Nanosatellites Nanosatellites Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics Edited by Rogerio Atem de Carvalho Reference Center for Embedded and Aerospace Systems (CRSEA) Polo de Inovação Campos dos Goytacazes (PICG) Instituto Federal Fluminense (IFF) Brazil Jaime Estela Spectrum Aerospace Group Germering Germany Martin Langer Institute of Astronautics Technical University of Munich Garching Germany and Orbital Oracle Technologies GmbH Munich Germany k This edition first published 2020 © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. The right of Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, Jaime Estela, and Martin Langer to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Editorial Office The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products, visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is k not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be k suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Carvalho, Rogério Atem de, author. | Estela, Jaime, 1972- author. | Langer, Martin, 1986- author. Title: Nanosatellites : space and ground technologies, operations and economics / Professor Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, University of Fluminese, Rio, Brazil, Jaime Estela, Spectrum Aerospace Group, Germering, Germany, Martin Langer, Technical University of Munich & Orbital Oracle Technologies GmbH, Bavaria, Germany. Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019049523 (print) | LCCN 2019049524 (ebook) |ISBN 9781119042037 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119042068 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119042051 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Microspacecraft. Classification: LCC TL795.4 .C37 2020 (print) | LCC TL795.4 (ebook) |DDC 629.46–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019049523 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019049524 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © Stocktrek Images/Getty Images Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India Printed in the UK by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow 10987654321 k v Contents List of Contributors xxiii Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxix Introduction by the Editors xxxv 1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1 Siegfried W. Janson 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 1 1.3 The First Nanosatellites 3 1.4 The Large Space Era 8 1.5 The New Space Era 12 1.5.1 Technology Development 18 1.5.2 Commercial Nanosatellites and Constellations 22 1.6 Summary 23 References 24 2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31 Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 History 31 2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 34 2.4 Hardware 35 2.4.1 Components 35 2.4.2 Brief History of On-board Computers 36 2.4.3 Processors 37 2.4.3.1 Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) 38 2.4.4 Mass Memory 39 2.4.5 Bus 40 2.5 Design 41 2.5.1 System Architecture 41 2.5.2 Central Versus Distributed Processing 43 2.5.3 Design Criteria 44 2.5.4 Definition of Requirements 45 vi Contents 2.5.5 Resource Estimation and Data Budget 45 2.5.5.1 Data Budget Analysis 47 2.5.6 Commanding 47 2.5.7 Telemetry 48 2.5.8 Time Generation 48 2.5.9 Handling of Errors 48 2.5.10 Radiation Effects 49 References 49 3 I-2b Operational Systems 51 Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 RTOS Overview 51 3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 52 3.3.1 Requirements 54 3.4 Example Projects 55 3.5 Conclusions 56 References 59 4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61 Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 ADCS Fundamentals 61 4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 62 4.4 ADCS Background Theory 65 4.4.1 Coordinate Frame Definitions 65 4.4.2 Attitude Kinematics 65 4.4.3 Attitude Dynamics 66 4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 66 4.5.1 TRIAD Quaternion Determination 67 4.5.2 Kalman Rate Estimator 67 4.5.2.1 System Model 68 4.5.2.2 Measurement Model 68 4.5.3 Full-State Extended Kalman Filter Estimator 70 4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 72 4.6.1 Detumbling Magnetic Controllers 72 4.6.2 Y-Momentum Wheel Controller 73 4.6.3 Three-axis Reaction Wheel Controller 74 4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75 4.7.1 Three-Axis Magnetometers 75 4.7.2 Sun Sensors 77 4.7.3 Star Trackers 77 4.7.4 MEMS Rate Sensors 78 4.7.5 Magnetorquers 79 4.7.6 Reaction/Momentum Wheels 80 Contents vii 4.7.7 Orbit Control Sensors and Actuators 81 4.7.8 Integrated ADCS Modules 81 References 83 5 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85 Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Propulsion Elements 86 5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 87 5.4 Propulsion System Technologies 90 5.4.1 Chemical Propulsion Technologies 90 5.4.1.1 Cold Gas Thruster 90 5.4.1.2 Monopropellant Engines 90 5.4.1.3 Bipropellant Engines 92 5.4.1.4 Solid Propellant Engines 92 5.4.2 Electric Propulsion Technologies 93 5.4.2.1 Resistojet 93 5.4.2.2 Gridded Ion Engine (GIE) 93 5.4.2.3 Hall Effect Thruster 94 5.4.2.4 Pulsed Plasma Thruster (PPT) and Vacuum Arc Thruster (VAT) 95 5.4.2.5 Colloid/Electrospray and Field-emission Thruster 96 5.5 Mission Elements 98 5.5.1 Orbit Change 98 5.5.2 Drag Compensation 99 5.5.3 Deorbiting 100 5.5.4 Attitude Control 101 5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 101 5.7 Future Prospect 113 References 113 6 I-2e Communications 115 Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Regulatory Considerations 116 6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 117 6.3.1 Digital Modulation 121 6.4 Channel Coding 123 6.4.1 Convolutional Codes 125 6.4.2 Block Codes 125 6.5 Data Link Layer 126 6.6 Hardware 128 6.6.1 Antennas 128 6.6.2 Oscillators 130 6.6.3 PLLs and Synthesizers 132 6.6.4 Mixers 135 viii Contents 6.6.5 Receiver 137 6.6.6 Transmitter 137 6.6.7 Transceivers 138 6.7 Testing 138 6.7.1 Modulation Quality 138 6.7.2 Power Measurement 139 6.7.3 Spectrum Analysis 140 References 140 7 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143 Kenan Y.Sanl ¸ türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan 7.1 Definition and Tasks 143 7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 145 7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 150 7.4 Design Parameters and Tools 152 7.4.1 Structural Design Parameters 153 7.4.2 Thermal Design Considerations 157 7.5 Design Challenges 162 7.6 Future Prospects 163 References 164 8 I-2g Power Systems 167 Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 170 8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 172 8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 175 8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 178 8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches 179 8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 183 8.8 DC/DC Converters 183 8.8.1 Buck Converter 184 8.8.2 Boost Converter 185 8.8.3 SEPIC Converter 186 8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 187 8.10 Conclusions 191 References 191 9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193 Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager 9.1 Introduction 193 9.1.1 Thermal Challenges 194 9.2 Typical Thermal Loads 194 9.2.1 Heat Exchange Calculation 195 Contents ix 9.2.2 Thermal Environment in Earth Orbit 197 9.2.2.1 Direct Solar Radiation 197 9.2.2.2 Albedo Radiation 199 9.2.2.3 Earth Infrared Radiation 199 9.3 Active and Passive Designs 200 9.3.1 Surface Finishes 200 9.3.2 Insulation 201