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Lifetime Analysis of Energy Storage Systems for Sustainable Transportation

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Lifetime Analysis of Energy Storage Systems for Sustainable Transportation sustainability Article Lifetime Analysis of Energy Storage Systems for Sustainable Transportation Peter Haidl 1,*, Armin Buchroithner 1 , Bernhard Schweighofer 1 , Michael Bader 2 and Hannes Wegleiter 1 1 Institute of Electrical Measurement and Measurement Signal Processing, Energy Aware Systems Group, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria; [email protected] (A.B.); [email protected] (B.S.); [email protected] (H.W.) 2 Institute of Machine Components and Methods of Development, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 15 October 2019; Accepted: 23 November 2019; Published: 27 November 2019 Abstract: On the path to a low-carbon future, advancements in energy storage seem to be achieved on a nearly daily basis. However, for the use-case of sustainable transportation, only a handful of technologies can be considered, as these technologies must be reliable, economical, and suitable for transportation applications. This paper describes the characteristics and aging process of two well-established and commercially available technologies, namely Lithium-Ion batteries and supercaps, and one less known system, flywheel energy storage, in the context of public transit buses. Beyond the obvious use-case of onboard energy storage, stationary buffer storage inside the required fast-charging stations for the electric vehicles is also discussed. Calculations and considerations are based on actual zero-emission buses operating in Graz, Austria. The main influencing parameters and effects related to energy storage aging are analyzed in detail. Based on the discussed aging behavior, advantages, disadvantages, and a techno-economic analysis for both use-cases is presented. A final suitability assessment of each energy storage technology concludes the use-case analysis. Keywords: flywheel energy storage; FESS; e-mobility; battery; supercapacitor; lifetime comparison; charging station; renewable energy storage 1. Introduction Despite the enormous effort put into the reduction of greenhouse gases, CO2 emissions are still increasing. Road transport contributes up to 25 percent to the CO2 emissions and represents one of the fastest-growing economic sectors [1]. A possible strategy to reduce local emissions is to increase the share of electric mobility consistently. Observing the technical developments of zero-emission vehicles in recent years, especially energy storage, has proved to be the bottleneck. Despite intensive research activities, mobile energy storage is still the limiting factor, curbing the success of hybrid and electric vehicles. Since the direct storage of electrical energy can be realized only by the capacitors and coils, indirect storage methods prevail. This means that in a first step, the electrical energy is converted into another form of energy and subsequently stored for later reconversion into electrical energy. In Figure1, a short classification into mechanical, electrochemical, chemical, electrical and thermal energy storage systems is given. When energy storage is discussed in the context of sustainable transportation, the first topic that comes to mind is electrochemical batteries for electric vehicles (EVs). Battery electric vehicles—without a doubt—play an important role in our path towards zero-emission mobility, but many experts agree Sustainability 2019, 11, 6731; doi:10.3390/su11236731 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, 6731 2 of 21 Sustainability 2019, 11, 6731 2 of 21 Sustainability 2019, 11, 6731 2 of 21 experts agree that the energy revolution will require a mix of different energy storage solutions and expertstransportationthat the agree energy that modes, revolution the energy as the will “onerevolu require-sizetion- afits will mix-all require of-solution” different a mix is energy yet of differentto storagebe invented energy solutions [2,3] storage. and transportationsolutions and transportationmodes, as the “one-size-fits-all-solution”modes, as the “one-size-fits-all-solution” is yet to be invented is yet to [2 ,be3]. invented [2,3]. FigureFigure 1. 1. ClassificationClassification of of energy energy storage storage systems systems according according to to energy energy type type,, including examples examples.. Figure 1. Classification of energy storage systems according to energy type, including examples. AA further further classification classification is is made made in in Figure Figure 22,, where where different di fferent energy energy storage storage types types are are shown shown as asa functiona functionA further of oftheir theirclassification power power rating, rating, is made energy energy in Figure content content, 2, wh, and andere thedifferent the consequently consequently-related energy storage-related types typical typical are chargeshown charge asand a functiondischargedischarge of time. time. their The Thepower dotted dotted rating, circle circle energy in in the the content,figure figure represents represents and the consequently-relatedthe the area area of of particular typicalimportance importance charge for for and the the dischargeuseuse-case-case sustainable sustainabletime. The dottedtransportation transportation, circle in, limiting limitingthe figure the the repres number numberents of of the different di ffareaerent of storages storages particular to to batteries, batteries,importance supercaps, supercaps, for the use-caseflywheelflywheels sustainables and and superconducting superconducting transportation, magnetic magnetic limiting energy energy the numb storages storageser of (SMES). (SMES). different Howe However, storagesver, the to batteries, selection selection supercaps,can can further further flywheelsbebe reduced reduced and as superconductingSMES do not yet havemagnetic the maturity energy stor necessary ages (SMES). for a realHowever, implementation the selection [[4,5]4, 5can].. further be reducedBeyondBeyond as the theSMES obvious obvious do not use use-case yet-case have of of the onboard onboard maturi tyenergy energy necessary storage, storage, for astationarystationary real implementation buffer buffer storage storage [4,5]. inside inside the the requiredrequiredBeyond electric electric the vehicleobvious vehicle fast fast-charginguse-case-charging of onboardstations stations willenergy will also also st beorage, bediscussed discussed stationary in Section in buffer Section 3.3. storage 3.3Calculations. Calculations inside andthe requiredconsiderationsand considerations electric are vehicle based are basedfast-charging on onactual actual zerostations zero-emission-emission will also buses be buses discussed operating operating in inSection in Graz, Graz, 3.3. Austria. Austria. Calculations The The main and considerationsinfluencinginfluencing parameters parameters are based and and on effects e ffactualects related related zero-emission to energy busesstorage operating aging are in analyzed Graz, Austria. in detail detail. .The Based Based main on influencingthethe discussed discussed parameters aging aging behavior, behavior, and effects advantages advantages related/disadvantages to/disadvantages, energy storage, and and agingtechno techno-economic are-economic analyzed analysis in analysisdetail. for Basedboth for bothuse on- thecasesuse-cases discussed is presented. is presented. aging behavior,A final A final suitability advantages/disadvantages, suitability assessment assessment of ofeach each and energy energy techno-economic storage storage technology technology analysis concludes concludesfor both use- the the casesuseuse-case-case is presented. analysis. analysis. A final suitability assessment of each energy storage technology concludes the use-case analysis. 1 second 1 minute 1 hour 1 GW106 Large Compressed Air Energy Storage 1 second 1 minute 1 hour 1 day 1 GW106 LargeThermal Compressed Energy AirStorage Energy Storage Li-Ion Batteries 1 day 100 MW105 Thermal Energy Storage Flywheel EnergyLi-Ion Storage Batteries 100 MW105 Supercond. Magnetic Flywheel Energy Storage Energy Storage 1 month Supercond. Magnetic 10 MW104 Energy Storage 1 month 10 MW104 Supercaps 1 MW103 Supercaps Pumped Hydro Storage 1 MW103 Pumped Hydro Storage Rated power Relevant for 100 kW102 Use-Cases Rated power Rated Relevant for 100 kW102 Use-Cases 10 kW101 10 kW101 Other Battery Types Other 1 kW100 0.110 kWh-1 1 kWh100 10 10kWh1 10010 kWh2 Battery1 MWh10 Types3 10 MWh104 100 10MWh5 1 GWh106 10 GWh107 1 kW100 0.110 kWh-1 1 kWh100 10 10kWh1 10010 kWh2 Energy1 MWh103 10 MWh104 100 10MWh5 1 GWh106 10 GWh107 Energy FigureFigure 2 2.. PowerPower rating, rating, ener energygy capacity capacity and and discharge discharge time time of of different different energy energy storage storage systems systems for for Figurestationarystationary 2. Power and and mobile mobile rating, transportation transportation energy capacity applications. and discharge Data Data timebased based of onon different References References energy [6,7] [6,7 storage].. systems for stationary and mobile transportation applications. Data based on References [6,7]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6731 3 of 21 2. Properties of Different Energy Storage Systems To give an overview, Table1 shows general technical and economic properties of the storage technologies preselected in Section1. Table 1. General characteristic and economic properties of different energy storage technologies relevant to sustainable transport applications. Specific Energy Specific Power Temp. Range Energy Storage Technology Cycle life
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