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(Khmer Ceramics (Singapore, Oxford Khmer Ceramics 2 From the dust jacket: Amongst the wealth of ceramic ware from South-East Asia, the ceramics of the Khmer empire of Angkor are probably the least well- known, just as this aspect of the art and culture of that great civilization is also the least explored. In this important contribution to the growing body of literature on the ceramics of the region, the author presents the first comprehensive study of Khmer ceramics to be published. The study examines the background, influences, characteristics, shapes and uses of this branch of the ceramic industry and provides the reader with a composite picture of the Khmer contribution to the craft. The volume is lavishly illustrated with twenty-five colour plates and more than one hundred black and white pictures and drawings of examples of Khmer ware, providing examples many of which are in private collections and therefore not accessible to the general public. Dr. Dawn Rooney is an art historian and presently lives and works in Bangkok. Jacket illustrations: Front Pot; diam. 6 cm; first half i2th century; brown monochrome. Back Urn ; ht. 60 cm ; 12th century ; The Thompson House, Bangkok Ace. No. 611, brown monochrome. Khmer Ceramics 3 Singapore Oxford University Press Oxford New York 1984 Khmer Ceramics 4 Oxford University Press Oxford London New York Toronto Kuala Lumpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland and associates in Beirut Berlin Ibadan Mexico City OXFORD is a trademark of Oxford University Press (C) Oxford University Press 1984 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press ISBN o 19 582604 3 Printed in Singapore by Koon Wah Printing Pte. Ltd. Published by Oxford University Press, 10, New Industrial Road, Singapore 1953 To Jim and Sarah Khmer Ceramics 5 Acknowledgements MY sincere thanks to the people associated with museums throughout the world for supporting and encouraging my project, either through correspondence or personal communication; the private individuals who generously ‘opened the doors’ to their collections; Laszlo Legeza for generating the idea for this book and for his unequalled support; James Rooney for his uncompromising and qualitative direction; Vance Childress for his drawings, maps, and friendship. Rox-anna Brown for guiding me through my research on South-East Asian ceramics; Donald Pétrie for sharing his interest in Khmer art. Douglas Ewen for his potting expertise; Dean Frasché for counselling me wisely and patiently; Roger Bluett for his knowledgeable assistance; Anne Tofield for her wisdom and zealous spirit; Natalie Robinson for continuously emitting stimulating ideas. Photo Credits Museums which supplied photographs for this book are: Art Gallery of South Australia Bangkok, National Museum Bangkok, The Thompson House The Brooklyn Museum Brussels, Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire Royal Ontario Muséum Tokyo National Muséum Virginia Muséum. All photographs of pieces in private collections were taken by James P. Rooney. Khmer Ceramics 6 Contents Acknowledgements vii Maps xi Figures xi Tables xii Chronology xiii Glossary xiv References to Published Examples xvi Museums Exhibiting Khmer Ceramics xvii I. Introduction I Nomenclature I Documentation 2 Geography 6 History 8 Religion 14 Trade 16 2. Influences 20 3. Characteristics 27 Types 27 Clay 34 Potting Techniques 36 Decoration 39 Glazes 44 Kilns 53 Firing Techniques 55 4. Shapes 59 Terminology 60 Animal-style Wares 62 Architectural Fixtures 80 Domestic Artefacts 82 Fakes 108 5. Uses 111 Ceremonial Uses 118 Everyday Uses 122 Colour Plates 133 Black and White Plates 155 Select Bibliography 239 Index 246 Khmer Ceramics 7 Maps 1. Mainland South-East Asia facing page 1 2. Khmer Empire: sites in Thailand and temples in Kampuchea and Thailand relevant to Khmer ceramics 2 3. Ancient Khmer highway between Angkor (Kampuchea) and Phimai (Thailand) with relevant sites 4 Figures 1. Unglazed earthenware excavated at Ban Phluang Temple in North-eastern Thailand 32 2. Unglazed stoneware excavated at Ban Phluang Temple in North-eastern Thailand 32 3. Incised pattern: horizontal band formed with short vertical lines 41 4. Incised pattern: zigzag line 41 5. Incised pattern: wavy line 41 6. Incised pattern: horizontal band of crescent-shaped strokes 41 7. Incised pattern: series of broken oblique lines 41 8. Incised pattern: horizontal band of rectangles 41 9. Incised pattern: ‘V’ design 42 10. Incised pattern: ‘X’ design 42 11. Incised pattern: ‘X’ design 42 12. Incised pattern: arrowhead 42 13. Incised pattern: star 42 14. Incised pattern: scallop 42 15. Incised pattern: loop 43 16. Incised pattern: pictorial designs 43 17. Modelled pattern: circle with a raised star 44 18. Modelled pattern: comma with a dot above it 44 19. Basin 61 20. Bottle 61 21. Bowl 61 22. Box (covered) 61 23. Conch 61 24. Jar 61 25. Jar (covered) 61 26. Jar (storage) 62 27. Kendi 62 28. Pot 62 29. Urn 62 30. Box (covered); incised mark on base 92 31. Stem bowl with raised disk on interior 88 32. Stem bowl with cover 89 33. Jar with lid 95 34. Method of stacking green-glazed bowls for firing; each piece is separated by clay balls 57 35. Brown-glazed bowl; lotus shape 87 36. Examples of cover decoration on jars 97 Khmer Ceramics 8 Tables 1. Khmer Clay Types 36 2. Khmer Glazes 46 3. Iron Oxide Content in Glazes 47 Khmer Ceramics 9 Chronology Khmer Neolithic period c. 4000 ─ 100 BC Pre-Khmer periods: Funan c. AD IOO ─ 400 Chenla c. 400 ─ 550 Pre-Angkorian period c. 550 ─ 799 Angkorian period 802 ─ 1431 Post-Angkorian period 1431 ─ present Chinese Neolithic period c. 7000 ─ 1750 BC Dynastic Periods Shang c. 1750 ─ 1028 Zhou 1027 ─ 221 Qin 221 ─ 206 Han 206 BC ─ AD 220 Six Dynasties: Three Kingdoms 22O ─ 280 Chin 265 ─ 419 Northern Dynasty 386 ─ 580 Southern Dynasty 42O ─ 589 Sui 581 ─ 618 Tang 618 ─ 906 Five Dynasties 907 ─ 960 Liao 907 ─ 1125 Song Northern Song 960 ─ 1127 Southern Song 1127 ─ 1279 Yuan 1279 ─ 1368 Ming 1368 ─ 1644 Ching 1644 ─ 1912 Khmer Ceramics 10 Glossary Angkor—centre of the Khmer Empire from AD 802 to 1432;located in Kampuchea anthropomorphic—used in a ceramic context to identify a form that is shaped or decorated to resemble a human or divine being applied—potting term; a separate piece of clay is applied or added to the basic form, giving it a dimensional appearance Ban Kruat—Khmer kiln site in Buri Ram Province, Northeastern Thailand (ban is the Thai word for ‘village’) Ban Phluang—Khmer temple in Surin Province, Northeastern Thailand, where a large quantity of Khmer ceramics have been excavated biscuit—potting term; a fired but unglazed clay form; alternative name: bisque carving—potting term; a method of decoration; cutting a design into clay with a broad tool; similar to incising but leaves larger impressions celadon—glaze with the following characteristics: an iron oxide content, a green colour, and fired in a reducing kiln atmosphere coiling—potting term; method of forming a vessel by building up the walls with ropelike coils of clay cover—movable top of a vessel; an essential part of the total form crazing—potting term; a fine network of cracks visible in the glaze, not done intentionally; different degrees of shrinkage in the body and glaze cause tension devaraja—manifestation of a god in the person of a king Dong-son—a culture centred in Vietnam; existed approximately from the fifth or fourth century BC to the first century AD; primary products were bronze artifacts earthenware—low-fired clay (85O°C-1,100°C); porous; usually red or tan colour finial—ornament used at the top of an architectural structure flange—used in a ceramic context to identify a ridge on a vessel incising—potting term; method of decoration; cutting a design into clay with a pointed implement that is moving Kampuchea—country in South-East Asia, formerly called Cambodia; homeland of the Khmers and their culture kendi—vessel characterized by an opening at the neck and a spout on the side; used for drinking Khmers—ancient inhabitants of Kampuchea who established the Angkorian empire; their modern descendants laterite—a residual product of rock decay abundant in the soil of Kampuchea and North-eastern Thailand; characterized by a porous texture and a red colour; hardens on exposure to air; used as a building material, particularly for foundations of Khmer temples lid—movable top of a vessel; used to close an opening in a hollow receptacle Lop Buri—city in central Thailand; a former Khmer stronghold luting—potting term; two unfired pieces of clay are luted or joined together, usually with liquid clay miniature—very small ceramic vessel; any form under five centimetres in diameter or height modelling—method of forming a clay shape by hand naga—semi-divine serpent in Hindu and Buddhist mythology oxidizing firing—potting term; an atmosphere in the kiln when a sufficient or excessive supply of oxygen is available pooling—potting term; collection of glaze where colour darkens and texture thickens reducing firing—potting term; an atmosphere in the kiln when there is an insufficient supply of oxygen Khmer Ceramics 11 shard—broken pottery fragment; alternative spelling, sherd slip—liquid clay; often used to coat a vessel before decorating or glazing stoneware—high-fired clay (1,100°C-1,25O°C); non-porous, dense, usually grey in colour but may be tan or red Two-colour—classification for Khmer ceramics with a combination of green and brown colours on a single vessel varman—suffix often attached to the names of Khmer kings, meaning the protected or protégé waster—irregularly-shaped ceramic vessel as a result of damage in firing Khmer Ceramics 12 References to Published Examples (see Bibliography for details of works cited; figures in brackets refer to plate numbers in the relevant works) 1.
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