INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Half-Bhutan The Evolution and Effectiveness of Protected Areas in a Country Recognizing Nature Needs Half

BY SONAM WANGCHUK, DECHEN LHAM, NIGEL DUDLEY, and SUE STOLTON

hen E. O. Wilson called for half the world to be left in a natural stateW (Wilson 2016), there was widespread disbelief that such a thing was possible. But while theore- ticians argue about the details, one country has quietly exceeded the Sonam Wangchuk Dechen Lham Nigel Dudley Sue Stolton target: Bhutan has set aside 51.44% of its total land area as permanent protected areas. This the country are explored. Important species include the red article discusses Bhutan’s conservation strategy, describes panda (Ailurus fulgens fulgens), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), a recent assessment of the effectiveness of the country’s Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus chanco), (Budorcas taxicolor protected area system, and looks at what lessons the rest whitei), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), ( gaurus), of the world can and cannot draw from the actions of this Asiatic golden cat (Catopuma temminckii), Himalayan tiny Himalayan country. (Capricornis sumatraensis), musk (Moschus chrysogaster), Bhutan is a small, landlocked Buddhist country, clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), tiger (Panthera tigris lying between India and China, in the Eastern Himalayas tigris), and snow leopard (P. uncia) (Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Forest and Park Services 2016). The country and Forests 2014). The National Tiger Survey of 2014–2015 is blessed with a range of ecosystems, ranging from lowland recorded 103 tigers in Bhutan (DoFPS 2015), and 96 snow tropical forests to some of the highest mountain ecosystems leopards were recorded from the nationwide snow leopard in the world. Around three-quarters of the country is forested camera trap survey of 2015–2016 (DoFPS 2016). Bhutan is (Gilani et al. 2014), and the government is committed the first among the 12 snow leopard range countries to have to maintain forest cover of at least 60%. This is further completed a nationwide snow leopard survey. enshrined in the Constitution of Bhutan, and the country The protected area system consists of five national parks, also pledged to remain carbon neutral in perpetuity at the four wildlife sanctuaries, one strict nature reserve, and one Paris Climate Declaration. There is a rich biodiversity with botanical park as well as eight biological corridors connecting more than 200 species, including 27 globally all the protected areas (Figure 1). Conservation efforts are threatened species; more than 760 birds, including 60% centered throughout these protected areas, and further, of the world population of the critically endangered white- Bhutan emphasizes transboundary conservation. bellied heron (Ardea insignis) (Ministry of Agriculture and Forests 2014); and a huge array of flowering plants, including Encouraging Protected Areas many endemic species. Baseline survey of species is still Bhutan has a number of unique features that help lay the ongoing, and new species are recorded as new areas within groundwork for conservation success. The human population

JUNE 2017 • Volume 23, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 43 Figure 1 – Map of Bhutan’s protected areas Figure 2 – Jigme Dorji National Park is less than 800,000 and only 8% of the one key reason behind the conservation aside areas for their intrinsic values area is suitable for agriculture, meaning success of Bhutan. Agriculture is the thus pre-dates modern protected area that the large majority of people dominant livelihood practice, and most practice and is deeply rooted within (an estimated 87%) are dependent people depending on agriculture live society. Regard for the sanctity of on natural resources, including in rural areas within or near protected life also means that human-wildlife non-timber forest products (Ministry areas (Figure 2). Of critical importance conflict, particularly crop-raiding by of Agriculture and Forests 2016). More here is a government decision in 2004 , although recognized as a than half the population live inside or to legalize collection of Cordyceps fungi, serious problem is not particularly near protected areas: the small number which is highly valuable as a medicine blamed on conservation. of people means that there are still large and under national park legislation is “empty” areas within parks; however, confined to park residents collecting How Effective Are Bhutan’s there has never been an attitude that under a highly controlled system. In Protected Areas? assumes setting up a protected area this manner, the protected area system There have been several attempts to means expelling the inhabitants. There ensures sustainable management of assess the effectiveness of Bhutan’s is also low visitor pressure, although a valuable non-timber forest product protected area system, starting with this is slowly growing. Visitor numbers (NTFP) and keeps the monetary application of the Rapid Assessment are controlled through the national rewards within local communities. and Prioritization of Protected Area policy (Bhutan 2020) of low-volume, Until recently, poaching pressure Management methodology in 2003 high-value tourism. Most tourists focus had also remained low, allowing the (Tshering 2003). In 2015 and 2016, on cultural or religious sites, and large survival of iconic species such as the the Department of Forest and Park parts of the protected areas system are tiger and snow leopard, which have Services carried out an assessment of effectively left alone with the exception suffered heavy losses in similar habitats all 11 protected areas, using a modified of the famous Snow Man Trek, which elsewhere in the region. form of the WWF Management is attempted by many and considered Bhutan is also a deeply religious Effectiveness Tracking Tool developed to be the most arduous trekking route society, and Buddhist philosophy helps during workshops in Punakha and in the country. to shape attitudes toward other species Lamperi. Lamperi meeting participants Protected area managers work and sets the philosophical foundations representing all the country’s protected closely with park residents through for conservation (Higgins-Zogib et al. areas collectively developed, refined, a decentralization process that was 2011). Several of the highest peaks and agreed upon the best methodology introduced by the Fourth King Jigme are off limits for climbers due to their in the Bhutan context – the Bhutan Singye Wangchuck in 1974, which is sacred values, so the concept of setting METT Plus 2016 (Dudley et al. 2016)

44 International Journal of Wilderness JUNE 2017 • Volume 23, Number 1 Figure 3 – Local People, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park Figure 4 – Royal Manas National Park Umling range office

– and then carried out the assessment. SMART anti-poaching information but this may well change. Results were verified in many of the system and human wildlife conflict protected areas through sites visits management. Although budgets What Does Bhutan Tell Us and interviews with local community are believed to be stable, the level of about Attainment of the Nature representatives. resources is insufficient for effective Needs Half Proposals? The overall results show that management given the size of the Skeptics tend to dismiss Bhutan as protected areas in Bhutan are well network and the challenges of working a special case: a largely uninhabited, managed. However, effectiveness is in such difficult physical conditions. uninhabitable, and underpopulated currently limited by a low level of Most regular activities (e.g., patrolling, country with a unique set of social resources (both financial and technical) Cordyceps management, budgeting, and cultural conditions that allow and by gaps in the monitoring and and community engagement) are the government to designate a huge research data, which limits the ability implemented, but it is not clear that protected area system. And there is to undertake adaptive management managers and staff will be able to cope justification for caution. It is hard to in response to changing pressures with the likely increased demands on imagine either of Bhutan’s massive (DoFPS 2016). management in the future. While it is neighbors (India and China) finding The network of protected believed that management is producing space to set aside half their countries, areas is extensive and representative good conservation results, outcome for instance. But neither is it enough to (Figure 1), and there is generally a data are limited. Survey work for tiger write Bhutan off as irrelevant to wider good understanding about conser- and snow leopard suggest protection discussions about protected areas. vation. All protected areas are legally is effective, but most species are not Five critical factors can be identified designated and have management systematically monitored (Ministry of that contribute significantly to success objectives. Threats are understood Agriculture and Forests 2016). indicators and are all transferable to and stakeholder relationships well In short, management is generally any other country. developed. Most protected areas have good, although often underresourced. First, and perhaps most important, management plans, although two A planned major funding initiative, Bhutanese protected areas are established parks that have only recently been put Bhutan for Life, is expected to address in collaboration with rather than in into operation are still at the planning the partial funding gap. This is opposition to local communities, who stages. Biological corridors have been important as pressures are likely to continue to live in the area and who designated, but implementation is not increase in the future, particularly from continue – in a sustainable manner – to really taking place due to temporary anthropogenic pressures and climate make use of the area’s natural resources constraints. Plans and budgets tend change. To some extent the protected (Figure 3). Opposition to protected areas to focus on the most urgent needs, area service is performing well because is often rooted in the very reasonable such as the current rollout of the there have not been any serious threats, concern that protection will mean loss of

JUNE 2017 • Volume 23, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 45 access to traditional uses. In some cases through the glorious reign of King Nationwide Tiger Survey 2014–2015. this may be necessary – for example, if Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Thimphu, Bhutan: Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park population levels of a particular species A fourth important consideration Services, Ministry of Agriculture and have reached critical levels or if an is that protected area staff are predomi- Forests. ecosystem is being rapidly degraded and nantly young and enthusiastic. ———. 2016. National Snow Leopard Camera careful negotiations and compensation Managers all have tertiary educational Trap Survey for Population Estimation are both required. But in many other qualifications – many have studied 2014–2016. October. Thimpu, Bhutan: cases managed access is a win-win, as abroad and have brought back wider Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of species get conserved rather than driven international perspectives – and there is Agriculture and Forests. to extinction, and communities get high motivation (Figure 4). Protected Dudley, N., D. Lham, S. Stolton, S. Wangchuk, and access to a long-term resource. areas are only as good as the people who S. Wangchuk. 2016. Bhutan Management Second, there is a clear manage them, and good relations built Effectiveness Tracking Tool Plus. Final understanding of the values of protected up over years can be lost if someone Version 2016. Thimphu, Bhutan and Bristol, areas and their ecosystem services, both makes a bad decision or adopts policies UK: Wildlife Conservation Division and Equilibrium Research. at a national level (Kubiszewski et al. that alienate local people. Gilani, H., H. L. Shrestha, M. S. R. Murthy, P. 2012) and at the level of individual Last, successful management means Phuntso, S. Pradhan, B. Bajracharya, and B. communities living in and around being able to prove that conservation Shrestha. 2014. Decadal land cover change protected areas. Where people do not works. Support from communities, dynamics in Bhutan. Journal of Environ- understand the wider values of natural donors, and governments will dissipate mental Management 148: 91–100. ecosystems, protected areas tend to be if conservation is failing. Bhutan is Higgins-Zogib, L., N. Dudley, and T. Aziz, eds. 2011. The High Ground: Biocultural Diversity perceived as a straight choice between making progress although much more and Conservation of Sacred Natural Sites in wildlife and people, and whether we like can be achieved.. The recent tiger and the Eastern Himalayas. Gland, Switzerland: it or not, many people do not choose snow leopard surveys are important in WWF International. wildlife. Once there is recognition that showing the strength of the protected Kubiszewski, I., R. Costanza, L. Dorji, P. Thoennes, a wider set of values exist, the pool of areas system, and in encouraging major and K. Tshering. 2012. An initial estimate of supporters grows to include a wider donor initiatives such as Bhutan for Life. the value of ecosystem services in Bhutan. Ecosystem Services 3: e11–e21. proportion of the population. Cordyceps monitoring is recognized to Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. 2014. Next, there is strong political be important, but monitoring of many National Biodiversity Strategies and Action support from the government. Bhutan more species and habitats is needed in Plan of Bhutan 2014. National Biodiversity is not only unique in the amount of the future. Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, territory it has placed into protected In short, Bhutan has already Royal Government of Bhutan. areas but also that all the protected achieved a level of protection that most ———. 2016. Bhutan State of Parks 2016. Department of Forest and Park Services, areas are government protected areas. countries argue is impossible. While Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Most other countries have a mixture a set of particular conditions makes Government of Bhutan. of community, private, and state this easier to achieve than in many Tshering, K. 2003. Bhutan Case Study – Evaluation governance. Unequivocal government other cases, it is not enough to simply of Management Effectiveness in Four support for conservation is not drawn dismiss the Bhutan case as an anomaly. Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland: WWF. just from ethical reasons, although Good community negotiations, an Wilson, E. O. 2016. Half-Earth: Our Planet’s Fight for Life. New York: Liveright. these undoubtedly exist, but also inclusive approach, understanding for pragmatic reasons relating to a of ecosystem service values, a SONAM WANGCHUK and DECHEN range of ecosystem services, including supportive government, well-trained LHAM work for the Nature Conservation particularly NTFPs, water, and carbon and well-motivated staff, and a good Division of the Department of Forest storage. The founding architecture of understanding of success and failure and Parks Services in the Ministry of Bhutan’s intact environment has been have all helped Bhutan achieve this Agriculture and Forests of Bhutan. exemplified through a network of important target. These preconditions NIGEL DUDLEY and SUE STOLTON work protected areas and biological corridors could be available in many, if not most, for Equilibrium Research; email: sue@ by the great and visionary Fourth other countries. equilibriumresearch.com. King Jigme Singye Wangchuck and is References further envisioned and strengthened Department of Forest and Park Services. 2015.

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