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A Cross-Generational Study of the Perception and Construction of South Africans of Indian Descent As Foreigners by Fellow Citizens

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A Cross-Generational Study of the Perception and Construction of South Africans of Indian Descent As Foreigners by Fellow Citizens A CROSS-GENERATIONAL STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION AND CONSTRUCTION OF SOUTH AFRICANS OF INDIAN DESCENT AS FOREIGNERS BY FELLOW CITIZENS Kathryn Pillay Supervisor: Gerhard Maré Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Social Sciences, College of Humanities, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Howard College Campus, Durban, South Africa. DECLARATION I, Kathryn Pillay, declare that the research reported on in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my own original research. Where data, ideas and quotations have been used that are not my own they have been duly acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. No part of this work has been submitted for any other degree or examination at any other university. Signature: ______________ Date: ______________ Kathryn Pillay (Candidate) i _____________________________________________________________ For Alexa May you dream bigger dreams and reach higher heights, always remembering that “ … God, who by his mighty power at work within us is able to do far more than we would ever dare to ask or even dream of - infinitely beyond our highest prayers, desires, thoughts, or hopes” (Ephesians 3:20).This thesis is a testament to that wonderful promise. ______________________________________________________________ I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to Prof. Gerry Maré, my supervisor, mentor and friend. Thank you for generously imparting your knowledge and expertise to me. Under your tutelage I have developed and grown as an academic. I will be forever grateful for all the support, advice, and encouragement that you offered to me throughout this process, and most importantly, for your unwavering belief in me. Special thanks must also go to the National Research Foundation (NRF) and The South African Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development (SANPAD), for funding the research and writing of this thesis. ii ABSTRACT This thesis examined how the perceptions of South Africans of Indian descent as foreign, by fellow South African citizens, have changed or the extent to which they have remained the same from the time of the first arrival of indentured labourers from India in 1860 to the present. In so doing the study also revealed how those classified as ‘Indian’ in South Africa have constructed their identities in relation to, and because of, differing social, political and economic contexts. In order to achieve the aims of this research, the study was periodised based on the key political transitions over the last 150 years. As a result, the constructions and perceptions of ‘Indians’ by others were explored from the period of indenture under colonialism (1860-1910), through to the formation of Union (1910-1948), into apartheid (1948-1994) and ultimately through to democracy (1994-present). The data collection methods included documentary sources, oral histories, and semi-structured interviews. The main documentary sources collected included articles from The Mercury and Ilanga newspapers, spanning 150 years but taken from the key periods as discussed above. In addition it was deemed equally important to conduct in-depth interviews with South African families of Indian descent. The trajectories of five such families, and of the individuals within these family units, were explored, covering the period from the arrival of the first immigrant from India to South Africa, to the present day. The findings reveal that the perceptions of ‘Indians’ as foreign have endured more than it has altered in the psyche of fellow South Africans through each of the political dispensations and because the dominant racial discourse has persisted throughout the various periods albeit through varying mechanisms and diverse narratives justifying it at different times. Although democracy brought with it hope for a more inclusive South Africa with the African National Congress-dominated parliament adopting a constitution based on shared citizenship, the basis of the policies that followed however represent the antithesis of inclusion by entrenching existing notions of difference through the perpetuation of ‘race’ categories that were previously reproduced and legitimised by the repealed apartheid-era Population Registration Act. Blatant xenophobic discourse against South Africans of Indian descent are indeed still apparent, with the latest expressions centering around notions of autochthony which imply that ‘Indians’ are not indigenes of South Africa and hence should have no claim to its resources. iii CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction – They Don’t Deserve to be South African 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background to the Study 1 1.3 Framing the Study 4 1.3.1 The ‘Diaspora’ 7 1.4 Research Questions 8 1.5 Structure of the Dissertation 9 Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework: 12 Community, Identity and Belonging 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 The Formation of a ‘Community’ 12 2.2.1 Political Motivations and Processes from ‘Within’ 14 2.2.2 Isolation and Exclusiveness 17 2.2.2.1 Amenities and Facilities 18 2.2.2.2 Sport 19 2.2.2.3 Social/Religious Activities/Drama/Arts 22 2.2.3 Fixed Identity 23 2.2.3.1 A Different ‘Picture’ 24 2.3 Summary 25 2.4 Social Constructionism 26 2.4.1 Applying Layder’s Framework 30 2.4.1.1 Self 30 2.4.1.2 Situated Activity 32 2.4.1.3 Social Setting 33 2.4.1.4 Context 33 2.4.1.5 History 36 2.4.2 Discourse 37 2.5 Conclusion 39 Chapter Three: Research Design, Methodology and Methods 42 3.1 Introduction 42 3.2 Research Philosophy and Approach 43 3.3 Research Design 45 3.3.1 Periodisation 46 3.3.2 Data Collection 53 3.3.2.1 Documentary Sources 55 3.3.2.2 Data Analysis – Documentary Sources 61 3.3.2.3 Family Histories 62 3.3.2.4 Sampling 64 3.3.2.5 Oral Histories 67 3.3.2.6 Semi-Structured Interviews: Raised-Free and 72 Born-Free Generation 3.3.2.7 Interview Techniques 74 3.3.2.8 Engaging in Research on ‘Race’ 75 iv 3.3.2.9 Recording of ‘Data’ 77 3.3.2.10 Data Analysis 77 3.4 Generalisability 78 3.5 Ethics and Dissemination of Results 78 3.6 Conclusion 81 Chapter Four: The Coolies Here: 1860 – 1910 82 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 Bodies of Foreign Labour 83 4.3 Heathens of a Higher Type 91 4.4 Oriental Strangers 92 4.5 I Am a Coolie 96 4.6 ‘Free’ Indians and Disease 100 4.7 He Treats a Coolie like a Bull Buffalo 103 4.8 Asiatic Invasion 106 4.9 Coolies and Natives 117 4.10 Rights to the Land 120 4.11 Fixing ‘Indians’ 127 4.12 Immigration, Tax and Language 128 4.13 Indenture Under Review 130 4.14 Conclusion 132 Chapter Five: The Indian Question: 1910 – 1948 136 5.1 Introduction 136 5.2 Creating a ‘Nation’ 137 5.3 The Exodus of the Hindu 141 5.4 The Mercury – ‘Less than Fair’ 145 5.5 I’m a £3 Poll-Tax Indian 153 5.6 We Want Them Out of Our Ancestors Land 162 5.7 Indian - Deport Thyself 171 5.8 The Doctrine of Assimilability 175 5.9 The Plague from the East 183 5.10 Conclusion 194 Chapter Six: Perpetual Foreigners: 1948 – 1994 199 6.1 Introduction 199 6.2 Apartheid – An Election Winning Slogan 200 6.3 1949 – Xenophobia at its Worst 210 6.4 The Group Areas Act – ‘With every footstep echoed so many memories of my years’ 223 6.5 South Africa Belongs to All Who Live in It 241 6.6 Fear and Fire in the Townships 255 6.7 End of Apartheid 260 6.8 Conclusion 262 Chapter Seven: Undeserving Heirs: 1994 – present 266 7.1 Introduction 266 v 7.2 Maintaining Racial Categories in a Non-Racial Society 267 7.3 The Legacy of the Group Areas Act 269 7.4 The Nation is Under Siege from Foreigners 275 7.5 Creating Boundaries – The Dangers of Stereotyping 280 7.6 Earned Citizenship 285 7.7 ‘They Are of Their Apartheid Pasts’ 287 7.8 Conclusion 299 Chapter Eight: Conclusion 303 8.1 Introduction 303 8.2 Towards a Future Non-Racial South Africa 309 8.3 In Search of a Common Humanity 311 8.4 Conclusion 316 References 317 vi - Chapter One - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Introduction “They don’t deserve to be South African” 1.1 Introduction The aim of this thesis is to investigate how the perceptions of South Africans of Indian descent as foreign, by fellow South African citizens, have changed or the extent to which they have remained the same from the time of the first arrival of indentured labourers from India in 1860, to the present. It further examines how these perceptions, from the ‘outside’, have contributed to the identity construction of ‘Indians’,1 historically and in contemporary South African society and, notwithstanding agency, the influence of these perceptions on the way in which South Africans of Indian descent have constructed their identities in relation to, and because of, differing social, political and economic contexts. In so doing the study also reveals how notions of ‘belonging’ and more especially who belongs to the ‘nation’ have altered throughout the course of the past 150 years. 1.2 Background to the Study It has been argued that social science research should be emancipatory, that is by confronting and eliminating human oppression, and establishing an environment “in which people can live flourishing lives” (Wright, 2006:94). Taking this into consideration, I began reflecting on the relevance of my research topic in contemporary South Africa, and found myself in 1 The word ‘Indian’ is placed within inverted commas to denote the category assigned to people of Indian descent in South Africa, which was legitimised by the former apartheid government.
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