a

of

a

is

IS

in

of

It

an

in

h1t of

in

the the

and

that

tha~ 143

1974)

to

(

Thus

to

under

abu~e

1s

m~ral

moral

for

rol:.

made

Like

earned

histori~ns,

Cl~udius

There

work. evidence.

quahtles

as

evoked make~up

character

figures

character

virtue

bwgraph1cal

Lwes

the

characters

first

himself

the

judgments.

tned

):

of

of

amanuensis

the_

that.

prov1des

h1stonans historiography

be

b10graph1es.

discussio~

charactensed

which

the

in

and

that

pass1~g.

of

chapters

the a

stoppmg

moral

21.3

1s

the

The

dispersed

biogra~her

the

w1th

h1~ from

et~1c~l

often

items

and

in.

of

m life

.m

ancient_hist~rian~,

~pproac~.

he

could

the

historical

frequently

Pluta:ch, interest

Plutarch's

long

historical

topics

the

are of

for

Tib.

i~

the

h1mself

a

the

own.

Suetonius'

with (

~ketches

ch~racter

lives

Actions,

to

and

do) granted

_h_is

off-the-cuff

apart

for.

of

of

its

of

met

aim

but

to

idiosyncrasies

such

major for

pun1shmg

status

still

concerned

quallt1es

features

subject.

on

such

const~ncy

it behav10ur

even successor Vices

devoting

of

narrati.ve

Wardman,

On

(67.2);

prince'

biograph1es

m

more

the

defects.

contrast

the

narrative,

his

conventional

of

expected

(and

A.

Plutarchan

Suetonius

his

actions,

the

of

central

often

no

to

features

.an~

took

the

and

of

and

anything

about the

and

moral by

be

a

the

essential

T.he

of

letter

component

portrait

physical

of

examination

characteristics.

habit

a

as

of

seventy

men's

prudent

were

modern,

as

renowned'.

list

sketch

between

of

assessment

assessed

this

special

Cicero gravity

of

normal

the

a

seen,

notice;

beyond stressed

reduced

Tiberius

Virtues

various

past

qualities

and

and

entailed,

in

is

like

qualities

an

they

with

link

set

abnormal

the

Just

individual.

implicit,

7. thread

standard

was

often

peculiar

with

way

reasonably

been

the

record

or

2.63

or

a

note

The

Suetonius'

regard

and

biographers.

contents

these

the

given

moral

and

famous

of

making

involved.

is

could

the

points

obituary

goes

can

be

has

include

memorable with

headings,

because

historians

of

Ancient,

the

in

may

so

234ff.

history,

to

and

an

Oralore

as

could

credited

men

character.

his

two

onlv

(42.2)

approach

circumspect

explicit issue

vice

in

too,

which

ancient

he

de

is

formed

of

Greek

in

should

at

2

an

remarkable

in

'not

Yet

in (1901)

and,

particula~ly

dole

and

sketch,

is

Suetonius

great

characters

distinctive

most

man's

betrayed

concerned

biographer

Cicero

common

historian.

form

intentions

a

Leo

character

'a

the

even

Such

is

the

the

But

2.

pen

A

see

includes

2ff.

(30-9). it

anyone

the

man element

a

historian example virtue

nothing off

Augustus

his

What as

documentation

who

historian,

sharp, of

or

the

involved.

individuals was

sketches

Historians

of

philosopher,

the

of

judgments judgments,

is

to

in

res

the

the

are

and

and

new

more

Otho

some

Nero:

Civil,

7.2-9,

of

10-11, 50-62,

liberal

the

cruelty;

counts.

avarice:

only

by

lustful?

in

Titus

But

virtuous

emperor

assessed.

adminis­

record

traditions

us:

maintains

dimension

all

32,

of

42-51,

he

(8.3-9).

16-19,

his

clemency clemency

and

categories

start,

rapacity.

avarice;

10-11, his

rapacity;

on

and

after

life

Vitelli

black.

who

lust;

finally

his

grasping?

successor

Was

breakdown

of

virtuous

(1968)

the

ethical

improved

51

the

is

all

46-9,

clement

and

38-42,

his

at

that

the

luxury,

highly

and

clemency;

of

them;

performs

and

avarice.

to

are

liberality;

lust;

luxurious

either

emperor

hierarchy

(8.2),

and

VICES

avarice;

rate

luxury

on

capacity.

another,

luxury,

Caesar

who

and

Mouchova

liberality;

and

and mean

-

the

is

a

faults

us

54, virtuous

by

incivility,

structure genial

examination

which

or

argument,

civility

36-7,

observation

enhances

its

records,

),

Seven

26-31,

below).

41-3,

passes

1

public

of

that

less

cruelty

luxury

Titus

the

of

the

The

Vitelli

AND

There

emperor

accepts

Julius:

and

(see

clemency

or

his

cruelty,

12-15,

analysed

who

for

cruelty;

minute

(7.3-8.

mixed

and

self-indulgent,

genial;

42-5,

the

in

Liberal,

terms

and·

are

Since

who

14.2-15,

story.

Chapter

to

Augustus:

and

or

and

purged

in

initial

and

with

others, incivility.

behaviour

after

liberal

the

vices

absentees

112.

9,

suspected

recording.

and

civility;

goes

cruel?

in

pride

Vespasian:

Caesar

Galba

important

strengthens

12

and

Augustus

1

only

half

only

or

(7.2),

morals;

is

clement

properly;

6-7.1,

moral

-

of a

worth

(1951) arrogance.

12.3-13,

is

26-32,

the polarities

between

22-35,

ancestors,

VIRTUES

Continent,

vice.

of is

only

vicious

and

virtues

Domitian:

It

Galba:

in

insolence.

are

to

modest

society,

is

his sympathy

the

76-9,

liberal,

Some

Caligula,

number

chiastic:

lives

Steidle

lie

clement,

and

of

-

areas

functions

are order

this

in

rapacity;

Tiberius:

Caligula:

portrayal

by

he

proves

cruelty,

cruelty.

Suetonian

vicious?

Claudius

arrogant?

Roman

initially

his

But

rapacious?

judged.

1.

fact

trative

Suetonius'

public

of

to institutions.

publica Was

is

or certain or These majority respects

Others

degenerate

to,

12.1-2, briefly

limited

moderation;

individual

33-8,

civility. cruelty.

or

apparently in

and

greed, 144 Suetonws 7. Virtues and Vices 145 vice chapt~rsare not to be understood primarily as a means of Virtues in the language of public life dJstmgUishmg character. The restricted range of categories he Virtues made a praiseworthy emperor, vices a tyrant. This assump­ empl.oys makes that almost impossible. It is very rare to fmd a tion was daily reinforced in any Roman (including the emperor quality documented that is not also possessed (or by contrast lacked) himself) by the norms of the language of public life. In the first by r:'os: ot?er. Caesars. Petty jealousy (/ivor and. malzgnitas) wa~ place, it was the language of panegyric. Only one imperial panegyric special m Caligula: he resented the fame of heroes of the past and survives from the early empire Pliny's of Trajan - and this may of great authors, and even tripped down the steps in a fit of pique lull us into supposing that such speeches were reserved for special a won louder himself (35.3). when chanoteer applause than Nero emperors and special occasions. But the formal thanks to the emperor w~sunusual in his 'petulance': he roamed the streets at night by the senior consul before the senate was a regular ritual. Pliny's wtth the young bloods and assaulted unsuspecting passers-by (26). performance survives because it was a masterpiece of its type, and benevolence is the of fairy prince he Supreme mark that Titus: because the rhetoricians of the fourth century copied it as a model. fretted to have wasted the day in which he had done nobodv a favour Consular thanks will only have been one of many occasions in the (8.1 ). Such rare cases apart, Suetonius' concern is differ~nt.What year when the senate listened to panegyric. Any notable occasion, he does is to measure each Caesar against a set scale of criteria. successes at home and abroad, or even failures, triggered off a torrent Each virtu:/vice category ~~pliesas it were a litmus test. A good of rhetoric. Pliny reports that Trajan put a ban on speeches of e.mper~rwdl sho":' up poslttvely on the tests of clemency, civility, thanks, except those formally permitted: the problem was too much, hberahty and contmence, a tyrant negatively on the same tests.J not too little. Fronto, the leading orator of the next generation, was The second point is that the moral qualities Suetonius analyses are to deliver frequent panegyrics of Hadrian and Pius: a letter to him n?t. ~fmerely private significance. There is generally a per~eptible from Pius admits how predictable such occasions could become.4 ~JV!SJonbetween the publi~and p~ivateaspects of the lives. Topics The court was an even better venue for panegyric than the senate hke personal appearance, literary mterests and religious beliefs are house, and as a courtier Suetonius mu,<;t often have listened to the treated apart from the reign. But while Claudius' eccentricities catalogue of the virtues of Trajan or Hadrian. Formal congratula­ appear among such personal topics, the virtues and vices of other tions were sent from all over the empire on red-letter days imperial Caesars form ~ centr~l.part of the discussion of their reigns. They birthdays, New Year's day, the anniversary of accession. Suetonius are tests of their qual!ues as emperors, not as private men. served a peripatetic emperor: on tour there was no more escape Sueto~ius'ap~roach, t~:refore, is not (as Leo believed) the product from panegyric than at Rome. Each arrival at a new city will have of. any b10graph1cal tradltton . He uses these categories because he been marked by speechifying, and then each departure. Perhaps the wishes to assess each Caesar's performance in his public role. In most vivid indication of the part played by panegyric in the life of fact ~heclosest analo&y to his.method lies in the tradition of regal the empire is in the contemporary handbooks of rhetoric. Every and 1mp~nalpane~ync. '!'he literary parentage of this aspect of the young gentleman, whether Latin- or Greek-speaking, learnt the Caesars IS. a tradltton gomg back to Xenophon's encomium of the techniques of encomium. It was a necessary accomplishment for Spartan kmg Age.silaus. But it is ~otso much the literary pedigree public life. He came away from the rhetoricians with a ready recipe that matters. It ts more mterestmg to explain how it was that for the Basilikos Logos, the imperial panegyric. Every now and Suetonius found this a natural way of viewing a Caesar. To the n:oder~reader. the:e is something strange and unsatisfactory about 4. The practice of panegyric, especially in the late empire, is discussed by d1scussm~a re1gn m terms of moral categories. Yet there should be J. Straub, Vom Herrschendeal In der Spatant1ke (1939) 146ff., and by S. no questiOn that for Suetonius and his contemporaries his method MacCormack, 'Latin prose panegyrics', in T.A. Dorey (ed.), Empire and was self-evident. Aftermath (1975) 154ff. For the practice of speeches of thanks behind Pliny's Panegync. see the commentary of M. Durry ( 1938) 3ff. On Fronto's panegyrics,

3. Pl~!arch'scharacter sketches are discussed with reference to his portrayal see Champlin, Frrmto and Anton1Tle Rome 83ff. The emperor Pius refers of phystcal appearance by Wardman (1967). Wardman shows the contrast in frankly to panegyric as a hackneyed theme: Fronto, ad Ant. Pwm 2 (Loeb ed. portrayals of moral character in Plutarch's Lives 144fT. Further. above, ch.3. val. 1126) 147 146 Suetonws 7. Virtues again we catch sight of these rituals in Suetonius. When an embassy Practice ref1ected the recommendations of rhetoricians and philo­ from Troy offered Tiberius tardy condolences on the death of his sophers. A formal panegyric like Pliny's on Trajan is a lour deforce son Drusus, Tiberius responded with condolences on their loss of in demonstrating imperial virtue: twenty separate virtues are here Hector (52.2). When the consuls forgot to publish an edict on his mentioned within three introductory chapters alone, and the rest of birthday, Caligula stripped them of office (26.3). Claudius was the speech repeats them and at least fifteen more as a leitmotif. But exceptional in allowing the engagement of his daughter and birth­ there were other contexts where imperial virtues could be exalted days of his family to pass 'in silence' that is, one takes it, without on a less massive scale. The erection of honorific inscriptions and speeches ( 12.1 ). s dedications to commemorate regal benefits had been a widespread On one point the rhetorical handbooks, from hellenistic times to custom since the hellenistic kingdoms. Imperial inscriptions strain the late empire, are agreed: that to praise a man adequately one to represent the favours which they celebrate in terms of the virtues must praise him for virtues. Good birth, fortune, wealth and the of the emperor: his liberality, providence, indulgence, munificence. like offer material for congratulations; but only virtue merits true The most memorable of such dedications was offered by the senate praise, 'and the rest is cheating'. A man should be praised for his to Augustus in return for his 'restoration of the republic': a golden achievements; but for laudatory purposes it was strongly recom­ shield awarded in the best hellenistic regal tradition, 'for virtue, mended that they be arranged under virtues. Thus the recipe clemency, justice, and piety to the gods and his country'. Caligula, Suetonius reports, was awarded another such shield, to be escorted for the Basilikos Log~srecommends that the emperor's military achievements must be placed first; but 'courage marks an emperor rituallv in an annual procession to the accompaniment of hymns of more than do other virtues If your encomium is of warlike praise 'of his virtues sung by a choir of noble boys and girls ( 16.4 ). actions you should speak of them under the head of courage'6 Bv the second century, the emperor's virtues had become a On this point the schools of rhetoric were in close accord with cliche. ·Trajan's new title, Optzmus Princeps, most excellent prince, the schools of philosophy. Since Plato, philosophers had repeatedly sums it up. This title was officially conveyed by the senate. But emphasised that virtue was the vital qualification for kingship. it was perfectly normal in recording the ruler's name to add Monarchy could be justified because the ruler was the 'best man', complimentary epithets ad lib. 'Most just prince', 'most provident', the superior of his subjects, not in birth, wealth or military strength, 'most pious', 'most indulgent', 'most brave', 'most liberal' and the but in moral excellence. A deluge of philosophical tracts Peri like are regularly tacked on to the end of the formal titulature of Basiieias, forerunners of the mediaeval 'Mirrors of Princes', urged the reigning emperor. From the mid second century such epithets rulers to virtue. Kingship was a 'godlike thing', but only in virtue became so cliched that refuge was sought in blanket superlatives: could the king imitate the gods. A brief essay survives by Musonius 'most outstanding in all virtues', 'full of all virtues', 'excelling all Rufus, a Roman eques under the Flavians who was a practising previous princes in virtue'. Stoic: the argument is that the emperor must be a philosopher, since It is hard here to distinguish what is the product of competitive the four virtues recommended by the philosophers were the essence Hattery and what is deliberately engineered by propaganda. Evid­ of kingshipJ ently emperors wanted to have virtues attributed to them - the

most convenient survey of the literature. The most thorough discussion of the 5. The most interesting and specific example of rhetorical instructions to the ancient texts is the unpublished thesis of Oswyn Murra~,Pen Baszlews: Studzes panegyrist are the two treatises ascribed to Menander; these are now edited in the justificatwn a) Monarchzc Power zn the Hellenzstzc World (Oxford D. and translated by D.A. Russell and N.G. Wilson, Menander Rhetor ( 1981 ). Phil, 1970). The standard English treatment by E.R. Goodenough, 'The 6. On the encomiastic tradition see Russell and Wilson xviiiff. · also T. Payr political philosophy of hellenistic kingship', Yale Class. Studies 1 (.1928) 55ff. 'Enkomion', Reallexzkan fur Antzke und Chrzslenlum 5, 332fT. The insistenc~ takes the fragmentary 'neo-Pythagorean texts perhaps more senously than on disposition under virtues goes back to Anaximenes Rhelonca ad Alexandrum they deserve. See also F. Dvornik, Early Christian and Byzantine Pa/iti~al 35 (dating from the fourth century BC). Phzlosophy; Orzgzns and Background (1966) 1, 241 ff: (to be t:eated wnh 7. Hellenistic kingship literature is a wide but elusive theme. P. Hadot_ caution). Musonius' essay On the Need of Kzngs to Phzlosophzse IS preserved 'Furstenspiegel', Reallexlkon fur Ant. und Christ. 8 (1972) 555fT. offers th~ in Stobaeus Anthology 4.7.67, 279f. Hense. is

is

),

a

If

of

the

by

all

( 1 (

the

and

is

long

).

and

16fT.,

most 149

when

Otho

after

with

after

vices

of

by

that

purpose

possess

rapidly

for

of

(7.1

the

Aristotle's

estimate

out

of and

reactions.

),

to

narrative

Xenophon's

1

demonstrate

unpopular

estimate

There

manifested

feared

an

and

emperor

documented

practice

are aspects

to

innumerable

were

comprehensible

mankind

with

characteristic

adored

no

3.16.14168

common (23.

such

naturally

broke

panegyrist

in

this

but

the

of

the

lived 9

gives

in

vices

emerged

they

statement

death.

was

more

vices

himself

Claudius

12-13)

chronologically:

popularity,

with of

supposed

(

he

or

that

reigning

both

that

(Aug.9)

particularly

mixed

which

chronological

action

behind

and

not

that

and

hold

(Rhetoric

follows

their

and

was

'so

the

whether darling

made

vouchsafes

vices an

virtues

and

and

from

and

Tiberius

of

But

easily'

he

virtues

arrived vices

41)

were

that

does

generate

Augustus

(

the

compareS's

Caesars,

Vices

factor after

virtues

predecessors

simpler

virtues

and

exceptions.

he

to

to the

quantity,

qualities

report

topic

the

is he

Galba

of

more

the

vices

his

is

virtue;

to

it

or

differs

sole

enjoyed,

-60);

by

greatest

and

treatment,

of

(51-6).

virtues

death

two

ranks

of

counts.

Suetonius

of

Titus,

encomium,

the

whose

which

for

of

(57

before

the point

reported.

virtues

the all

the

the

to

they

two

between

assessed merely

follow; virtues

instructive

(42-62).

to

result

16). quality

vices

S

reign

by

function

ofT

(

not

vice

immediately

after

whom

ruler men

is

~ivility

one

even

Virtues

to

of

and but

not both

encomium

of

and

a

Suetonius

method

It

the

the

set

of

the

or

cases

of

7.

for

are

all

truth,

The

Domitian's

in

But is

and

hard

vices

of

demonstrate

all

debt

hatred

popularity ch.3.

its (3.2).

fears,

with

popularity For liberality

in

his

function Pliny,

vices

that

conf1rmed

of

it,

analytic

after

concerned

popularity

of lifetime ill-disguised

organising

of

his

is

Caesars

actions

because

enough

is

record formal false

above,

the

documents

them

like

his

and

conditions

demonstrated

for

of

his

clemency

invective

about substitution impartiality,

hatred.

test

see

long

the

balanced he their

be

universal

(63-7);

only

out

that

of

which

of

report

degree

and

so

in

the

is whole

won

correlation

On

reactions

the

the

phrased).

record

may

argument

that

the

adopting

Virtues

the

state

induce

9.

turned the The

sensitive are appropriate

equally only

inappropriate to para

earned

in Age.1daus, life the the

being something by fearing proofs

itself ranks justification panegyrist,

them close to with and

In writer of

contrasting

scholarly

'

in

bv

26

its

as

the

the

not

and

and and

that was have

that

that

head

mint

1981)

could

I

( iame.

'virtue'

present

people

and

did

Caesar

to

method

paper

IT.

gives

implica­

doctrine

Shield,

the

8

vice

illustrate it

emperors

141

when

the invective,

'InoffizieHe

they

a

OS

individual

education,

doc~ments

recall

reaches

1

biographer

that

the

to

Indulgence

AUGUSTI

loyalty

the

each

first enough repres~nting

H~Luetzwm

the

benef1ciaries,

for

virtuous,

and

It

of bore

was

the

is

AS

which

fact

may Golden

double

by documents

two-sided

the

assumption

though

1937)

stimulating

be 68-69,

It

and

vices

propaganda

(

official

a

coinage.

Chronicle on

side

Aug~stus.

is Suetonius

the

we

the

the had

in

while

LIT

to

subject 23

virtue

or

Frei-Stolba

Museum

the

If

rhetorical

deserved

and

AD

he claims.

bad. provinces,

was

successfully

one

this

approach

ClemencY

of

the

official 298fT.

R.

documenting

on

with

wars

about

not),

of

of appropriate Even

instances

by

is

emperor:

the

poets

Tiberius, of

and

ought

virtues,

is see

that virtues;

Suetonian

their

and

How

of

did

n.Chr.',

Academy

civil virtues

same

LIBERA

panegyrists

ma;k

1981) Numismatic

these

It

to

S

terms

(

of

a~complished

so

wars

coins

series

vices

of of

the

Hadrian:

court

the

virtues,

dutY

on

Justice Roman

the 30

a

in

encomium. under

rulers

press

a

to

method

of of

series

of and

instilled

than

particularly

epithets,

which

was

Britlsh

least

clearly

civil

ria and

vicious.

of

for

themselves.

praise

to

a

to

image

Aeqwtas',

possess.

their

at

use

virtue-language the

role

virtues

mints

Suetomus

(he

their

reverses,

the

rulers

this

by

vices

Jahrhundert His

exactly

started

to

of

views,

the

by

on

emperor,

he

lip-service

the

Tranquillity

2.

to

But

virtues

that

possesses:

the

his

that

as

emperor

doing

analysing

possession

inscriptions

'Calha's

the

their

Suetonius'

coinage

supposed

of

und

emperors

on before

he

and

other

background

adducing

in

loyalty

'The

virtues',

doctrine

(1976)

to

on

by for

coinage complimentary

practice show

1.

be

space

just

rhetoricians

philosophers,

believed

clear.

stressed

subjects

the

good

the

own

the

his

- by

the

were

to Proceedings

im

On

judge

the recommend

their Suetonius'

the

claimed

by

by

not

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the

was

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have

coinage

and

and

virtues

coins,

their

Bradley

their

used

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I

dtd

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virtues,

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modification

belief',

momentum

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Charlesworth,

justification

18fT.

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a

coins

Emperor

See Virtue-language

explo~ted

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handbooks

\:'hatever.

general

Augustus,

Thts

8.

series

.

148

manipulate alternative particularly

~roclaimed tiOn

and

The demonstrated rival v1rtues a!l'ection.

ach1eve

how Patie~ce, or Martin promul.gated

apogee of propaganda

v1rtues

a~d a Kaisertitulaturen ~tmself m (1969) 20ff. creation argued turned 'The account

possessed,

itself t~e v1rtues prescribed

much the '

in

or

of

of

is

is

no

he

151

or

the

was his

the

who

and

and

sadly

score

more

made

to sense

doubt

3.2 out

Aratus

but

on

father's

was

abroad

natural

possible

question evidence

virtues

advertise­

this

are muttered,

the

was

act Alexander

interest (natura

cruel

and

inclination nature

his

Dam. cruelty

his

reconcile

handling

the by

to Theodorus of

on

Gadara,

from

makes straits s.v.

there

contemporary

an addition

strain that

to

at

better

of

preserve

both

'in

also,

airs and

Plutarch

(17-19.1), the

Yet Suda when proved

to

to character

above take

be

natural

freedom,

order

forced

in

benefit

return

Domitian

support

to

what but

and

to

in

of

Tiberius'

up:

arts

naturam

financial be

12

his

later

on with and

reputation

order

categories the

).

teacher:

ways'. would

Tiberius

Vespasian's

intolerable weight

in

the

change

.1

he Theodorus

demonstrate

sought

signs Vlces

25. out bad

kiss

super

likely

stingy:

nature'

his

youth over'

of

might

an If to

(57

behaviour

sense

was virtues

difficulty moral

of about

refused his gives

and his

another

who

above'

not his

and

was of

to

conventions

coincided (9).

usual make

10

the

character

Vespasian

cruel

several

and

rhetoric,

also

and

kept

blood:

normal o(

of who,

fur,

support

characteristics. (12.3).

the

anxious

rulers of

naturally

from attributes

can

'against

meaning

imposed

anecdote

gives autocrats

Nero.

him

dilemma

S

gives gave is

choice

'over

The

his as Vzrtues

with

literary

Sertorzus the

him

emperor 11

was

one

The hand

he

and

aware had

Suetonius

liberality

7. 95.

that

He

under

liberal

emperor

inborn

of Domitian

inclination The

retainer

teacher

is

where

made

he as

discussions xe?.

that

his

render

classic

30.4.,

taken

his

n.26.

and I

the on

~i

his

wars

his old

another Suetonius

far changed dtsposition

knew (1951)

offered

IIvmg

Suetonius

9.

said of

fear

prime

to

terms

Initially

noted by

virtues.

have

Sui/a

Alexander

The

that

the

passages 'as

has below

'natural'

·~~d civil

men

be

of

Civil in

13

biographer

verdict

The

Dom.

Suetonius

Stetdle of

proferred

1t

Some

of some

see Caenis

their

a

nature,

(16.3).

In fox

clemency

deny

other

may Phdtp), see

hi.m His grounds everyone

that

elsewhere

of

were

detected but wllh

as tells

that

It

not

prominence

rapacious,

old

For

(on simply

coldly

the

If

Yet

Hannibal.

9.2).

12.

13.

human

1.3

concerns ment

vices lacking early

call~d mistress he

chara.cter.

finances. than occasiOnally. 'the

doubt treasury

(~ on does

towar?s

Circumstances.

him

extortiOnate,

inclination'.

) The not

?n referred

Aegeus

1Tlgemum),

passage dtsput~d: nature,

amb1gu1ty.

to be

of of

6)

be

he

the

the

are

not

arul

unrl

this

and

that

The

with

their

to

there there

reign 197

other

Lives, reveal (

whose

of

rise

rulers. ruler's nature

\Veber

on

must

is cruelty.

because

and

Pnnnjm

him essential

unfortu­

for it

vices a

discussion

Yet

birth

of

for

his

to

from

account

9.22.7-26.11

part

function

behaviour?

not

ought frlr'nlngze Zln

advisers

czrque

Ecnnnmy

whose

by

\,fax

very Did

circumstances won le

human

as his recent also

ones

of

et

clement

s~e

later clemency

from

14fT.

Neither the

a

be apart

depend

nature.

Plutarch's personZllity. was,

categorically

effectiveness

the

in

but

L,heralzta.\

volume attribute

what

be

that

Claudius' integral

For

pazn by

that

in

only

of

fT.,

adventitious

the he

to

and to

Mildness the his

1979)

they

them

are an

rr.

Le

quite

'virtues' so

charismatic

Caesar would

to Kloft,

performances

regarded

the

determined

straight

rubrics.

is

of

character?

charisma,

set

it

vices.

528,

were

man aired

say,

1111

H.

the

It

be his

Polybius

concede

was

one

no

uncharacteristic

blood.

was

degenerated

also

3,

Veyne, criteria, and

10

statement to stated

nor thZlt

of

by

to emperor

If

accidents

he

by

actual

Caesars

P.

passes

the

is are

ff,stone.\7.11

time,

an

are the

shed

virtues

mild

is

subjects, should

see introduction loth 1968)

sort

the

(

He

Phyri1 disinclination

Forschung

mere autocratic

dictate

~sp.

circumstances

for to

for

Seneca

invoked

unless virtues

nes

raised repeatedly

his

there

in

That

nature. i

same

qualities

I

functions. Suelonzus

They

der see

an

odd those

all.

not

were

Otho n

bureaucracy

of

did

reigns

also

1.1.6

defects

characterisation

author's

the

Suetonius'

Wittich

at ill. and

strong hut

'bureaucratic'

an

is

on

change.

once,

enough

their

that

or

Or moment a

neither

C.

rulers.

At (Wege Philip,

warp

clement or

rule.

the already to

on

same

their

make-up.

personal

not Weberia

nature,

variation

then,

on

For

be

support

opportunity

and

views

of

what

his the

nothing

admit

good

the

Clementia

,lntike given

the

was

charisma

the

popularity.

the anything of

along

created fall.

philosophers

simply

Macedon, on

to also

qualities

Roth

a

debate,

It de

on

actually started

could

for

part constant.

ruler's

performed der

of by

to Polybius

degree,

says

is

documents of

see

pate his and G. term a

not

\Veber's

at had

zn

susceptible

old 11

as

that

weaknesses?

'charismZltic'

the

have

nci

V For

to who

he

moral

ed.

they

physiological

be this

reign.

virtues 181;

Seneca

For and The

power

to pri of

an

never

emperor

his

the

To

11.

10.

the

reigns popularity, treated termed part Philip power assessment unpopularity legitimation men, no Many which he natural. emphasis Did Suetonius hidden remained outlook of in was followed royal 750 might occasioned Greek behaviour adoration nate

genuine. 560fT.

Society, (1970) !lerr.rchaft of 752 Suetonzus 7. Vzrlues and Vzces 753 illuminatingly, in terms of the mental attitudes of contemporaries took their cue from the philosophers, and by the imperial period living under an autocracy which relied heavily on the language of the primacy of the four virtues was taken for granted. It is likely virtue for its legitimation. For the same reason it ought to be enough that the philosophical tracts on kingship emphasised the need enlightening to ask which the imperial qualities are to which for these virtues; they are certainly the ones Musonius demanded in Suetonius gives prominence. I\o earlier author known to us applied an emperor. They are in practice acclaimed in emperors by a series this method to the Caesars and was thereby compelled to formulate of orators: by Aelius Aristides a generation later than Suetonius, the moral criteria which distinguished a good emperor from a bad and frequently in the numerous panegyrics surviving from the fourth 1 one. Nevertheless, Suetonius is not out to write a 'Mirror of Princes' century AD. t, and convince his readers of what the ideal ought to be. His method But Plato's canon is not Suetonius'. Temperance (sojJhrosyne) is based upon assumptions. He can tacitly take for granted which they have in common, but in other respects they part widely. the vital virtues are because he expects his readers to be of one mind Courage, which the rhetoricians claimed was' the appropriate with himself. heading for military achievements, hardly enters Suetonius' account: But the matter is not so simple as it might seem. The range of he is more interested in discipline, military institutions and the like. conceivable imperial virtues was enormous. On the most conservative Wisdom could cover the ability 'to legislate well and dispose and estimate there were at least fifty virtues celebrated by panegyrists arrange the affairs of subjects to advantage', but Suetonius, who or honorific inscriptions. In truth the scope was limitless, for any thought Augustus very prudent and recorded Claudius' reputation imaginable human quality might be attributed to the emperor, and for stupidity, never uses wisdom as a heading. Justice was an obvious it was the natural impulse of the panegyrist to do so. 14 Suetonius, heading for an author so interested in imperial jurisdiction; yet the by contrast, is highly selective. As we have seen, his virtue-and-vice only people to whom he attributes this quality are provincial chapters are reducible to four recurrent areas: clemency, civility, governors, Augustus' father (3.2), Galba in Spain before his procla­ liberality and the restraint of luxury and lust It is not just a matter mation (7, 1), and the governors under Domitian whose strict super­ of terminology (in fact the names he gives to virtues and vices vision ensured that they were never more restrained or just (8.2). 16 differ slightly). More impressive is the consistency with which he It is not wholly surprising that Suetonius parts company with documents the same patterns of behaviour in emperor after emperor. Greek rhetoricians and philosophers. Though the Romans paid Individual records vary, between mildness and bestial cruelty, lip-service to the Platonic canon, they had strong ideas of their own between open-handedness and unscrupulous extortion. But the about virtus, and were little inclined to acknowledge that a Roman spheres of activity within which performances vary themselves might learn much from a Greek about morality. Their own ancestors remain constant. Was there a widely acknowledged set of essential imperial virtues, or fs this a sevof his own? 15. For a sketch of the history of the Platonic canon, H. North, 'Canons and There was indeed one school of thought which held that there hierarchies of the cardinal virtues in Greek and Latin literature', in L Wallach was a given set of imperial virtues, and precisely four in number. (ed.), The Classical Tradition (1966) 165fT. The instructions cited are from This was the doctrine the rhetoricians taught their pupils: 'Always Menander Rhetor's Basi/ikos Logos, Russell and Wilson 8Sf. They are fairlv closely followed by Aelius Aristides' panegyric. SA Stertz, CQ 29 (1979) 172fT. divide the actions of those you are going to praise into the virtues. argues, I believe rightly, that this is a model panegyric not aimed at a specific There are four virtues: courage, justice, temperance and wisdom.' emperor; but the view is controversial, see C.j. Jones, CQ 31 (1981) 224fT. In The same prescription is found in handbook after handbook. It fact very few surviving panegyrics, and none o( the Latin ones, do follow the scholastic rules. derives ultimately from Plato who identified these four as the sum 16. It should be stressed that though S does not use these Platonic qualities of all virtues. The Stoics accepted the Platonic canon, and argued as categories, he did not necessarily think them unimportant. He sees courage that all other virtues were sub-categories of the four. The rhetoricians in Otho's death ( 12 1), prudence in Augustus (T1b. 21.3), folly in Claudius (38.3). Justice was a central category in kingship literature and takes pride of place in Marcus' lvfed1tations P.A. Brunt, jRS 64 (1974) 7. Doubtless much 14, Various virtues attributed to various emperors are listed by L Wicken, of what S records under headings like clemency, liberality could be regarded 'Princeps' RE XXII (1954) 2231ff. in Greek terms as illustrating justice. in

of

so

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be

to

to

of

all

for

the

755

On

the

two

and

and

(35-

with

to

here:

their

least

nor

in

future

are

central

Domi­

as

himself

virtues

mistake cruelty,

need

nothing

Caligula items

at

series

vices.

frugality

are

benignity

him

much

contuber­

Suetonius

a Suetonius

Panegyric.

his

enough

this

laziness;

and

we

virtues

of

and

habits,

will

frugality questions

and

used says

owe

which

old

of

which

off

These in

take malignity

thrown

Claudius of

virtues

that

very

for

of associated

he

on

be

good imperial

topics

his

not

of

Pliny's

What

one

with

has

(63-7)

will

his of

polarities

virtues

reels

opposites,

eye

avarice;

reigns.

are

not in

'that is against

cover

and

also

work

did

of

drinking

neither

clemency

praise

to

is

congratulating

closely

Suetonius

is

imagine

for

selection

Pliny their

their

is

it

Suetonius:

Pliny

to

and

prince'.

vice: and

eye are

'canon'

praise:

there hard

model

Vzces

played

emperor

could

Tiberius

which

in

pride,

pride;

He

analysis

a

predecessors

weaknesses

with

of

Suetonian

though

to

3071f.

or

It

saw

(3.4)

depicted

Suetonius

the right,

opened

as

and

the

Suetonius

and

eating his

liberality

addition

and

vices

lust

is

difficult

is

particular 'perfect

Plinian and

to

laziness (9)

to fatal

opposite

lust;

pairs. tyrants

of

slept

of

main

is In

a

(1981)

towards

They

and

it

not their

get

and

this

this

Trajan

the

the

danger

for

new

notice;

and masterpiece,

the

Nero

for

between

the

which

if

a

VIrtues

of

piety

of

civility)

no

exceptionally

Panegyric

can

and

themselves.

not

with

cruelty; and

sense.

All

7.

Caligula, of

introduction

is

Hislorza

to

work

links

criticism

luxury

we

his

emperors

virtues

marks

to even

furniture. recipe

among

having

Suetonius'

for

narrative,

see

the

popular

the

for

does is

good of

show

civility,

surface

there

do

in

how

continence

princes,

19

identified

and But

in Hard

(II

of

together

meant the

closest

possession

measure

this

as

avarice,

of significance

special and

timidity.'

it.

instant

that

timidity

pairs

only

coinage,

past

lust:

accession

the

makes

his

reign.

(equivalent

to

clemency

the

an

virtues,

for

and

having Pliny

fortune for

were

jewelry

the

at

of

could know

passage humanity

Claudius is

Suetonius

and

closeness

describes

ground

to

discusses which

Pliny

for

of

S

other

(14-16),

continence.

here

his

vices,

jealousy;

not

one

Perhaps

Hadrianic

fortitude,

The

19.

imperial

which In

any

contrasting

same hinting

luxury;

on for humanity outstanding fortitude talk

luxury

liberality

and taste often pairs

tian

of

7). princes ideology.

measure

jealousy nalis

did

belong stop (15.1-3), the

something and

explain

a

is

to

in

of

of

be

on

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all. are

"Ytt_h

and

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ever

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only

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from

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rules.

coins,

leaves

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Greek

put

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and can

Political

a

fond

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to

give

in

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hellentsllc

than

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to the

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rigid

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encomium

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to

outstanding

coin

not

though

contrasts

important

which

to

virtues The

made

authority

that

fashionable)

virtues

by

3001f.

texts

is

use correspondence

nor

loyalty

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of

Earl,

pains

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were

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emperor. chastity,

sign

mention.

transcnbes

Cicero's

headings.

at

of

acclaimed

for

imperial

set

been

1981)

Latin

CLEMENTIA

talents

what

(

is

of

D.C.

far

no

an

(virtus),

survive

any

ulio-Ciaudians

Hadrian,

not

partial

in

the

attention

win

are

27-48.

J

is

has

he

Of

his 18

Augustus.

17

see

fixed

of

is

virtue

show

Roman

clemency, Suetonian

are

largely

of

(1973).

to

no

that

reign.

and

Romans

of

panegyrists

does the

qualities

of

country'

(as

no

by

set.

of

instructor virlus

H1slona

he

best.

end.

under

the

there

goddess

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of

that

he

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virtues

the

Mamlw

there

the

or see see and ladies

the

manliness

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of

order

virtues

as

uses

is

of

was

virtues,

to

the

and Romana

qualities,

use

to

time

Shield

for

each

therefore,

in

the

seen,

and

of

gods

these

panegyrics profusion

Suetonius

Hadrian's

Pliny,

begin

of

and

The

Suetrmzus

More xxii.

to

status

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for,

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to

of

in

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neither

warfare,

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tradition

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reign

of However,

cardinal

which

no

and

treatises

representative

the

18ff.

Aexibility Golden

Panegync

of

interested

the

Pompey

course

Piety

we

handful

there;

structures,

met Wilson

hope

to

his

the

claim.

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chastity

is

speech

a

his

where

have

as

for

the

Of

boundless

Roman

theoretician

and

of

coinage

Eisenhut,

more

are

to family

and

method

in

(1961)

can

Cicero

his

he

Augustan

the

in

misleading

loss

rhetorical

praised

the

the

they

Menander

correspond

W.

in

the

define

purposes

the

virtues

a

we

and

the

advertising.

assertions

dynastic of

by

much

the example.

or

Pliny

to

Justice,

theoretical

Justice

on at

but Russell

Sallusl

is

of

Trajan

depicted

a

more

which

the

the native

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is

canon

understanding

in

orators,

of

occurs

most

Suetonius.

Cicero

see

beginning

certainly

is

he

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in

one

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luck.

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be~

better

practical

honoured to

orator

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the

Pliny

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17.

18.

set

754 Pompey Thought

He passages Roman

Roman

impression the piety For Musonius was between nor exhaustively

set confining Only sources: canon. emperors, predecessors LIBERALITAS a Clemency, at paralleled systematic attempted could general: ITIA, good Suetonius. which almost

establish 756 Suetonzus 7. Vzrlues and Vlces 757 vices, and why Suetonius found it convenient to return to them again Against this background, Suetonius' vice-and-virtue pairs make and again. 20 better sense. Vices were what antagonised the emperor's subjects, To grasp what Suetonius is doing, 1t is better to focus on the vices and the vices that antagonised them were naturally the forms of than the virtues. In his list of pride, cruelty, avarice, luxury ;md abuse that affected them directly. Suetonius is not compiling a list lust we see not merely a group of imperial vices, but aspects of of all the qualities desirable in a ruler, nor attempting to catalogue abuse by the powerful of those in their power which had been long all the qualities each Caesar brought to his work. He is analysing since denounced by writers of the republic. These are the abuses the way the Caesars treated their people, and the way the people that marked the misgovernment of Sicily by Verres. The Sirilians reacted to them. The areas of vice or virtue are thus natural ones could have put up with Verres, inveighs Cicero, had he had no more of conAict of interest between ruler and ruled, and especially the than the occasional failing. What made him intolerable was the propertied classes among the ruled. As Aristotle puts it in the simultaneous occurrence of every possible vice luxury, cruelty, Nlcomachean Eth1cs (1130b1 f.), injustice is motivated by the pursuit avarice and pride. This catalogue must have been familiar to the of honour, wealth and personal safety, together with the pleasure jury in the extortion courts. The tax-collectors of Syria complained that derives from them. Wherever the upper classes valued their that they were ruined by the avarice, pride and cruelty of the status, property and personal safety they were likely to resent an governor G'abinius. Historians spoke the same language. 'Avarice autocrat who threatened their possession of these advantages in and luxury,' says the elder Cato in a speech in Livy, 'are the two order to secure his own. The cruel emperor shed blood to secure his plagues which have proved the destruction of every great empire.' own protection; the avaricious one seized property to fill his ex. Lust, cruelty and inhuman pride are unleashed when Hannibal chequer; the proud one exalted his own status and diminished that of sacks a city; pride, cruelty and avarice are equally the fault of a h~ssubjects; the luxurious one dissipated the tax-payer's money on Roman commander or a Numidian king.21 hts own pleasures, and showed that he had his own, not his people's, From republican historians the vices passed to imperial historians. welfare at heart. Roman emperors abused their subjects in much the same ways as Suetonius writes from the point of view of the subject anxious republican governors had abused their provincials. Cruelty, avarice, about his neck, his pocket, his standing, and his comfort It follows pride, luxury and lust are constantly met throughout Tacitus' Annals that it is the presence or absence of vice that most concerns him. and !listones. They also colour the account of Alexander written The virtues are largely negative ones. Clemency is to refrain from by Curtius Rufus at an unknown point in the early empire. There punishing subjects, or to punish them less severely than the Ia w the hot-blooded young conspirator Hermolaus inveighs against and the empero:'s absolute powers might allow. Liberality partly Alexander very much as a Roman conspirator might accuse an mvolves generostty wtth money; but Suetonius is as much concerned emperor. The vices which for Hermolaus prove him a tyrant are that spending should not lead to extortion. Civility is a matter of cruelty, lack of liberality and pride; Alexander is careful to refute not acting like a god and autocrat, but rather refusing distinctions each charge in order (8.7-8).22 and prerogatives. The weight of the emphasis is even clearer in his t~eatmento~self-indulgence. Luxury and lust feature as tyrannical 20. Pliny m~kesexplicit the role of his Panegyric as a yardstick in Ep. 3.18.1-3. The hnks between S and the Panegyric are discussed by della Corte vtces alongstde cruelty and the rest. But chastity, modesty or restraint (1967) 77ff.; see also Lewis (forthcoming). . are never listed among the positive virtues in the way the rhetoricians 21. On these vices and their place in the political vocabulary of the late recommend; Suetonius follows biographical tradition in simply republic see J Hellegouarc'h, l~eVocabulaire latm des relatwns el des parlls pohtiques so us Ia Republzque ( 1963) 439f., though he underestimates the role of vices in political language in general R. Combes, lmpera/()r (1966) 329ff. is valuable on virtues and vices attributed to republican governors. For lists of centuries A.D. See now J.E. Atkinson, A- Commentary on Q. Curlzus Rufus' vices see respectively Cicero in Verr. 2.2.9, de Prov. Cons. 11, Livy 34.4.2, H1slonae Alexandn Magn: Books 3 and 4 (1_980) 19-57 making a Julio­ 21.57.14, 43.7.8, 32.21.21. CiaudJan date h1ghly plaus1ble. For the way th1s work reflects contemporary 22. It is frustrating that there is no agreement about the date of composition condn10ns, see A. Heuss, 'Alexander der Grosse und die politische Ideologie of the Alexander History: estimates range from the mid first to the fourth des Altertums', Anhke und Abendland 4 (1954) 65ff.

a a

is is

to to

in in

at at

or or

be be

on on

no no

for for

the the

are are

the the

the the

159 159

V11. V11.

and and

two two

and and

The The

their their

at at

whose whose

julius julius

milder milder

him him

power. power.

certain certain

natural, natural,

had had

Tacitean Tacitean

Bauman, Bauman,

political political

nature nature

26.1, 26.1,

potential potential

grounds. grounds.

were were

Seneca: Seneca:

(9). (9).

A A

(1970) (1970)

by by

interested interested

technique technique

genuinely genuinely

behind behind

repressive repressive

cruel cruel

be be

cannot cannot

policies policies

pardon pardon

subject subject

evidence evidence

appointing appointing

and and

lead lead

assumption assumption

of of

On On

o~n o~n

clemenlza clemenlza

and and

it it

the the

by by

Vespasian Vespasian

try try

R.A. R.A.

to to

disarm disarm

the the

forgiving forgiving

lies lies

Pompusianus, Pompusianus,

the the

condemnation condemnation

by by

they they

himself himself

anyone anyone

only only

The The

of of

free free

over over

by by

7.1 7.1

the the

his his

to to

could could

subject's subject's

to to

Griffin, Griffin,

to to

but but

113. 113.

to to

by by

might might

Pnnnpzs Pnnnpzs

Domitian Domitian

effective effective

innately innately

the the

on on

87ff. 87ff.

their their

senate2o senate2o

trivial trivial

peace. peace.

pioneered pioneered

could could

!'vi. !'vi.

Ner. Ner.

element element

shown shown

an an

clemency, clemency,

it. it.

in in

whether whether

resorted resorted

next next

senate) senate)

exploitation. exploitation.

because because

of of

view: view:

Mettius Mettius

dispute dispute

is is

order order

secure secure

the the

34, 34,

collected collected

(1937) (1937)

overtones overtones

be be

swords swords

as as

See See

an an

assumption assumption

was was

to to

mildness mildness

opponent opponent

promising, promising,

is is

eat eat

(1976) (1976)

to to

wrote wrote

the the

in in

in in

Cl. Cl.

but but

23 23

any any

this this

who who

because because

V1ces V1ces

Clemenlw Clemenlw

to to

introduCiion introduCiion

them them

cruelty cruelty

also also

(11.2). (11.2).

insecurity insecurity

clemency clemency

prefaced prefaced

however however

in in

times times

threatened threatened

or or

too too

was was

the the

same same

in in

itself itself

sinister sinister

and and

or or

so so

an an

against against

of of

29.1, 29.1,

that that

(51) (51)

in in

but but

Acad. Acad.

true true

and and

them, them,

extensive. extensive.

could could

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exploitation exploitation

for for

Adam, Adam,

factions factions

only only

Po!illC!an Po!illC!an

principate principate

did did

lent lent

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and and

dementia dementia

gladiators' gladiators'

there there

is is

seating seating

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cake cake

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that that

romantically, romantically,

sense sense

always always

T. T.

sense sense

11 11

emperors emperors

Brit. Brit.

the the

the the

clemency clemency

question question

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rich rich

is is

to to

asserted, asserted,

clemency clemency

was was

the the

A A

rival rival

133ff. 133ff.

predisposed predisposed

determination determination

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behind behind

condemned condemned

war. war.

of of

above). above).

Virtues Virtues

the the

to to

his his

their their

Cal. Cal.

suspicions suspicions

was was

Augustus Augustus

more more

that that

by by

into into

opponents opponents

essay; essay;

Proc. Proc.

tortures tortures

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dissidents, dissidents,

gestures gestures

in in

be be

7. 7.

of of

there there

lay lay

clemenlia clemenlia

root root

to to

might might

them them

civil civil

Tibenus Tibenus

or or

1976) 1976)

statement statement

by by

59.1, 59.1,

( (

(cited (cited

to to

itself itself

Inevitably Inevitably

bibliography. bibliography.

(1974). (1974).

and and

forecast forecast vital vital

have have

of of

on on

and and

the the

trials trials

subjects. subjects.

such such

loyalty. loyalty.

the the

conspirators, conspirators,

Titus, Titus,

called called

naturally naturally

26 26

power power

sometimes sometimes

and and

to to

indeed indeed

and and

emperor's emperor's

lent lent

of of

11.6 11.6

his his

palace palace

Levick, Levick,

be be

supposed supposed

For For

reacted reacted

response response

allow allow

seeks seeks

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times times

executing executing

Pohllcs Pohllcs

14). 14).

deserved deserved

offering offering

57.1 57.1

of of

man man

not not

( (

the the

B. B.

truth.

Seneca's Seneca's

future future

also also

imitated imitated

in in

maieslas maieslas

the the

tried tried

m m

in in

Charlesworth, Charlesworth,

a a

Pnnczpem Pnnczpem

(or (or

literature literature

3.2. 3.2.

government government

value value

Clem. Clem.

cf. cf.

of of

dementia dementia

of of

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advertisement advertisement

have have

Trb. Trb.

than than

patrician patrician

ideal ideal

and and

could could

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in in

executions executions

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for for

by by

astrological astrological

of of

discussion discussion

de de

and and

emperor's emperor's

to to

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only only

consul consul

Suetonius Suetonius

Dam. Dam.

whole whole

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74.1, 74.1,

disarming disarming

theme theme

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25. 25.

26. 26.

parties parties

Insecurity Insecurity

forms forms

product product

return return

(75) (75)

'political' 'political'

him him

whose whose

loyalty loyalty

condemn condemn

penalty penalty disaffection disaffection The The

publicity publicity

of of

opponents opponents said said

by by alleged alleged

hesitation hesitation

emperors emperors

games, games,

that, that,

exercise exercise

bloodthirsty. bloodthirsty.

tactics, tactics,

the the

10.1, 10.1,

Phllosopher Phllosopher

discussion discussion further further

the the

lmpietas lmpietas clementia, clementia,

stressed stressed

jul. jul.

Seneca Seneca

to to

to to

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51, 51,

the the

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that that

able able

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of of

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cruelty. cruelty.

Aug. Aug.

personal personal

imperial imperial

42-5, 42-5,

record record

part part

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12.1-2 12.1-2

should should

numerous numerous

dispersed. dispersed.

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50-62, 50-62,

with with

inclined inclined

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one one

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tear tear

all all

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method method

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reflect reflect

73-5, 73-5,

Tzb. Tzb.

the the

is is

their their

author author

background background

whole; whole;

to to

of of

Tib. Tib.

gratification gratification

that that

Caib. Caib.

the the

and and

at at

members members

disadvantages disadvantages

private private

been been

is is

jul. jul.

a a

historians historians

along along

elsewhere elsewhere

remain remain

answer answer

mar mar

executions, executions,

for for

demanded demanded

The The

(68-78) (68-78)

there there

it it

(22). (22).

vices vices

reflect reflect

33-8, 33-8,

as as

classes. classes.

such such

the the

and and

reasonably reasonably

criteria criteria

important important

clemency clemency

have have

saevilta, saevilta,

other other

and and

too. too.

The The

must must

is is

Suetonius' Suetonius'

pattern, pattern,

did did

historical historical

which which

itself, itself,

of of

finances, finances,

Ner. Ner.

power power

publicised publicised

of of

critical critical

seen seen

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of of

clementw, clementw,

may may

Domitian's Domitian's

Tacitus Tacitus

emperors emperors

which which

off? off?

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of of

24 24

real real

and and

34, 34,

they they

9. 9.

and and

insistently insistently

conlinenlia conlinenlia

tyrannical tyrannical

topic topic

Trials Trials

be be

certain certain

would would

of of

On On

a a

dangerous dangerous

also also

21. 21.

propertied propertied

Cl. Cl.

family family

tone tone

advantages advantages

in in

widely widely

Suetonius' Suetonius'

come come

generalisation. generalisation.

deaths deaths

the the

advantages advantages

Dom, Dom,

other other

imperial imperial

most most

can can

but but

treatment treatment

a a

the the

Caesar Caesar

insights insights

the the

pages pages

more more

Vesp. Vesp.

follows. follows.

annalist annalist

advantage advantage

assumptions assumptions

of of

moderate moderate

both both

political political

handling handling

to to

fact fact

and and

Augustus' Augustus'

that that

relevant. relevant.

most most

one one

up up

Suetonius Suetonius

by by

his his

emperor emperor

the the

as as

the the

8.3-9, 8.3-9,

other other

33; 33;

give give

of of

record record

together), together),

among among

the the

Punishment in in

is is

imperial imperial

topics topics

are are

the the

Where Where

in in

the the

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establishing establishing

the the

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the the

an an

focus focus

are are

abuse abuse

of of

prime prime

Cl. Cl.

trials trials

has has

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can can

life life

families, families,

build build

to to

Caesar Caesar

likely likely

the the

taken taken

a a

more more

granted granted

10.2. 10.2.

10-11. 10-11.

time time

feature feature to to

that that

Such Such

and and

is is

There There

of of

matters, matters,

happy happy

abuse. abuse.

sharp sharp

private, private,

Such Such

their their

14-15. 14-15.

from from

It It

chapters chapters

for for

approach approach

the the

clementia clementia

lust lust

Vzt. Vzt.

perhaps perhaps

emperor's emperor's

its its

use use

private private

similarly similarly

cruelty cruelty

Dom. Dom.

same same

and and

narrative narrative

order order

approach approach

least least

such such

in in

chronology. chronology.

Suetonius Suetonius

event event

the the

and and

and and

punishment, punishment,

But But

contribute contribute

the the

the the

reign. reign.

Vesp. Vesp.

14, 14,

was was

the the

in in

and and

and and

is is

the the

suppose suppose

in in

varied varied

them. them.

taken taken

nuanced. nuanced.

26-31, 26-31,

where where

detailsn detailsn

relevant relevant

of of

intrinsically intrinsically

The The

something something

pleasures. pleasures.

at at

to to

Vit. Vit.

and and

does does

classes classes

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all all

as as

items items

after after

is is

Luxury Luxury

sinister sinister

(pride (pride

Ner. Ner.

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10.1-2, 10.1-2,

context context

discuss discuss

senators senators

blurred. blurred.

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It It

projects projects

particular particular

23. 23.

24. 24.

158 158

reason reason

private private personal personal

blurred. blurred.

to to

its its

inclinations, inclinations,

it it

chronological chronological

Clementia Clementia

Suetonius Suetonius

a a exercise exercise

challenge challenge

abandoning abandoning generally generally

carefully carefully

upper upper

reign reign

describing describing

or or most most

of of virtues: virtues: status, status,

above above

genuinely genuinely

small small

private private

treated treated

36-7, 36-7,

14.3-15, 14.3-15,

Ner. Ner. 23-33 23-33 160 Suetoniu.\ 7. Virtues and Vices 76 7 calculation in any exercise of clemency. ~1oreoverthe situation even so their wounds were bound up and they were dragged ofT', might not be in the emperor's control. His fears and suspicions still quivering, to execution.' He refers to two episodes involving could be exploited by rival factions or by interested subordinates. the eque' Vibullius Agrippa in AD 36 and Albucilla in 37. 'Because Suetonius makes out a good case for the natural bloodthirstiness of tradition forbade the strangulation of virgins, immature girls were Claudius by invoking his conduct in two of his characteristic raped by the executioner before strangulation.' He refers to the activities, watching the games and giving judgment (34). A man luckless daughter of Sejanus. 'There was none of the condemned who waited all day to watch an execution by cudgelling, and who who was not thrown on the Wailing Steps and dragged ofT with a had two commemorative paper-knives made from the swords of a hook.' At most this form of extreme punishment can only have been pair of gladiators who hacked each other to death, was evidently common in the first Rush of the backlash against Sejanus and his not over-squeamish. But Suetonius himself indicates that this had supporters. 28 little to do with Claudius' numerous political executions which In a word, if we had to rely on Suetonius for an understanding resulted from the uncontrolled intrigues of his family and palace of the catastrophe of the end of Tiberius' reign, we would remain staff (29) who skilfully exploited his timidity (37). Here the handling largely in the dark. Our ignorance about the similar crisis at the of the relationship between character and politics is laudable. As a end of Domitian's reign is not dispelled by his list of senators courtier, perhaps, Suetonius had a feeling for the nature of palace executed on the most trivial of grounds ( 10.2-4 ). Often, elsewhere, intrigue. all cases of cruelty are lumped together as Rowing from the same But elsewhere his account is marred by the desire to attribute cause and arranged conveniently in hierarchic order. Thus with everything to character. Tacitus too believed Tiberius a cruel and Nero: first murders within his own family (33-4); then of his wives bloody tyrant. But his narrative shows fairly that most of the political (35. 1-3); then of more distant relatives, friends and members of the trials and executions of the reign were associated with the rivalry household (35.4-5); so to outsiders, and above all the great conspira­ between Sejanus' faction and its opponents, and the bloody aftermath cies (36-7); and finally the Roman people itself, which he deliberately of Sejanus' ,overthrow. Suetonius, because he is only concerned to attacked by starting the Great Fire (38). Suetonius is out to prove demonstrate Tiberius' character, suppresses this narrative context Nero a monster, not to understand the problems involved, and so and gives a gravely distorted picture. It may well be that Tiberius conjures up this image of universal destruction. He suppresses the executed a guardsman for filching a peacock from his aviary (60). severe doubts as to Nero's responsibility for the fire. He deliberately The anecdote chimes with what is said elsewhere of his disciplinarian trivialises Nero's motives to underline his monstrosity. He thereby severity and his taste for delicatessen. But it cannot help explain his plays down the political element: Britannicus was murdered because execution of members of his family and shift some of the responsibi- he had a better voice as well as constituting a threat (33.2); his lity from Sejanus' shoulders (61). 27 · mother because she nagged (34. 1 ); and the prefect of Egypt, Caecina Suetonius' aim is not to explain the political crisis of Tiberius' Tuscus, because he took a dip in the baths especially built for Nero's reign but to compile a dossier of his inhumanity. His cruel deeds projected visit (35.5).29 are too many to enumerate and Suetonius therefore proposes to It is in such cases that the loss of narrative is most dismaying. exemplify the various forms his savagery took ( 6 L2). On this excuse But that said, we should not belabour Suetonius too far. First, he he reduces the vast question of the political and treason trials of the reign, which occupies most of the first six books of Tacitus' Annals, to 28. The inadequacies of S's picture of Tiberi us are stressed by Bringmann (1971 ), who of of a paragraph of unreliable generalisations ( 61 .2-5 ). 'Some defendants joins the chorus abuse the rubric system. For Vibulenus (or Vibullius) Agrippa, Tacitus Ann. 6.40; Albucilla, 6.48; Sejanus' daughter, 5.9. stabbed themselves ... others took poison actually in the senate; Note however that the detail of twenty executed at Tib. 61.4 is more precise than the 'immense carnage' of Ann. 6.19. debate over Caesar's clemency, on which seeS. Weinstock, Divus julzus ( 1971) 29. The triviality of the grounds on which tyrants executed their victims is 237fT. repeatedly underlined by S: see Tib. 58 and 61.3, Cal. 27.3, Ner. 37.1, Calb. 27. Tacitus states his view that Tiberius was naturally cruel at Arm. 6.51. 14.3, V:t. 14.1, Dom. 10.2-4. He tends therefore to exaggerate the trivial in But so bald a statement does not do justice to the complexity of his portrayal. order to blacken their characters.

of of

to to

no no

do do

the the

the the

the the

this this

163 163

Tul() Tul()

this this

pea­

early early

king', king',

style, style,

could could

of of

suffer suffer

!'aspect !'aspect

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father. father.

deeply deeply

(76-9). (76-9).

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pattern pattern

become become

that that

honours, honours,

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that that

majesty majesty

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freedom freedom

Caesars Caesars

to to

and and

from from

he he

'refusals' 'refusals'

and and

the the

principate, principate,

elaborate elaborate

of of

to to

Caligula's Caligula's

behaviour behaviour

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sur sur

Kaiserreiche Kaiserreiche

themselves themselves

proved proved

of of

was was

attitudes attitudes

of of

prerogatives prerogatives

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monarchs monarchs

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at at

their their

held held

late'r late'r

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items items

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greatly greatly

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of of

citizen citizen

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for for

coherent coherent

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supplement supplement

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desire desire

for for

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Augustan Augustan

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accounts accounts

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set set

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features features

horror horror

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in in

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also also

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enhance enhance

sentiment sentiment

in in

to to

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ff. ff.

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ff. ff.

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together together

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7 7

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15 15

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From From

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into into

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pressed pressed

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be be

refusal, refusal,

individual individual

refusal refusal

position. position.

civilitas. civilitas.

patterns. patterns.

liberality, liberality,

the the

1953) 1953)

initial initial

able able

in in

that that

excel excel

and and

( (

7. 7.

they they

~f ~f

the the

allows allows

including including

accounts accounts

worship worship

of of

of of

the the

any any

their their

revolving revolving

and and

is is

failing failing

items items

on on so so

draws draws

subjeCt subjeCt

citizenly citizenly

ethos ethos

Augustus' Augustus'

'The 'The

of of

School School

and and

monarciHsche monarciHsche

For For

and and

he he

terms terms

own own

cult, cult,

lhe lhe

Philo Philo

compressed compressed

of of

towards towards

the the

the the

likewise likewise

should should

pomp pomp

ts ts

method method

such such

D1e D1e

coherent coherent

further further

for for

of of

moral moral

secure secure

largely largely

he he

themselves themselves

ideology ideology

documents documents

jmrzc1pa1 jmrzc1pa1

32ff. 32ff.

conduct conduct

familiar familiar

Tiberius' Tiberius'

Bntlsh Bntlsh

ambiguity ambiguity

Julius; Julius;

ambivalent ambivalent

Augustus, Augustus,

by by

of of

refusal refusal

their their

to to

from from

du du

discussion discussion

the the

of of

the the

57). 57).

of of

to to

the the

~~2) ~~2)

The The

by by

less less

readily readily

respect respect

clemency clemency

writers writers

could could

1 1

and and

own, own,

The The

reveal reveal

19 19

Europe Europe

pheasants pheasants

information information

citizen citizen

( (

of of

Alfoldt, Alfoldt,

( (

approval approval

is is

which which

so, so,

of of

On On

Julius' Julius'

The The

Charlesworth, Charlesworth,

no no

thus thus

set set

deeply deeply

its its

months, months,

t2 t2

between between

drawing drawing

devices devices

pose pose

A. A.

both both

Suetonius' Suetonius'

deviate deviate a a

Suetonius Suetonius

31:., 31:.,

_32 _32

RS RS

cocks, cocks,

by by

from from

Caesars Caesars

(52-3) (52-3)

(30-1) (30-1)

last last

enforcement enforcement

king, king,

Even Even

The The

the the

ideal ideal

from from

Jewish Jewish

show show

derive derive

to to

respect. respect.

Papers Papers

was was

penetrated penetrated

in in

M.P. M.P.

downfall downfall

(1970) (1970)

Bodzes Bodzes

use use

modern modern

and and

in in

indeed indeed

see see into into

single single

gap gap

1deologzque 1deologzque

f f

· ·

a a

). ).

); );

in in

of of

of of

or or

on on

all all

the the

the the

the the

the the

has has

the the

any any

best best

6.1 6.1

who who

dogs dogs

pride· pride·

could could

when when

range range

26-3? 26-3?

10.1 10.1

3.2 3.2

beasts beasts

in in

comes comes

of of

( (

power, power, Junius Junius

when when

run run

Cassius Cassius

the the

price price

over over

that that

the the

with with

he he

affecting affecting

On On

expected. expected.

character character

up up

Secondly, Secondly,

Tib Tib

senatorial senatorial

farce farce

of of of of formal

team, team,

Augustus' Augustus'

Cal. Cal.

to to

supposedly supposedly

scarified scarified

in in

a a

the the

social social

potential potential

material material

fined fined

but but

iure iure

advantage advantage

fed fed

and and

the the

system system

exiled exiled

of of

(con;rasti~g (con;rasti~g

)2-6 )2-6

bearing bearing

offered offered

him him

role role

happily happily

de de

Drusus. Drusus.

accessible accessible

to to

discern discern

wrong. wrong.

gladiators gladiators

Tiberius, Tiberius,

wide wide

8.2 8.2

exercise exercise

when when

reminded reminded

and and

great great

thrown thrown

accession, accession,

ruler; ruler;

poet poet

to to

concerned concerned

A1;g A1;g

consequences consequences

illustrate illustrate

and and

possessed possessed

favourite favourite

not not

had had

merely merely

Vitellius Vitellius

actual, actual,

wanted wanted

Tzt. Tzt.

the the

to to

h1s h1s

father father

its its

games games

if if

the the anecdotal anecdotal

the the

the the

callously callously

would would

(easily (easily

was was

crucial crucial

mild. mild.

man man

his his

analytical analytical

of of

men men

a a

abuse, abuse,

of of

a a

they they

he he

attention attention

12.3-13. 12.3-13.

cwzhlas: cwzhlas:

The The

12-13, 12-13,

(27.4). (27.4).

as as

:Thracian' :Thracian'

necessarily necessarily

less less

before before

conduct conduct

have have

lobster, lobster,

alive alive

facto facto

of of

criminals criminals

cases cases

prefers prefers

terrifying terrifying

primarily primarily

constantly constantly

restraint. restraint.

On On a a

Augustus Augustus

had had

calling calling

that that

Claudius' Claudius'

applaud applaud

de de

not not

what what

the the

Dam. Dam.

picture picture

Caligula Caligula

style3o style3o

opponents, opponents,

played played

is is

Vesp. Vesp.

He He

the the

were were

Suetonius' Suetonius'

on on

insulting insulting

burnt burnt

letter letter

narrow narrow

and and

analysis analysis

Rhodes Rhodes

against against

then, then,

Suetonius' Suetonius'

and and

expense expense

Caesars Caesars

moral moral

0.1, 0.1,

were were

1.4 1.4

follows. follows.

better, better,

I I

m m

special special

(60). (60).

vivid vivid

One One

clemency clemency

for for

dinner dinner

an an

power power

too too

show show

sen~torial sen~torial

at at

see see

Suetomus Suetomus

displeasure. displeasure.

bias bias

as as

his his

by by

not, not,

cruelty), cruelty),

a a

great. great.

a a

Cl. Cl.

no. no.

). ).

plebeians: plebeians:

condemned condemned

Others Others

powers. powers.

political political

mullet mullet

Ner. Ner.

to to

Imperial Imperial

at at

and and

They They

readership readership

are are

his his

describing describing

as as

at at

and and

up up

Caligula Caligula

a a

and and

catch catch

disposition disposition

look look

are are

offer offer

on on

from from

subjects, subjects,

of of

scurrilous scurrilous

killed killed

two two

Ttbenus Ttbenus

(27.1 (27.1

of of

check check

his his

famous famous

3S.I), 3S.I),

well well

not not

him him

on on

by by

in in

(51.1). (51.1).

incur incur

unlimited unlimited

own own

then. then.

(pride (pride

emperors emperors

their their

biographer's biographer's

They They

the the

cruelty cruelty

chapters chapters

focus focus

as as

high high

to to

behaved. behaved.

Domitian,, Domitian,,

e~tendre e~tendre

populace populace

1,-3 1,-3

do do

emperor's emperor's

natural natural

highly highly

Germantcus, Germantcus,

but but

absolute, absolute,

giving giving

.his .his

declaring declaring

matter matter

chapters chapters

by by

the the

kept kept

conjuring conjuring

on on

a a

22-6 22-6

ll. ll.

the the

The The

a a

the the

plebeians plebeians

the the

too too

treatment treatment

offered offered

vicious vicious

that that

of of

for for

~.3). ~.3).

ruler ruler

not not

and and

,b. ,b.

through through

not not

for for

wielded wielded

things things

relevant relevant

is is

father father

with with

(~ontrasting (~ontrasting

They They

Cal. Cal.

by by

l l

a a

powers. powers.

towards towards

amphitheatre amphitheatre

~1 ~1

double double

book) book)

for for

s s

is is

it it

felt felt

less less

a a rose rose

happened happened

some some

The The

probably probably

face face

effect effect

the the

cha~ters cha~ters

also, also,

way way

76-9, 76-9,

cnllclSlng cnllclSlng

no no

Padua Padua

12.1-2 12.1-2

small small

Suetonius' Suetonius'

30. 30.

fisherman fisherman

broademng broademng

the the

his his

Novatus Novatus 162 162

the the

be be

history history

emperor emperor

the the

in in

for for

had had

was was

for for

They They of of

meat meat

cl.emency cl.emency

affected affected

Gree~~ Gree~~

aristocracy. aristocracy.

made made power power

who who

chance chance

autocrat autocrat

arbitrary arbitrary

alleged. alleged.

emperor's emperor's

Ci. Ci.

jud~cial jud~cial

note note

Cahgula Cahgula

When When

jul. jul. Caesars Caesars 164 Suetonzus 7. Virtues and Vlces 165 information by anecdotal material, not all of it necessarily drawn Such items do much to bring alive a picture of the emperor in from the histories, depicting the social etiquette of the behaviour of his everyday surroundings. We owe them to the biographer's eye emperors in contact with the upper classes. Augustus and Tiberius for small detail, and perhaps also to the courtier's appreciation of are nicely described exchanging courtesies with the aristocracy. the texture of court life. The author's enthusiasm for the ideal of Augustus walked round the senate house greeting individual oenators civility fits in with the enthusiasm for traditional social values by name, accepted invitations to people's celebrations until he grew manifest elsewhere in the Caesars. It is valuable evidence that there old and found the press of guests at an engagement party tiresome, was nothing exclusively senatorial about this ideal. Even if there and sat at the bedside of a junior senator he hardly knew to dissuade were courtiers in some reigns who pressed on the emperor the him from suicide (53.3). Tiberius would step aside to make way for desirability of maintaining his distance, Suetonius was not one of the consuls, and followed the funerals of distinguished men as far them. He wholeheartedly embraces the ideal set out at length in as the pyre (31.2-32.1). Claudius made a great issue of his own Pliny's Panegync, welcoming Trajan as a ruler who conducted civility, yet spoilt the show by attending dinner parties with a himself as 'one of us', a fellow-citizen, modest and sociable35 bodyguard and searching the beds of the sick men he visited for It is his rubric method which allows him to isolate patterns of concealed weapons (35.1 ). On the other hand there is the ceremonial conduct which in historians and even in the Panegyric are interwoven that grew up round the person of the ruler. Caligula caused shock with numerous other themes. But the novel method of presentation by allowing ex-magistrates to run in attendance on his chariot (26.2) also brings with it a subtle shift of emphasis. What he documents whereas Augustus quietly entered the city at night to avoid troubling is a moral quality, civilitas. He appears indeed to have coined the people, and travelled round the city in a closed litter (53.2). Tiberius term; previous authors speak of emperors acting 'civilly', in various would allow no senator the trouble of attending his sedan (27). To respects, but this is the first time that 'civility' emerges as a moral pay respects to the emperor at his morning salutation was a privilege, quality. The underlying assumption is that there was a fixed social and Augustus won credit by his ease of admission (53.2). But etiquette to which the good emperor would conform, and which the Claudius had callers frisked (35.2), a habit which Vespasian credit­ bad one would reject. ably abandoned ( 12).33 What disappears from sight in the process is the awareness that Mostly it is the upper classes who are involved in such social any particular act of 'civility' might be a carefully thought-out move rituals. But a civil emperor was also affable to the plebs. Augustus in a game. Asinius Gallus proposed in the senate that Tiberius admitted the humble to his salutations and exchanged relaxed banter should have the power of nominating a number of magistrates five with petitioners (53.2). Similarly Nero admitted the general public years in advance. On Tacitus' showing it was a shrewd move that to watch his physical and rhetorical exercises ( 1 0.2), while Titus thrust at the secrets of power. Tiberius felt challenged, and made admitted them to public bathing sessions (8.2). Augustus delighted an elaborate refusal on the grounds that his power ought not to be the public by canvassing the electorate for his candidates and placing amplified; and so, by a speciously laudable speech, he held on to his own ballot in the box (56.1 ). The emperor's conduct at the the realities of power (Ann. 2.36). The episode is characteristic of games belongs to the same pattern. It was part of Titus' affability Tacitus' treatment of Tiberi us' 'moderation'. He sees his civil words that he humoured the crowd by cheering for his favourite teams and gestures as smoke thrown in the eyes of the senate while he (8.2). Domitian's arrogance led him to turn down a request from reinforced his actual domination. Tacitus thus subtly penetrates the the crowd with a peremptory command for silence (13.1 ). 34 nature of civility. No emperor by his gestures actually diminished . 33. Imperial etiquette and ceremonial are described fully in Friedliinder, Szttengercluchte 1, 90ff. (Ltfe and i'v1anners 1, 86ff.). The evidence is used imperial image is argued by P. Veyne, Le pain el le cirque 682ff. See also by Alfiildi, iVlonarchlrche Reprasenlation 27ff. to emphasise the ceremonial Bradley (1981). elements. 35. On the ideal in the Panegync, see F. Trisoglio, La persona/ita dz Plinm 34. The significance of imperial civility at the games is discussed bv A. II GioDane (1972) 85ff. The most important passages are Pan. 2.3-8; 20-4; 71.

Cam~ron,Circus Factions 175ff., tracing a line of continuity from the ~arly For the idea that courtiers might resist civility, cf. SH A lladrzan 20.1, Pws prmctp.11e to Byzanttum. That the games were a pnme venue for exalt in!.'; the 6.4, Se1'. Alex. 20.3 so

of

m

on has

for

on

the

the and

old

the

Res

167

and and

.use

and

Kloft,

.

'how

1s

There

there

(30.2)

tax

this

of

the

budget.

t~e.

that possible

that

H.

800,000

ewes a

types

not

treasury,

.

balanc:ed

posmvely

Augustus

But

neutrality do~~tives

office

Suetomus 431. but

significant

•

introduced

to

visit

by a

hehaviour.

the

is

apprectated

the

by

of

frustratingly

been

not

benefactton

stmdarl~

knew

property;

show

liberality

ol

RG,

double

his

same

atd

for

Aug.

is

what

1f

(collatwnes) for

him

these property

public

revenue-ratsmg:

to

taxes,

of

(12.3). sale to

at

the

have

both

spent

apparent

not of introdu~ed

for

The

for

here

of the. land-settlements could

old

the the

of

revenue-ra1smg

analysing

hberahty IS

during appreciated

p~ttern

he

cases

demonstratmg

the

vague,

tmpenal

certainly

~f

to use

games-givi.ng, taxation

senators;

figures is in

totals

directly

aspects

loo~

whether

would a

1s

One

and of rich, by

some

types

musician

it

38

S's

that

on figures

plebs,

to

the

a

methods some he

question

budget cited

of

used

the

or contributions

behind

614f.

almo~t

tmpenal

a

in

41

for

main

Tiridates

city

Tttus

(

of

poets.

liberality

building,

revived

det~il

presentation

of

he

different The

133ff.

and Again,

interested

only

the

tipped But extent

of

spending

of Even

1932)

con.fisc.ation

the

subventions figures,

( frequently,

of

auctionmg

tempting

details

impoverished certainly)

corruption.

dernons.trate

standard

not

the

tribute

figures

own

varied

reign: For

and

study

is information

granted

no

to

of

the

and

moral.

(23.3).

though on

to

it

'voluntary'

Galba

the

execution bad?'.

V1rtues these Emperor

protesting his

can

quite corn,

colourful

budget.

Vespasian

77ff.

are

support The

Funaioli

imperial or (almost

to

of

7.

daily

breakdown

simply But

the of

recent

precise

the

that for

the

forms

is

reign

subject, straits grants

debate

of

a see

is

troops

esp.

largesses that

inheritance;

which

enough S's

provincial

and

Millar,

there

good

figures

of

out

give

categorisation

the

Nero

guide primarily

of

material

from

dire

from imperial basis

the

figures.

told see

preserved

other

levying

to Gerlae

a away:

is

set

good

But

on

in

silenced

'how

to

building.

raised

the

gives the

neat

are

the

denarii

as

).

prolonged

value

hand-outs Principis bounties;

Res

and

the

author

recur died

which apart

a

disaster;

of

but Augustus'

and

as

occasions;

which

breakdown

biographer

unscrupulous

He

overall smelt

and

We

and

five

the

The

The

of of

(16.1 it

concern

since

other

once

no

largess

Suetonius the

the

The

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39.

38.

His was

long much?' money inadequate, level revenue-raising, urinals for on veterans, Liberalitas Gestae level games vague. changes,

sesterces or others analysis are offe;s. conveniently for time special taxation; condemned; liberality used and

Suetonius presented, Suetonius'

judgment

'rhus

a

e

to

1

his

in

not act:

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·

him

th

ers,

54

long

good vital

.ge;

with

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dual 10

was

1

38-9

pays,

of

to

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general

position

the

refusing

Ro

did

civihtas

Caligula

civiliter

explain~ seeks positive

involved

had

enus

h

financial 33

motive

and

the w·asteful

The

emperor,

al!'ow

in V

a:;sembles,

jul

of

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of

1

as

readily

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R.S.

the

their in is

word

he bundles'.

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civilitv

, that

4-S.

not

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arrogant,

chapters

It

on

see

4nn

41-3

'Civilis

was,

Tacitus

'ck

1

the

Every

1977)

games:

more

Tacitus'

(

469ff.

and

sentiments posing

devices.

are

not

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restraint

Lev·

see

does

principate

deceived.

uses

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term views

Aug

38-4.2,

·

behaviour

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Tiberi~s

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gestures

by

B

involved

mans

deal

the

1972)

be titles

genuineness

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( the

I.

Claudius'

Tiberius,

with revenue.

only

The

Cal.

credit·

be

consolidated The

to

is

8.5-9.1, does

of

doles

relevant

acceptable.

of 13.

by civil

categorisation.

behaviour narrative. Reek

with

the 106

into

civility

'

that .,

great

of

autocratic

Tacitus')

real

bv

46-9, Vit.

once

17

Also

Liberalitas:

reflects

Vesp.

a

must

Tacitus

the underestimating

behave of

more of

reign, contrary,

60ff

orders.

Torino

Tacitus.

sufficient

actually

If

Ttb.

emperor

states

30-1, length

Only system that

Buildings,

~ccurrence

preferred

text,

the

therefore

Sc.

The

16-19.

(unlike

Tiberius' 11-13,

at 'gathered

enough.

'moderation'

54,

'bad',

follows.

Suetonzus

the

than

(1943)

upper

the should

Ner.

own and Ac.

is counterproductive.36 on

Tibenus Finances

presupposes

6.13.

noted

chronological they eve.ry

Tiberius'

as

the

order.

s or probably

and

raising

of

Ner.

jul.

that

hypocrisy

Vesp.

the

themselves

S'

37,

to to

sham.

that of

Alit

emperors

are

liberality.

to

been

of

thus

method

3.22,

and

?f ts

nearly

the examined

~0-l,

evidence

T;benu.>

almo.st

depnve Cal.

(42.1),

as merely

power;

1t

'good'

lend

.

than

emperor

has

his

to etiquette

thinks

of

At

are

Ct.

Av?nlw:

2.82,

the

It

more

sections

reference

his.

was

the

Suetonius

?·

Svetonio'!

rated

fraudulent,

established

treatment

the

Undec1ded: attentiOn

method

But t.o?

e

89.

eleme~t

approval

of e

of.preservatwn rubnc

)

4.21,

through

I

Rergn

have

to

mdispensable

).

not

6.

:-vlth

the dtstmcttons,

another

Caesars

that

3.76.

whether

Itt

17.2-21,

the

apparent

dealing.s

(nepotalus):

t.h~

Dam.

I'

His

by

expenditure

IS

to

sense

hypocnsy.

the

relevant

or see

state

Jt;

Tacllo

with

herein hypocnttcal

Tacitus'

for (197 12:1-2.

the

a

oo

of

(35.1

t

been

Cal.

was

m

In

to

Domlttan

real~ty of

won

the

· A.nnals

bad.

m

On here more

The

with

2.?4

· Suetonius

29,

conform expose

matter

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ver,

7.3-8.1,

by

means

Do'!~.

tiJcwn

166

the

the

36:

{

autocratiC and

and

terms,

to show

the

not to

37.

c?ntempora:ies.

smce o

ne.ed thmg respect

was

Financial

treatment

help

process

no

R Studzes . ~~

CI~tlnas Tzt.

12, this unmaskmg

1.72,

one

away expenditure Aug.

extravagance howe conduct as in

to as

no

on on

his 'he

the not

this 169

lust

that

42),

who

with

(42). with least

(

helps

quite were

taxes

is

(Pan.

Sal

taking

of

in

said (16.2).

at

rich

between

Trajan. sure

actually

building

of'

is

is

man

was

knew

Vespasian for

appointed

ruinous

that

move

course,

the

procurators

innovations

prostitution

his

exactions

none extortion, Augustus:

thunder the

demonstrated support

He

of 1.2).

make

of

daughter

never

and contrast the

Pliny's Nero liberality. was

Domitian,

to

is

by to

sponges'

contributions and

Vespasian's

unheard these

his

in his

praised

magnificent

he about

as for

however,

true

But

unjust (Ann.

Suetonius

recognisable

longer

him

'Let's

in

is

is 'like

Nero

games.

for

rebukes

means,

Through

under ).

popular

supposedly for

and

no

no

he

he holds

corn'

of activities

resorted

executions

(aedzficando),

and

later extorted publish realistic

drive had

implicit

(32.1

This

porterage

Vices

'new

hardly

as

dowry

building, is

to he

extortion, criteria

with liberality

employment

make

(opera).

a

dry

work

streets

is these

and

they

below.

to

too the

circumstances:

collations. people',

Nero

and contrast

Nevertheless,

and for

(7.3).

such

Vespasian

of

the

that

fantastically,

purchase

tax-gathering.

see

(as

buildings people

Caligula them

dangers as

Private the

failure

encouragement

should and

public

down

provide

little of litigation,

and

the

the

same Caligula's Gestae the

but

building

by

(12).

largess

Tacitus

directly

his

the emperor in

citizen

to tyrant, either

such

of

of

luxury

Titus,

lays

house-building Virtues

(18).

my

and

but

54.

The

Res

an (38.1) customary

squeeze

masonry

7.

the

for

foods, political was

But (32.4)

).

Whereas

his leads

with

public

to

feed

emperor

gifts

of

single much

1.42-6

between

case

desire justified

the

as

the

treatment

(31

as

taxation,

the liberal. imperial

a

left'

me

grounds,

Domitian

house-building;

be

the

suspicion

Catlltne

of

to with invention

from them

his

41

be

order

cooked

by

typified

in Caligula

even

OjjiClls

emperor

charges. 'Let

from

in

contrast

spending

much

of

for that impoverish Palatine).

of

with

palaces

de

might

penny

marginal

troops

that

an controlled

the

remitted so

Caesar:

matter spurious

of

a

a

Suetonius'

wagonloads

attitudes

should

the

manifest

ones

42

sale

the

on cases

sparing refused

penny

Augustus

could

unacceptable,

he

appointed taxes

credit

Cicero

he

On

and

corn-dole

has

is

a

most

the

anxious

The

the

Wasteful

labour-saving

41.

42.

the

transformation.

The programme. they happened He explain nothing

criticises rebuilt gets a passing another 51.1-3)

erection that in not as that

trumped-up

the exactions have Titus

perhaps emperors reAects corrupt Now one were

Cato seduced on

of to

to

to to

40

in

the

On the the

and

was

The

Vice

these

have

or

Thus right

same

hand­ on

Szlver shows

Palace

it

orders

(to routine

them

of

policy depends evidence ('avarice

extrava­

06ff.

PnncipH strict

criticised

we

on

on 1

the

when

entourage

His

all

difficult

Augustus'

Suetonius'

hberalilatn

is goes palace

abolishing

popularity

as Yet mean.

evidence

as

is

Roman rebuked

loans

extravagance

other

bad

his put

was

us

Golden

on

He

details

behind that

1978) It

from spent

avantza

to

buy

specze or

this

the from bad.

rates he

or monetary

).

spent.

discounted.

with,

normally

the

be with

Lzberalzlas

of

unacceptable. virtuous

avarice. pro implicit.

to

of wine,

Tiberi

be

it

on stress 41.1

and

appearing

as moves (

build

revenue-raising,

enough

good are confused:

luxuna

were

dealt

and Supp.40,

to

out

again

Kloft, apparent truly

imperial

to

dilemma.

deterred

most

interest-free

meanness

should

also

a

treats

favourites

good

expenditure

are

1.30,

see simply

are

into

A1etrology

is easily

and

parslmonw

for

only ample

principem):

pains relate

only

his

subsidised

senators

significant.

and economy Reports,

means

takes

failure to

The

activities

Suetonius

Hist.

.37,

at

to

is

money

expenditure plebs to

1

was

without were

for specifies

acceptable was

classes

of

is

should

extortionate

no he

his

Tac.

he

it

categories,

and

these and

that

Suetonius Moreover,

provides

measures

criticised

the presuppositions

treatment

and attempt

by

luxurious

cf.

Walker,

for estates

category grants

knew,

is

he

of

liberality,

that

that ambitiosum

as

of simultaneously

demand

moral

grounds

job'.

without

vice,

more

tax-payer

was

is

troops Archaeological

and

as

generosity

benefaction. D.R.

moral

propertied

Suetonius is

emperors,

games-giving

moral

liberality')

the

to

Galba than

and the

'the

financial

generosity:

interesting bounties,

the

the quam

though

ancients criticism

of

that

criteria

its

Suetonius'

cares

of

on

and

of

man

liberal

an

of of

of

granting

strong (British

his

most

of

the of excessive

classified

virtue

Yet

a

He only

guise

vaguely. for

conventional be categories,

objects

Augustus

III

as is

of

part

magis

an

implication

for

out

although

pocket

root represented

partly argued

merited

from

the

to

presumably)

the

also that

liberalities

thrift').

Nero's as

building

Part

for in

(30.2).

rubrics,

that be

moral

the

merits

the The

and

rather

as

On See

of

proper virtue,

);

conventional

mean

liberality.

his distribution

At

confusion

Cicero

40.

ling

(47). of 168 liberality Nero as activities (12.3), of (31 affairs entourage

gance confess preoccupations spare difficult could and categorisation

on

recipient

and assumption. massive benefited wealthy, seen, (salubrem people stress

his 136ff.

Coinage posing the ancient ('luxury

in in

in in

of of

of of

he he

22, 22,

for for

and and

this this are are

the the

here here

half half

171 171

that that

area area

7.1-2. 7.1-2.

Even Even

'reign' 'reign'

Nero. Nero.

docu­

areas areas

whole whole

tone tone

a a

fond fond

Galb. Galb.

parties: parties:

valuable valuable

facts facts question question

different different

Tzb. Tzb.

p~tterns, p~tterns,

tmpenal tmpenal

of of

only only

and and

critical, critical,

Augustus' Augustus'

mam mam

the the

prehistoric prehistoric

(83): (83):

sustain sustain so so

those those

significance, significance,

matters matters

was was

biographer's biographer's

Behind Behind

significance significance

It It

13, 13,

extravagance extravagance

for for

of of

32-3, 32-3,

weakness weakness

idea idea

dispassionate, dispassionate,

of of

accusauons accusauons

is is

The The

in in

tell tell

he he extravagance extravagance or

a a

might might

not not

authenticity: authenticity:

the the

rather rather

Cl. Cl.

objective objective

Vzt. Vzt.

the the

the the

bill bill

proposition proposition

fourth fourth

the the

what what

public public int~rested. int~rested.

generally generally

a a

establish establish

public public

Caligula Caligula

best best

dwarves dwarves

did did

his his

but but

bones bones is is

the the

never never

of of

to to

conscientiously conscientiously

some some

chapter. chapter.

the the

their their

of of

finances. finances.

But But

the the

(61-96) (61-96)

private. private.

68-78, 68-78,

us, us,

The The

off off

remains remains

wtth wtth

27-31, 27-31,

(72.3), (72.3),

he he

as as

description description

the the

of of

foot foot

with. with.

assumes assumes

but but

on on

for for

last last

indulgence indulgence

used used

Aug. Aug.

could could

to to

tone. tone.

/Ver. /Ver.

abandoned abandoned

pays pays

that that

demands demands

he he

is, is,

detail detail

Tiberi Tiberi

Vices Vices (45.3-53) (45.3-53)

like like

The The

Indeed Indeed

arena arena

matter matter

be be

the the

45 45

treat~d treat~d

reputation; reputation;

abandons abandons

(68-71). (68-71).

statues statues

he he

sold sold

it it

a a

of of

imperial imperial

'nuts' 'nuts'

correspondence correspondence

had had

their their

tone: tone:

36-7, 36-7,

all. all.

overtones. overtones.

his his

something something

merely merely

are are

Suetonius Suetonius

life. life.

anxieties anxieties

for for

of of

and and

can can

lust', lust',

be be

Julius Julius

and and

at at

of of

lives lives

as as minute minute

lives, lives,

what what

because because

Cal. Cal.

own own

of of

dicing dicing

Once Once

to to

the the

Suetonius Suetonius

political political

approach approach

regretted regretted

life life

and and

informative informative

life. life.

playing playing

so so

the the

Pleasures

days, days,

items items

lie lie

curiosities, curiosities,

for for

public public

and and

Suetonius Suetonius

be be

the the

political political

42-5, 42-5,

relished relished

ultimately ultimately

vice, vice,

discussing discussing

Virtues Virtues

by by reserved reserved

this this

for for

dry dry

public public

dispassionate dispassionate

ruler, ruler,

of of

account account

treated treated

to to

a a

catalogues catalogues

does does

paintings paintings

to to

7. 7.

in in

extravagance extravagance

public public

with with

why why

Tzb. Tzb.

be be

small small

is is

his his

with with

virtue virtue

as as

who who

'luxury 'luxury

emperors emperors

repercussions repercussions

emperor's emperor's

The The

to to

analytical analytical

facts, facts,

more more

He He

it it

it it

their their

feel, feel,

massive massive

touches touches

and and

lurid lurid

invective invective

a a

of of

than than

model model

relaxed relaxed

and and

will will

triumviral triumviral

the the

context context

of of

extravagance. extravagance.

its its

a a house house

vice, vice,

21-2. 21-2.

approach approach

reason reason

lust lust

where where

public public

the the

relevance relevance

with with

the the

lives. lives. may may

of of

passages: passages:

fraught fraught

in in

vice vice

the the

and and

and and

simple simple

belongs belongs

property property

categories categories

regarded regarded

his his

sustain sustain

the the

and and

was was

the the

life life because because

rather rather

from from

up up

of of

Dam. Dam.

and and

we we

it it

in in

not not

of of

to to

as as

life life

context context

discussion discussion

was was

lives lives

Luxury, Luxury,

see see

21, 21,

is, is,

indulgence indulgence

antiquarian's antiquarian's

restricted restricted

(76.1) (76.1)

'tyrant' 'tyrant'

are are

moral moral

including including

following following

the the

men men

to to

tyrannical tyrannical

It It

public public

45. 45.

of of

the the

is is

and and

Vesp. Vesp.

in in

By By

schema, schema,

what what

menting menting

dispassionate dispassionate

is is

Other Other

showing showing figs figs

immorality immorality

where where sensitive sensitive

the the

animals, animals,

precisely precisely

private private

decorated decorated

whether whether

ofTered ofTered belongs belongs

treatment, treatment,

of of

and and

The The

of of

truth. truth.

Augustus Augustus

language language

liberality liberality

the the

use use

it it

by by

he he

by by

the the

the the

the the

had had

sort sort

lets lets

Dio Dio

Not Not

with with

Pan. Pan.

Note Note

32.2, 32.2,

it it

here, here,

ways ways

fleece fleece

make make

(Pan. (Pan.

rlown rlown

open­

moral moral

Other Other

further further

he he

for for Rogers, Rogers,

(341) (341)

a! a!

attacks attacks

this this

Tacitus' Tacitus'

that that

authors authors

tax, tax,

nothing nothing

prilctice prilctice

to to

Romans Romans

here here

Ner. Ner.

receiving receiving

12.1. 12.1.

Pliny Pliny

not not

citizen citizen

the the

See See

Rejmblicrzn Rejmblicrzn

3). 3).

truth. truth.

changed changed

of of

R.S. R.S.

not not

inheritance inheritance

He He

objectionable objectionable

resentment. resentment.

with with

contrast contrast

centuries, centuries,

rlepicted rlepicted

in in

right right

blame blame

tax tax

says says

in in

men men

the the

living living

is is

38.2, 38.2,

achieved achieved

against against

in in

see see

Dam. Dam.

that that

turning turning

3.23. 3.23.

ideal, ideal,

to to

(101 (101

ancient ancient

liberality liberality

wars wars

most most

he he

corle corle

and and

cent cent

two two

sheep, sheep,

the the

revealed revealed

us us

he he

that that

whole whole

provisions provisions

Elsewhere Elsewhere

32, 32,

irleal irleal

the the

in in

Cal. Cal.

direct direct

hereditatum hereditatum

proof proof

lerlger. lerlger.

All All

and and

Ann. Ann.

are are

contrasts contrasts

per per Cztzzen Cztzzen

civil civil

forcing forcing

suppresses suppresses

fact fact

Yet Yet

the the

Pliny, Pliny,

notable notable

will will

For For

that that

their their

S S

the the

Ner. Ner.

years years

emperors emperors

public public

was was

e.g. e.g.

first first

nearly nearly

by by

the the

the the

the the

Suetoni Suetoni

that that

of of

economical economical

to to

but but

his his

inheritances, inheritances,

when when

practice, practice,

to to

mind. mind.

of of

9.2). 9.2).

than than

more more

laudable laudable

unwritten unwritten

of of

one one

38.3, 38.3,

of of

new new

uicesima uicesima

opposition opposition

for for

of of

liberalities; liberalities;

extortion. extortion.

shear shear

standard standard

Augustus Augustus

The The

so so

and and

commonest commonest

bad bad

BC BC

balance. balance.

the the

over over

his his

twenty twenty

:\n :\n

of of

to to

of of

the the

less less

Cal. Cal.

income income

new new

his his

remarked remarked

condemn, condemn,

World World

is is

easy easy

standards, standards,

the the

43 43

). ).

sides sides

of of

bitter bitter

peace peace

of of

For For

(46-8); (46-8);

of of

in in

relation relation

to to

49, 49,

ideal ideal

modern modern

practices practices

Even Even

of of

morlel morlel

the the

contrast contrast

tells tells

categories categories

principles, principles,

of of an an

books books

The The

a a

and and

importance importance

high high

one one

practice practice

40-1 40-1

success, success,

veterans. veterans.

in in

( (

Tib. Tib.

the the

both both

the the On On

the the

140fT. 140fT.

treatment treatment

Suelonius Suelonius of of

as as

his his

close close

perhaps perhaps

his his

the the

shows, shows,

high high

;ilso ;ilso

). ). Tiberius Tiberius

to to

167 167

wonder, wonder,

source source

avoidance avoidance

to to

governors governors

to to

time time

extent extent

it it

such such

(66.4). (66.4).

million million

of of

a a

moral moral

set set

out out

of of

are are

code code

disinclined disinclined

in in

Nicolet, Nicolet,

to to

n.41 n.41

script script

his his

1947) 1947)

meanness meanness

himself himself

rich rich

bear bear

the the

( (

make make

is is

introrluction introrluction

not not

earlier earlier

seem seem

the the the the

rich rich

C. C.

was was

S S

economy economy

78 78

documents: documents:

pay pay

between between

guarantee guarantee

for for

favourable favourable

told told

this this

was was

bounties bounties

narrative narrative

his his

3 3

It It

S S

laying laying

the the

emphasises emphasises

Augustus Augustus

(above (above

4

For For

reactions reactions

to to

was was

they they

4-6; 4-6; allowance allowance

could could

S's S's

treatment treatment

alludes alludes

hundred hundred

Ass. Ass.

strangers strangers

scrupulous scrupulous

of of

of of

pay pay

of of

in in

Augustus Augustus

whom whom criteria criteria

minutest minutest

obscure obscure

anrl anrl

44 44

simply simply

to to

184f. 184f.

(13). (13).

Dio's Dio's

would would

his his

abuses abuses

heirs.

feat feat

Phll. Phll.

he he

personal personal

only only

bitterly bitterly

asked asked

the the

56.28, 56.28,

1962). 1962).

(abandoning (abandoning

from from

Trajan. Trajan.

as as

Tiberius Tiberius

of of

behinrl behinrl

financed financed

( (

critical critical

tax tax

exploited exploited

not not

though though

Trajan Trajan

grudging grudging

in in

context context

assessment assessment

1980) 1980)

honest honest

in in

Am. Am.

(49.2).

(32.2), (32.2),

their their

fourteen fourteen

( (

and and

is is

S's S's

12.2 12.2

The The

Executions Executions

does does

lies lies

been been

handling handling

that that

that that

Vespasian, Vespasian,

this this

direct direct

It It

). ).

Suetonius' Suetonius'

temptation temptation

tyrannical tyrannical

43. 43.

44. 44.

His His

them them

hiirl hiirl

in in

41 41

army army Pliny Pliny

tax tax

strange strange

handed handed

frugality, frugality,

Trans. Trans.

Suetonius Suetonius them them arouserl, arouserl, disposition disposition

Tiberius Tiberius

only only

170 170

Dam. Dam.

Rome Rome quite quite

inheritances. inheritances. took took slip slip

that that

evirlence evirlence

bequests bequests

also also

55.25 55.25 Caesars Caesars 43. 43.

Townend Townend

Tacitus' Tacitus' of of

except except

no no

SIIU;Jtl011. SIIU;Jtl011. cynical cynical of of 772 Suetonzus 7. Virtues and 773 and herein he reAects the general assumption of antiquity. Behind members of the senate, and they lay wide open to the charge of this were several, overlapping considerations.46 hypocrisy if their own conduct was anything less than exemplary. The first was crudely financial. 'Luxury' was a competitive Even Tiberius knew this much: his supporter Velleius praised him business, a rivalry in displaying wealth and refinement. It could for setting a model, and Suetonius records that he served reheated lead to crippling expense. Suetonius states that the extravagance of dtshes at a formal dinner as an example of public economy (34.1 ). Caligula, who squandered a reserve of twenty-seven hundred million Yet he failed to carry conviction. It was in the middle of a 'moral sesterces accumulated by his predecessor (37), and of Nero, who purge' that he awarded key posts to two senators who had kept him 4 followed the same pattern (30.1 ), led directly to fiscal crisis and company in an all-night drinking party ( 42.1 ). 8 extortion. We have no notion of the proportion of the imperial There was a further, practical, objection to la dolce vita. 'l}ow budget that might be spent on the palace, entertainment and other may a king avoid turning to idleness and pleasures?' asks Ptolemy 'luxuries' but there is no reason to doubt that it could be substantial. Philadelphus in a fictional dialogue with a group of Jewish savants. Seneca makes the staggering allegation that Caligula spent the 'By remembering that he rules a large and populous realm and tribute of three provinces on a single dinner. Whether true or not, should put his mind to nothing other than the care of his people.' this shows how Romans felt about imperial luxury. Pliny, as we The conscientious ruler had a tremendous burden of work which have seen, proclaimed that it was by personal frugality that the put heavy demands on his physical endurance. Trajan, according to liberal Trajan made the accounts balance; he even auctioned off Pliny, set the pace for future princes, to shake off their inertia, surplus property and palace furniture. A papyrus has been found delights and sweet slumber. Marcus warns himself in his private in which an anonymous emperor announces a remission of taxes 1\

46. That luxury (tryphe) was a prime cause of undoing for governments was a commonplace of hellenistic historiography, as can be seen in the book of 48. Pliny Pan. 83.1 on the exposure of the em2eror's private life. It is a quotations on the subject collected by Athenaeus, Derpnosophrsls 12. Discussed traditional topic, met for example in Cicero de Ojjzc11r 2.44, Sallust Catllme by A. Passerini, 'La tryphe nella storiografia ellenistica', Str.dz !lahani ril 51.12, Seneca de C!emenlza 1.8.3f., Cassius Dio 52.34.2-3 (Maecenas' speech). Frlologia Classica II ( 1934) 35ff. h also became a commonplace of Roman For the idea that subjects modelled themselves on the ruler, see below, ch.8, republican moralising thought, in the elder Cato (Livy 344.2), the annalist n.3. What S means by Tiberius' moral purge (correctzo morum) is not quite Piso (frr. 34 and 38), Sallust and Livy himself. Thus D. Earl, The p,fitrcal clear stnce Tamus states that he refused to take on any such responsibilities: of Sal/us/ (1961) 41fT. Ann.3.52-5. On the tdea of regal hypocrisy, cf. !socrates, Nicocles 38: 'Kings 47. Seneca, Consolatio ad Helz•wm 10.4 for Caligula's banquet: Pliny, are qUite wrong to compel others to behave decently without themselves being Pan. 41.1 for frugality; P. Fayum 40, edited by Schubart in Archiv .fiir any more restrained than their subjects' Papyrusforschung 14 ( 1941) 44ff, for the remission of taxes. Trajan's auction 49. For Ptolemy's question, Aristeas, l.elter to Phllocrales 245. Pliny Pan. is described by Pliny Pan. 50; Millar, Emperor 148 assembles evidence of 59.2 and passzm for Trajan's sleepless energy, Marcus, Meditalwns 5.1 for his parallel cases. It is interesting to note that Caligula gets no credit for his warnings to himself, with Fronto de Fenis Alsumszbu.1· (Loeb ed. vol.2, 2ff.) for auctions at Cal. 38.4-39. the tutor's warnings. a a

),

in

for

the

the

not

this

24f.

was

(nor

Can

point (90).

or

in

in

Syme,

private

had

of

(71.1

(1934),

(85.2),

eating,

he

Bradley

Michael

(but

the

prurient

religious

attracted

search

1930)

Augustus of

341;

chronique

(

a

by p~ofessional

Cod

but

a bath

legitimate

his

to

has

gossip.

of

Atticus'

and

of

the

that

subjects,

antiquity

virgins

lightning

entertainment.

heavilv

published

the

popularity

of

one, emperor

opponents

for

Jess (1959)

approach.

Habits

eye

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