 1843a. Sydney. 21 July, Australian. Sydney. 14 June, p. 363. p. 3. Saunders, J., 1844b, as reported in The The Australian, 1843b. Sydney. 14 August, Australian. Sydney. 19 June, p. 379. supplement. Shaw, W.H. & Ruhen, O., 1988. The Australian, 1843c. Sydney. 16 August, Lawrence Hargrave, Aviation Pio- p. 2. neer, Inventor and Explorer, Uni- The Australian, 1844a. Sydney. 15 June, versity of Queensland Press, pp. 199. p. 367. Simpson, J.A. & E.S.C. Weiner, 1989. The The Australian, 1844b. Sydney. 11 June, Oxford English Dictionary, second p. 351. edition, vol 1, Clarendon Press, Oxford. The Australian, 1844c. Sydney. 19 June, Slatterie, A.J., 1841, letter to Sydney Her- p. 379. ald. Sydney, 6 January, p. 2. XYZ, 1843, letter to Sydney Morning Her- Sydney Herald, 1840. Sydney, 27 July, p. 6. ald. Sydney, 4 July, p. 2. Sydney Herald, 1841a. Sydney, 19 Febru- ary, p. 4. Sydney Herald, 1841b. Sydney, 10 April, p. 2. David A. Craddock, Sydney Herald, 1841c. Sydney, 1 June, p. 3. Regional Manager Sydney Herald, 1841d. Sydney, 20 Decem- Directorate of Quality Assurance (Air) ber, Supplement p. 3. Department of Defence Sydney Herald, 1842. Sydney, 10 February, Locked Bag 18 p. 3. Darlinghurst, NSW 2010.

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