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VIRTUE/VICE LISTS Lists of Virtues, Morals, Acts of Obedience, Sins, Wrongdoings, Or Vices

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Lexham Bible Dictionary • Timothy Jacobs • September 1, 2013 VIRTUE/VICE LISTS Lists of virtues, morals, acts of obedience, sins, wrongdoings, or vices. Display a normative ethic focused on good character. Incorporate Hellenistic influence on biblical authors and historical theology. 1. Biblical Lists 2. The Seven Catholic Virtues 3. The Seven Deadly Sins 4. Virtue Ethics 5. Index of Passages 6. Bibliography !!Biblical Lists Ethical lists are prominent in the Bible, especially New Testament Epistles, and should be interpreted as addressing particular people and situations. !!!Interpretation. Virtue and vice lists in the NT are most often for the purpose of typifying ​ righteous and unrighteous lives and should be taken as illustrative rather than exhaustive (see Thompson, Moral Formation according to Paul). Lists of vices are characterizations of those ​ ​ who walk according to the flesh, while virtue lists display the character of those who walk according to the Spirit, the gospel life, and Christian community (Harrington, Paul and Virtue ​ Ethics, 110). Often vice lists are given in contrast with virtue lists in order to instruct individuals ​ on their past life and the life they are to pursue. Ethical lists are prominent in Paul’s epistles as he addresses particular situations and provides specific instruction. In Galatians 5:16–23, Paul contrasts a list of generic works and desires of the flesh with the generic fruit of the Spirit. Though the list addresses the particular Galatian situation, it may be seen as partially depicting the foundations of morality in the imitation of divine characteristics. In 2 Peter 1:5–7 the Apostle Peter presents another list as the foundation of morality including virtue, knowledge, self-control, steadfastness, godliness, brotherly affection, and love. The differences between these two lists show that NT lists illuminate each other as they both overlap and differ. !!!Form and Use. Strict virtue lists are found only in the epistles and may take the form of ​ antithesis (e.g., Gal 5:19–23; Jas 3:13–18), contrast (e.g., Titus 3:1–7), instruction (e.g., 2 Pet 1:5–7) or polemics (e.g., 1 Tim 1:9–10; 6:3–5; 2 Tim 3:2–5). Rhetorical emphasis is accomplished through repetition or rhythmic flow and may employ alliteration, assonance, or inclusio (See Porter, “Vice and Virtue Lists”). The intention for the order of items within a list is seldom discernable, excepting the progressions presented in Phil 4:8 and 2 Pet 1:5–7. Even in these lists it is important to note that their presentations are related to the occasions they address and are not intended to convey a universal hierarchy of virtue. It is possible, however, that certain virtues common throughout the NT, such as faith, love, and endurance, were included in early catechisms as more inclusive virtues. !!!History. The formation of ethical lists began in the Homeric era then developed more fully ​ among the Socratics and post-Socratics, especially the Stoics (see The Seven Catholic Virtues and The Seven Deadly Sins below). Stoicism later influenced hellenistic Jews, such as Philo (c. 20 BC–c. 50 AD). The interaction between Stoics and Christians in the first century lead to the Christian adoption of ethical lists for practical purposes (See Porter, “Vice and Virtue Lists”). Because the recording of ethical lists in the Bible is formally an influence of Hellenism, most lists are found in the NT, though similar lists are also present in the OT. Ethical lists found in Greco-Roman moralists of the first and second century contrast with NT lists by emphasizing “self-help” rather than divinely revealed moral obligation (Harrington, Paul and Virtue Ethics, ​ ​ 113). In the Ancient Near East, one may readily find lists of laws such as in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1772 BC) that that detail the social mores relating to property, family, and social contracts. Other such law codes are the The Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2100 BC, Third Dynasty of Ur), the Sumerian laws of Lipit-Ishtar (c. 1925 BC), the Akkadian laws of Eshnunna (c. 1800 BC) north of Babylon, and the Hittite laws (1650-1200 BC) of Asia Minor. Though these codes do not contain virtue and vice lists proper, they list acceptable and unacceptable behavior. The influence of these contemporary law codes upon the structure of the Mosaic Law is evident while its content stands in contrast: God is described as loving; his people benefit more than he does from their covenant; property violations are not seen as capital offenses; and notably the mention of God’s love and the love he requires from others (see Exod 20; 34:6; Lev 19:1–18; Deut 6:5). The mention of love and the emphasis on motivation and attitude present in the tradition of Israel provide references to virtue that contrast contemporary law codes (see Index of Passages below). !!The Seven Catholic Virtues Christian tradition has formulated a traditional list of four Cardinal Virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance) and three Theological Virtues (faith, hope, and love). The prominence of The Seven Catholic Virtues in historical and modern theology necessitates their address. The Seven Virtues are not to be confused with the Seven Contrary Virtues, explained below. The Seven Virtues are listed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Article ​ ​ 1805 and 1813 as: Cardinal Virtues 1. Prudence (prudentia) ​ ​ 2. Justice (justitia) ​ ​ 3. Fortitude/Courage (fortitudo) ​ ​ 4. Temperance (temperantia) ​ ​ Theological Virtues 5. Faith (fides) ​ ​ 6. Hope (spes) ​ ​ 7. Love/Charity (caritas) ​ ​ !!!Definition. The Cardinal Virtues, or human virtues, are “firm attitudes, stable dispositions, ​ habitual perfections of intellect and will that govern our actions, order our passions, and guide our conduct according to reason and faith” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1804). They ​ ​ constitute the moral life that leads to joy and are rooted in the Theological Virtues. The Theological Virtues are man’s participation in the divine nature with God being their “origin, motive, and object” (1812–13). Where Cardinal Virtues are primarily concerned with this life and relations therein, Theological Virtues are concerned with relationship to God and the character dependant upon that relationship. It is upon the Theological Virtues that all morality ultimately depends. !!!History. Originating in the thought of Plato (ca. 427–347 BC), wisdom, justice, fortitude, and ​ temperance are mentioned as the four primary virtues for the wellbeing of a city-state (Republic ​ 4.427e). Plato’s student, Aristotle (384–322 BC), added magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, and prudence (Rhetoric, 1366b). Cicero (106–43 BC) reduced them back to the ​ ​ original four (De Inventione, II, LIII). The hellenistic Jew Philo (ca. 20 BC–ca. AD 50) adopted the four virtues lust, sorrow, greed, and fear (Porter, 4). Plato’s four virtues are listed in the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon 8:7 and with slight changes in 4 Maccabees 1:18. Ambrose (AD 337–397) was the first to articulate the four cardinal virtues within the Catholic tradition (Commentary on Luke, V.62). They are mentioned again by Jerome (AD ​ ​ 347/48–419/20; Epp. 52.13, 64.20, 66.3) and Augustine (AD 354–430; De moribus eccl., Chap. ​ ​ ​ ​ xv; see Bejczy, 11–28) and are later discussed in depth by Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225–74) along with the theological virtues (Summa Theologica, II-II.1–170). ​ ​ !!!Similar Lists. With similarities to the Seven Catholic Virtues, the Seven Heavenly Virtues ​ have developed: faith, hope, charity, fortitude, justice, temperance, prudence. Seven Corporal Works of Mercy have also been articulated: feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, give shelter to strangers, clothe the naked, visit the sick, minister to prisoners, and bury the dead. The terms “Seven Heavenly Virtues” and “Seven Holy Virtues” are also variously used in reference to the Catholic Virtues or the Contrary Virtues (discussed below). !!The Seven Deadly Sins In addition to the Seven Catholic Virtues, Christian tradition has formulated Seven Deadly Sins, also called Capital Vices or Sins, from which all other sins spring: Pride, Greed, Envy, Wrath, Lust, Gluttony, Sloth. The Seven Deadly Sins are accompanied by a list of Seven Contrary Virtues. The Seven Deadly Sins are listed in Article 1866 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church as below. The Contrary ​ ​ Virtues are based upon the poem Psychomachia by Prudentius (AD 348–ca. 410). ​ ​ Capital Vices 1. Pride (superbia) ​ ​ 2. Greed/Avarice (avaritia) ​ ​ 3. Envy (invidia) ​ ​ 4. Wrath (ira) ​ ​ 5. Lust (luxuria) ​ 6. Gluttony (gula) ​ ​ 7. Sloth/Acedia (pigritia seu acedia) ​ ​ Contrary Virtues 1. Humility (humilitas) ​ ​ 2. Love/Charity (caritas) ​ ​ 3. Kindness (humanitas) ​ ​ 4. Patience (patientia) ​ ​ 5. Chastity (castitas) ​ ​ 6. Temperance (temperantia) ​ ​ 7. Diligence (industria) ​ ​ !!!Definition. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Capital Sins “are called ​ ​ ​ ‘capital’ because they engender other sins, other vices” (1866). They are not considered distinct from other sins but rather give rise to all sin. In Catholic reckoning, sins divide into mortal or venial sins. Mortal sins turn the heart away from God while venial sins hurt and weaken it. In order for a sin to be mortal it must meet three conditions: (1) it must be grave; (2) the subject must be aware that the action is sin and is grave; (3) the sin must be committed with full and deliberate consent. Any sin that lacks any one of these three criteria is defined as a venial sin. The distinction between mortal and venial does not imply a particular list of sins as with the Cardinal and Theological Virtues. Rather, any of the Seven Deadly Sins may be either mortal or venial depending on their expression (1854–64). What each sin has come to include has undergone continual revision and development as their semantic, psychological, and theological issues have evolved over time, so also their definitions have undergone continual revision and development.
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